Mcsh-creation:: {2025-09-15}
description::
core41.nfo is part of core.nfo.
name::
* McsEngl.lhn.specific,
* McsEngl.lango.specific,
* McsEngl.lng.specific,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.specific,
_SPECIFIC: lagHmn.Alphabetically:
* lagHmn.agglutinative
* lagHmn.alive
* lagHmn.analytic#cptCore647#
* lagHmn.atrificial#cptCore553#
* lagHmn.creole
* lagHmn.dialect#cptCore102#
* lagHmn.east_asian
* lagHmn.extinct
* lagHmn.family#cptCore93.24#
* lagHmn.foreign
* lagHmn.formal#cptCore93.14#
* lagHmn.indigenous
* lagHmn.inflecting#cptCore646.2#
* lagHmn.international
* lagHmn.isolating#cptCore93.18#
* lagHmn.langoko#cptCore683#
* lagHmn.native
* lagHmn.natural
* lagHmn.pidgin
* lagHmn.polysythetic#cptCore646.3#
* lagHmn.quechua
* lagHmn.scientific
* lagHmn.sign#cptCore986#
* lagHmn.spoken#cptCore629#
* lagHmn.synthetic#cptCore646#
* lagHmn.tone
* lagHmn.verbal
* lagHmn.verbalNo
* lagHmn.vo#cptCore93.19#
* lagHmn.written#cptCore93.66#
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.2LETTER.ISO.639-1,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.ISO.639-1,
Language Codes according to ISO 639-1
ISO 639-1 defines abbreviations for languages, consisting of two lowercase letters. In HTML these are used in the LANG attribute as well.
Language Codes sorted by Codes
aa Afar
ab Abkhazian
af Afrikaans
am Amharic
ar Arabic
as Assamese
ay Aymara
az Azerbaijani
ba Bashkir
be Byelorussian
bg Bulgarian
bh Bihari
bi Bislama
bn Bengali
bo Tibetan
br Breton
ca Catalan
co Corsican
cs Czech
cy Welch
da Danish
de German
dz Bhutani
el Greek
en English
eo Esperanto
es Spanish
et Estonian
eu Basque
fa Persian
fi Finnish
fj Fiji
fo Faeroese
fr French
fy Frisian
ga Irish
gd Scots Gaelic
gl Galician
gn Guarani
gu Gujarati
ha Hausa
hi Hindi
he Hebrew
hr Croatian
hu Hungarian
hy Armenian
ia Interlingua
id Indonesian
ie Interlingue
ik Inupiak
in former Indonesian
is Icelandic
it Italian
iu Inuktitut (Eskimo)
iw former Hebrew
ja Japanese
ji former Yiddish
jw Javanese
ka Georgian
kk Kazakh
kl Greenlandic
km Cambodian
kn Kannada
ko Korean
ks Kashmiri
ku Kurdish
ky Kirghiz
la Latin
ln Lingala
lo Laothian
lt Lithuanian
lv Latvian, Lettish
mg Malagasy
mi Maori
mk Macedonian
ml Malayalam
mn Mongolian
mo Moldavian
mr Marathi
ms Malay
mt Maltese
my Burmese
na Nauru
ne Nepali
nl Dutch
no Norwegian
oc Occitan
om (Afan) Oromo
or Oriya
pa Punjabi
pl Polish
ps Pashto, Pushto
pt Portuguese
qu Quechua
rm Rhaeto-Romance
rn Kirundi
ro Romanian
ru Russian
rw Kinyarwanda
sa Sanskrit
sd Sindhi
sg Sangro
sh Serbo-Croatian
si Singhalese
sk Slovak
sl Slovenian
sm Samoan
sn Shona
so Somali
sq Albanian
sr Serbian
ss Siswati
st Sesotho
su Sudanese
sv Swedish
sw Swahili
ta Tamil
te Tegulu
tg Tajik
th Thai
ti Tigrinya
tk Turkmen
tl Tagalog
tn Setswana
to Tonga
tr Turkish
ts Tsonga
tt Tatar
tw Twi
ug Uigur
uk Ukrainian
ur Urdu
uz Uzbek
vi Vietnamese
vo Volapuk
wo Wolof
xh Xhosa
yi Yiddish
yo Yoruba
za Zhuang
zh Chinese
zu Zulu
Language Codes sorted by language:
Language ISO
(Afan) Oromo om
Abkhazian ab
Afar aa
Afrikaans af
Albanian sq
Amharic am
Arabic ar
Armenian hy
Assamese as
Aymara ay
Azerbaijani az
Bashkir ba
Basque eu
Bengali bn
Bhutani dz
Bihari bh
Bislama bi
Breton br
Bulgarian bg
Burmese my
Byelorussian be
Cambodian km
Catalan ca
Chinese zh
Corsican co
Croatian hr
Czech cs
Danish da
Dutch nl
English en
Esperanto eo
Estonian et
Faeroese fo
Fiji fj
Finnish fi
French fr
Frisian fy
Galician gl
Georgian ka
German de
Greek el
Greenlandic kl
Guarani gn
Gujarati gu
Hausa ha
Hebrew (former iw) he
Hindi hi
Hungarian hu
Icelandic is
Indonesian (former in) id
Interlingua ia
Interlingue ie
Inupiak ik
Inuktitut (Eskimo) iu
Irish ga
Italian it
Japanese ja
Javanese jw
Kannada kn
Kashmiri ks
Kazakh kk
Kinyarwanda rw
Kirghiz ky
Kirundi rn
Korean ko
Kurdish ku
Laothian lo
Latin la
Latvian, Lettish lv
Lingala ln
Lithuanian lt
Macedonian mk
Malagasy mg
Malay ms
Malayalam ml
Maltese mt
Maori mi
Marathi mr
Moldavian mo
Mongolian mn
Nauru na
Nepali ne
Norwegian no
Occitan oc
Oriya or
Pashto, Pushto ps
Persian fa
Polish pl
Portuguese pt
Punjabi pa
Quechua qu
Rhaeto-Romance rm
Romanian ro
Russian ru
Samoan sm
Sangro sg
Sanskrit sa
Scots Gaelic gd
Serbian sr
Serbo-Croatian sh
Sesotho st
Setswana tn
Shona sn
Sindhi sd
Singhalese si
Siswati ss
Slovak sk
Slovenian sl
Somali so
Spanish es
Sudanese su
Swahili sw
Swedish sv
Tagalog tl
Tajik tg
Tamil ta
Tatar tt
Tegulu te
Thai th
Tibetan bo
Tigrinya ti
Tonga to
Tsonga ts
Turkish tr
Turkmen tk
Twi tw
Uigur ug
Ukrainian uk
Urdu ur
Uzbek uz
Vietnamese vi
Volapuk vo
Welch cy
Wolof wo
Xhosa xh
Yiddish (former ji) yi
Yoruba yo
Zhuang za
Zulu zu
2LCODE:
[http://www.mathguide.de/info/tools/languagecode.html] 2008-08-17
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.3LETTER.ISO.639-2,
Note: ISO 639-2 is the alpha-3 code in Codes for the representation of names of languages-- Part 2.
There are 21 languages that have alternative codes for bibliographic or terminology purposes.
In those cases, each is listed separately and they are designated as "B" (bibliographic) or "T" (terminology).
In all other cases there is only one ISO 639-2 code.
Multiple codes assigned to the same language are to be considered synonyms.
ISO 639-1 is the alpha-2 code.
English name of Language => ISO 639_2 Code => ISO 639_1 Code
* lagAbkhazian lagHmn.ltr.Abkhazian
=> lagabk lagHmn.3ltr.abk
=> lagab lagHmn.2ltr.ab
* lagAchinese lagHmn.ltr.Achinese
=> lagace lagHmn.3ltr.ace
* lagAcoli lagHmn.ltr.Acoli
=> lagach lagHmn.3ltr.ach
* lagAdangme lagHmn.ltr.Adangme
=> lagada lagHmn.3ltr.ada
* lagAdyghe;
- lagHmn.ltr.Adyghe;
- lagAdygei lagHmn.ltr.Adygei
=> lagady lagHmn.3ltr.ady
* lagAfar lagHmn.ltr.Afar
=> lagaar lagHmn.3ltr.aar
=> lagaa lagHmn.2ltr.aa
* lagAfrihili lagHmn.ltr.Afrihili
=> lagafh lagHmn.3ltr.afh
* lagAfrikaans lagHmn.ltr.Afrikaans
=> lagafr lagHmn.3ltr.afr
=> lagaf lagHmn.2ltr.af
* lagAfro_Asiatic lagHmn.ltr.Afro_Asiatic languages
=> lagafa lagHmn.3ltr.afa
* lagAinu lagHmn.ltr.Ainu
=> lagain lagHmn.3ltr.ain
* lagAkan lagHmn.ltr.Akan
=> lagaka lagHmn.3ltr.aka
=> lagak lagHmn.2ltr.ak
* lagAkkadian lagHmn.ltr.Akkadian
=> lagakk lagHmn.3ltr.akk
* lagAlbanian lagHmn.ltr.Albanian
=> lagalb lagHmn.3ltr.alb (Bibl) lagsqi lagHmn.3ltr.sqi (Term)
=> lagsq lagHmn.2ltr.sq
* lagAlbanian lagHmn.ltr.Albanian
=> lagalb lagHmn.3ltr.alb (Bibl) lagsqi lagHmn.3ltr.sqi (Term)
=> lagsq lagHmn.2ltr.sq
* lagAleut lagHmn.ltr.Aleut
=> lagale lagHmn.3ltr.ale
* lagAlgonquian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Algonquian_languages
=> lagalg lagHmn.3ltr.alg
* lagAltaic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Altaic_languages
=> lagtut lagHmn.3ltr.tut
* lagAmharic lagHmn.ltr.Amharic
=> lagamh lagHmn.3ltr.amh
=> lagam lagHmn.2ltr.am
* lagAngika lagHmn.ltr.Angika
=> laganp lagHmn.3ltr.anp
* lagApache_languages lagHmn.ltr.Apache_languages
=> lagapa lagHmn.3ltr.apa
* lagArabic lagHmn.ltr.Arabic
=> lagara lagHmn.3ltr.ara
=> lagar lagHmn.2ltr.ar
* lagAragonese lagHmn.ltr.Aragonese
=> lagarg lagHmn.3ltr.arg
=> lagan lagHmn.2ltr.an
* lagArapaho lagHmn.ltr.Arapaho
=> lagarp lagHmn.3ltr.arp
* lagArawak lagHmn.ltr.Arawak
=> lagarw lagHmn.3ltr.arw
* lagArmenian lagHmn.ltr.Armenian
=> lagarm lagHmn.3ltr.arm (Bibl) laghye lagHmn.3ltr.hye (Term)
=> laghy lagHmn.2ltr.hy
* lagArmenian lagHmn.ltr.Armenian
=> lagarm lagHmn.3ltr.arm (Bibl) laghye lagHmn.3ltr.hye (Term)
=> laghy lagHmn.2ltr.hy
* lagAromanian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Aromanian;
- lagArumanian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Arumanian;
- lagMacedo_Romanian lagHmn.ltr.Macedo_Romanian
=> lagrup lagHmn.3ltr.rup
* lagArtificial_languages lagHmn.ltr.Artificial_languages
=> lagart lagHmn.3ltr.art
* lagAssamese lagHmn.ltr.Assamese
=> lagasm lagHmn.3ltr.asm
=> lagas lagHmn.2ltr.as
* lagAsturian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Asturian;
- lagBable;
- lagHmn.ltr.Bable;
- lagLeonese;
- lagHmn.ltr.Leonese;
- lagAsturleonese lagHmn.ltr.Asturleonese
=> lagast lagHmn.3ltr.ast
* lagAthapascan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Athapascan_languages
=> lagath lagHmn.3ltr.ath
* lagAustralian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Australian_languages
=> lagaus lagHmn.3ltr.aus
* lagAustronesian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Austronesian_languages
=> lagmap lagHmn.3ltr.map
* lagAvaric lagHmn.ltr.Avaric
=> lagava lagHmn.3ltr.ava
=> lagav lagHmn.2ltr.av
* lagAvestan lagHmn.ltr.Avestan
=> lagave lagHmn.3ltr.ave
=> lagae lagHmn.2ltr.ae
* lagAwadhi lagHmn.ltr.Awadhi
=> lagawa lagHmn.3ltr.awa
* lagAymara lagHmn.ltr.Aymara
=> lagaym lagHmn.3ltr.aym
=> lagay lagHmn.2ltr.ay
* lagAzerbaijani lagHmn.ltr.Azerbaijani
=> lagaze lagHmn.3ltr.aze
=> lagaz lagHmn.2ltr.az
* lagBalinese lagHmn.ltr.Balinese
=> lagban lagHmn.3ltr.ban
* lagBaltic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Baltic_languages
=> lagbat lagHmn.3ltr.bat
* lagBaluchi lagHmn.ltr.Baluchi
=> lagbal lagHmn.3ltr.bal
* lagBambara lagHmn.ltr.Bambara
=> lagbam lagHmn.3ltr.bam
=> lagbm lagHmn.2ltr.bm
* lagBamileke_languages lagHmn.ltr.Bamileke_languages
=> lagbai lagHmn.3ltr.bai
* lagBanda_languages lagHmn.ltr.Banda_languages
=> lagbad lagHmn.3ltr.bad
* lagBantu_languages lagHmn.ltr.Bantu_languages
=> lagbnt lagHmn.3ltr.bnt
* lagBasa lagHmn.ltr.Basa
=> lagbas lagHmn.3ltr.bas
* lagBashkir lagHmn.ltr.Bashkir
=> lagbak lagHmn.3ltr.bak
=> lagba lagHmn.2ltr.ba
* lagBasque lagHmn.ltr.Basque
=> lagbaq lagHmn.3ltr.baq (Bibl) lageus lagHmn.3ltr.eus (Term)
=> lageu lagHmn.2ltr.eu
* lagBasque lagHmn.ltr.Basque
=> lagbaq lagHmn.3ltr.baq (Bibl) lageus lagHmn.3ltr.eus (Term)
=> lageu lagHmn.2ltr.eu
* lagBatak_languages lagHmn.ltr.Batak_languages
=> lagbtk lagHmn.3ltr.btk
* lagBeja;
- lagHmn.ltr.Beja;
- lagBedawiyet lagHmn.ltr.Bedawiyet
=> lagbej lagHmn.3ltr.bej
* lagBelarusian lagHmn.ltr.Belarusian
=> lagbel lagHmn.3ltr.bel
=> lagbe lagHmn.2ltr.be
* lagBemba lagHmn.ltr.Bemba
=> lagbem lagHmn.3ltr.bem
* lagBengali lagHmn.ltr.Bengali
=> lagben lagHmn.3ltr.ben
=> lagbn lagHmn.2ltr.bn
* lagBerber_languages lagHmn.ltr.Berber_languages
=> lagber lagHmn.3ltr.ber
* lagBhojpuri lagHmn.ltr.Bhojpuri
=> lagbho lagHmn.3ltr.bho
* lagBihari_languages lagHmn.ltr.Bihari_languages
=> lagbih lagHmn.3ltr.bih
=> lagbh lagHmn.2ltr.bh
* lagBikol lagHmn.ltr.Bikol
=> lagbik lagHmn.3ltr.bik
* lagBini;
- lagHmn.ltr.Bini;
- lagEdo lagHmn.ltr.Edo
=> lagbin lagHmn.3ltr.bin
* lagBislama lagHmn.ltr.Bislama
=> lagbis lagHmn.3ltr.bis
=> lagbi lagHmn.2ltr.bi
* lagBlin;
- lagHmn.ltr.Blin;
- lagBilin lagHmn.ltr.Bilin
=> lagbyn lagHmn.3ltr.byn
* lagBlissymbols;
- lagHmn.ltr.Blissymbols;
- lagBlissymbolics;
- lagHmn.ltr.Blissymbolics;
- lagBliss lagHmn.ltr.Bliss
=> lagzbl lagHmn.3ltr.zbl
* lagBokm?l.Norwegian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Bokm?l.Norwegian;
- lagNorwegian lagHmn.ltr.Norwegian Bokm?l
=> lagnob lagHmn.3ltr.nob
=> lagnb lagHmn.2ltr.nb
* lagBosnian lagHmn.ltr.Bosnian
=> lagbos lagHmn.3ltr.bos
=> lagbs lagHmn.2ltr.bs
* lagBraj lagHmn.ltr.Braj
=> lagbra lagHmn.3ltr.bra
* lagBreton lagHmn.ltr.Breton
=> lagbre lagHmn.3ltr.bre
=> lagbr lagHmn.2ltr.br
* lagBuginese lagHmn.ltr.Buginese
=> lagbug lagHmn.3ltr.bug
* lagBulgarian lagHmn.ltr.Bulgarian
=> lagbul lagHmn.3ltr.bul
=> lagbg lagHmn.2ltr.bg
* lagBuriat lagHmn.ltr.Buriat
=> lagbua lagHmn.3ltr.bua
* lagBurmese lagHmn.ltr.Burmese
=> lagbur lagHmn.3ltr.bur (Bibl) lagmya lagHmn.3ltr.mya (Term)
=> lagmy lagHmn.2ltr.my
* lagBurmese lagHmn.ltr.Burmese
=> lagbur lagHmn.3ltr.bur (Bibl) lagmya lagHmn.3ltr.mya (Term)
=> lagmy lagHmn.2ltr.my
* lagCaddo lagHmn.ltr.Caddo
=> lagcad lagHmn.3ltr.cad
* lagCatalan;
- lagHmn.ltr.Catalan;
- lagValencian lagHmn.ltr.Valencian
=> lagcat lagHmn.3ltr.cat
=> lagca lagHmn.2ltr.ca
* lagCaucasian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Caucasian_languages
=> lagcau lagHmn.3ltr.cau
* lagCebuano lagHmn.ltr.Cebuano
=> lagceb lagHmn.3ltr.ceb
* lagCeltic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Celtic_languages
=> lagcel lagHmn.3ltr.cel
* lagCentral_American lagHmn.ltr.Central_American Indian languages
=> lagcai lagHmn.3ltr.cai
* lagCentral_Khmer lagHmn.ltr.Central_Khmer
=> lagkhm lagHmn.3ltr.khm
=> lagkm lagHmn.2ltr.km
* lagChagatai lagHmn.ltr.Chagatai
=> lagchg lagHmn.3ltr.chg
* lagChamic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Chamic_languages
=> lagcmc lagHmn.3ltr.cmc
* lagChamorro lagHmn.ltr.Chamorro
=> lagcha lagHmn.3ltr.cha
=> lagch lagHmn.2ltr.ch
* lagChechen lagHmn.ltr.Chechen
=> lagche lagHmn.3ltr.che
=> lagce lagHmn.2ltr.ce
* lagCherokee lagHmn.ltr.Cherokee
=> lagchr lagHmn.3ltr.chr
* lagCheyenne lagHmn.ltr.Cheyenne
=> lagchy lagHmn.3ltr.chy
* lagChibcha lagHmn.ltr.Chibcha
=> lagchb lagHmn.3ltr.chb
* lagChichewa;
- lagHmn.ltr.Chichewa;
- lagChewa;
- lagHmn.ltr.Chewa;
- lagNyanja lagHmn.ltr.Nyanja
=> lagnya lagHmn.3ltr.nya
=> lagny lagHmn.2ltr.ny
* lagChinese lagHmn.ltr.Chinese
=> lagchi lagHmn.3ltr.chi (Bibl) lagzho lagHmn.3ltr.zho (Term)
=> lagzh lagHmn.2ltr.zh
* lagChinook_jargon lagHmn.ltr.Chinook_jargon
=> lagchn lagHmn.3ltr.chn
* lagChipewyan;
- lagHmn.ltr.Chipewyan;
- lagDene lagHmn.ltr.Dene Suline
=> lagchp lagHmn.3ltr.chp
* lagChoctaw lagHmn.ltr.Choctaw
=> lagcho lagHmn.3ltr.cho
* lagChurch_Slavic;
- lagHmn.ltr.Church_Slavic;
- lagOld lagHmn.ltr.Old Slavonic;
- lagChurch lagHmn.ltr.Church Slavonic;
- lagOld lagHmn.ltr.Old Bulgarian;
- lagOld lagHmn.ltr.Old Church Slavonic
=> lagchu lagHmn.3ltr.chu
=> lagcu lagHmn.2ltr.cu
* lagChuukese lagHmn.ltr.Chuukese
=> lagchk lagHmn.3ltr.chk
* lagChuvash lagHmn.ltr.Chuvash
=> lagchv lagHmn.3ltr.chv
=> lagcv lagHmn.2ltr.cv
* lagClassical_Newari;
- lagHmn.ltr.Classical_Newari;
- lagOld lagHmn.ltr.Old Newari;
- lagClassical lagHmn.ltr.Classical Nepal Bhasa
=> lagnwc lagHmn.3ltr.nwc
* lagClassical_Syriac lagHmn.ltr.Classical_Syriac
=> lagsyc lagHmn.3ltr.syc
* lagCoptic lagHmn.ltr.Coptic
=> lagcop lagHmn.3ltr.cop
* lagCornish lagHmn.ltr.Cornish
=> lagcor lagHmn.3ltr.cor
=> lagkw lagHmn.2ltr.kw
* lagCorsican lagHmn.ltr.Corsican
=> lagcos lagHmn.3ltr.cos
=> lagco lagHmn.2ltr.co
* lagCree lagHmn.ltr.Cree
=> lagcre lagHmn.3ltr.cre
=> lagcr lagHmn.2ltr.cr
* lagCreek lagHmn.ltr.Creek
=> lagmus lagHmn.3ltr.mus
* lagCreoles_and lagHmn.ltr.Creoles_and pidgins
=> lagcrp lagHmn.3ltr.crp
* lagCreoles_and lagHmn.ltr.Creoles_and pidgins.English based
=> lagcpe lagHmn.3ltr.cpe
* lagCreoles_and lagHmn.ltr.Creoles_and pidgins.French_based
=> lagcpf lagHmn.3ltr.cpf
* lagCreoles_and lagHmn.ltr.Creoles_and pidgins.Portuguese_based
=> lagcpp lagHmn.3ltr.cpp
* lagCrimean_Tatar;
- lagHmn.ltr.Crimean_Tatar;
- lagCrimean lagHmn.ltr.Crimean Turkish
=> lagcrh lagHmn.3ltr.crh
* lagCroatian lagHmn.ltr.Croatian
=> laghrv lagHmn.3ltr.hrv
=> laghr lagHmn.2ltr.hr
* lagCushitic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Cushitic_languages
=> lagcus lagHmn.3ltr.cus
* lagCzech lagHmn.ltr.Czech
=> lagcze lagHmn.3ltr.cze (Bibl) lagces lagHmn.3ltr.ces (Term)
=> lagcs lagHmn.2ltr.cs
* lagDakota lagHmn.ltr.Dakota
=> lagdak lagHmn.3ltr.dak
* lagDanish lagHmn.ltr.Danish
=> lagdan lagHmn.3ltr.dan
=> lagda lagHmn.2ltr.da
* lagDargwa lagHmn.ltr.Dargwa
=> lagdar lagHmn.3ltr.dar
* lagDelaware lagHmn.ltr.Delaware
=> lagdel lagHmn.3ltr.del
* lagDinka lagHmn.ltr.Dinka
=> lagdin lagHmn.3ltr.din
* lagDivehi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Divehi;
- lagDhivehi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Dhivehi;
- lagMaldivian lagHmn.ltr.Maldivian
=> lagdiv lagHmn.3ltr.div
=> lagdv lagHmn.2ltr.dv
* lagDogri lagHmn.ltr.Dogri
=> lagdoi lagHmn.3ltr.doi
* lagDogrib lagHmn.ltr.Dogrib
=> lagdgr lagHmn.3ltr.dgr
* lagDravidian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Dravidian_languages
=> lagdra lagHmn.3ltr.dra
* lagDuala lagHmn.ltr.Duala
=> lagdua lagHmn.3ltr.dua
* lagDutch.Middle lagHmn.ltr.Dutch.Middle (ca.1050_1350)
=> lagdum lagHmn.3ltr.dum
* lagDutch;
- lagHmn.ltr.Dutch; lagHmn.ltr.Netherland
- lagFlemish lagHmn.ltr.Flemish
=> lagdut lagHmn.3ltr.dut (Bibl) lagnld lagHmn.3ltr.nld (Term)
=> lagnl lagHmn.2ltr.nl
* lagDutch;
- lagHmn.ltr.Dutch;
- lagFlemish lagHmn.ltr.Flemish
=> lagdut lagHmn.3ltr.dut (Bibl) lagnld lagHmn.3ltr.nld (Term)
=> lagnl lagHmn.2ltr.nl
* lagDyula lagHmn.ltr.Dyula
=> lagdyu lagHmn.3ltr.dyu
* lagDzongkha lagHmn.ltr.Dzongkha
=> lagdzo lagHmn.3ltr.dzo
=> lagdz lagHmn.2ltr.dz
* lagEastern_Frisian lagHmn.ltr.Eastern_Frisian
=> lagfrs lagHmn.3ltr.frs
* lagEfik lagHmn.ltr.Efik
=> lagefi lagHmn.3ltr.efi
* lagEgyptian lagHmn.ltr.Egyptian (Ancient)
=> lagegy lagHmn.3ltr.egy
* lagEkajuk lagHmn.ltr.Ekajuk
=> lageka lagHmn.3ltr.eka
* lagElamite lagHmn.ltr.Elamite
=> lagelx lagHmn.3ltr.elx
* lagEnglish lagHmn.ltr.English
=> lageng lagHmn.3ltr.eng
=> lagen lagHmn.2ltr.en
* lagEnglish.Middle lagHmn.ltr.English.Middle (1100_1500)
=> lagenm lagHmn.3ltr.enm
* lagEnglish.Old lagHmn.ltr.English.Old (ca.450_1100)
=> lagang lagHmn.3ltr.ang
* lagErzya lagHmn.ltr.Erzya
=> lagmyv lagHmn.3ltr.myv
* lagEsperanto lagHmn.ltr.Esperanto
=> lagepo lagHmn.3ltr.epo
=> lageo lagHmn.2ltr.eo
* lagEstonian lagHmn.ltr.Estonian
=> lagest lagHmn.3ltr.est
=> laget lagHmn.2ltr.et
* lagEwe lagHmn.ltr.Ewe
=> lagewe lagHmn.3ltr.ewe
=> lagee lagHmn.2ltr.ee
* lagEwondo lagHmn.ltr.Ewondo
=> lagewo lagHmn.3ltr.ewo
* lagFang lagHmn.ltr.Fang
=> lagfan lagHmn.3ltr.fan
* lagFanti lagHmn.ltr.Fanti
=> lagfat lagHmn.3ltr.fat
* lagFaroese lagHmn.ltr.Faroese
=> lagfao lagHmn.3ltr.fao
=> lagfo lagHmn.2ltr.fo
* lagFijian lagHmn.ltr.Fijian
=> lagfij lagHmn.3ltr.fij
=> lagfj lagHmn.2ltr.fj
* lagFilipino;
- lagHmn.ltr.Filipino;
- lagPilipino lagHmn.ltr.Pilipino
=> lagfil lagHmn.3ltr.fil
* lagFinnish lagHmn.ltr.Finnish
=> lagfin lagHmn.3ltr.fin
=> lagfi lagHmn.2ltr.fi
* lagFinno_Ugrian lagHmn.ltr.Finno_Ugrian languages
=> lagfiu lagHmn.3ltr.fiu
* lagFon lagHmn.ltr.Fon
=> lagfon lagHmn.3ltr.fon
* lagFrench lagHmn.ltr.French
=> lagfre lagHmn.3ltr.fre (Bibl) lagfra lagHmn.3ltr.fra (Term)
=> lagfr lagHmn.2ltr.fr
* lagFrench lagHmn.ltr.French
=> lagfre lagHmn.3ltr.fre (Bibl) lagfra lagHmn.3ltr.fra (Term)
=> lagfr lagHmn.2ltr.fr
* lagFrench.Middle lagHmn.ltr.French.Middle (ca.1400_1600)
=> lagfrm lagHmn.3ltr.frm
* lagFrench.Old lagHmn.ltr.French.Old (842_ca.1400)
=> lagfro lagHmn.3ltr.fro
* lagFriulian lagHmn.ltr.Friulian
=> lagfur lagHmn.3ltr.fur
* lagFulah lagHmn.ltr.Fulah
=> lagful lagHmn.3ltr.ful
=> lagff lagHmn.2ltr.ff
* lagGa lagHmn.ltr.Ga
=> laggaa lagHmn.3ltr.gaa
* lagGaelic;
- lagHmn.ltr.Gaelic;
- lagScottish lagHmn.ltr.Scottish Gaelic
=> laggla lagHmn.3ltr.gla
=> laggd lagHmn.2ltr.gd
* lagGalibi_Carib lagHmn.ltr.Galibi_Carib
=> lagcar lagHmn.3ltr.car
* lagGalician lagHmn.ltr.Galician
=> lagglg lagHmn.3ltr.glg
=> laggl lagHmn.2ltr.gl
* lagGanda lagHmn.ltr.Ganda
=> laglug lagHmn.3ltr.lug
=> laglg lagHmn.2ltr.lg
* lagGayo lagHmn.ltr.Gayo
=> laggay lagHmn.3ltr.gay
* lagGbaya lagHmn.ltr.Gbaya
=> laggba lagHmn.3ltr.gba
* lagGeez lagHmn.ltr.Geez
=> laggez lagHmn.3ltr.gez
* lagGeorgian lagHmn.ltr.Georgian
=> laggeo lagHmn.3ltr.geo (Bibl) lagkat lagHmn.3ltr.kat (Term)
=> lagka lagHmn.2ltr.ka
* lagGeorgian lagHmn.ltr.Georgian
=> laggeo lagHmn.3ltr.geo (Bibl) lagkat lagHmn.3ltr.kat (Term)
=> lagka lagHmn.2ltr.ka
* lagGerman lagHmn.ltr.German
=> lagger lagHmn.3ltr.ger (Bibl) lagdeu lagHmn.3ltr.deu (Term)
=> lagde lagHmn.2ltr.de
* lagGerman.Middle lagHmn.ltr.German.Middle High (ca.1050_1500)
=> laggmh lagHmn.3ltr.gmh
* lagGerman.Old lagHmn.ltr.German.Old High (ca.750_1050)
=> laggoh lagHmn.3ltr.goh
* lagGermanic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Germanic_languages
=> laggem lagHmn.3ltr.gem
* lagGilbertese lagHmn.ltr.Gilbertese
=> laggil lagHmn.3ltr.gil
* lagGondi lagHmn.ltr.Gondi
=> laggon lagHmn.3ltr.gon
* lagGorontalo lagHmn.ltr.Gorontalo
=> laggor lagHmn.3ltr.gor
* lagGothic lagHmn.ltr.Gothic
=> laggot lagHmn.3ltr.got
* lagGrebo lagHmn.ltr.Grebo
=> laggrb lagHmn.3ltr.grb
* lagGreek.Ancient lagHmn.ltr.Greek.Ancient (to 1453)
=> laggrc lagHmn.3ltr.grc
* lagGreek.Modern lagHmn.ltr.Greek.Modern (1453_)
=> laggre lagHmn.3ltr.gre (Bibl) lagell lagHmn.3ltr.ell (Term)
=> lagel lagHmn.2ltr.el
* lagGuarani lagHmn.ltr.Guarani
=> laggrn lagHmn.3ltr.grn
=> laggn lagHmn.2ltr.gn
* lagGujarati lagHmn.ltr.Gujarati
=> lagguj lagHmn.3ltr.guj
=> laggu lagHmn.2ltr.gu
* lagGwich'in lagHmn.ltr.Gwich'in
=> laggwi lagHmn.3ltr.gwi
* lagHaida lagHmn.ltr.Haida
=> laghai lagHmn.3ltr.hai
* lagHaitian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Haitian;
- lagHaitian lagHmn.ltr.Haitian Creole
=> laghat lagHmn.3ltr.hat
=> laght lagHmn.2ltr.ht
* lagHausa lagHmn.ltr.Hausa
=> laghau lagHmn.3ltr.hau
=> lagha lagHmn.2ltr.ha
* lagHawaiian lagHmn.ltr.Hawaiian
=> laghaw lagHmn.3ltr.haw
* lagHebrew lagHmn.ltr.Hebrew
=> lagheb lagHmn.3ltr.heb
=> laghe lagHmn.2ltr.he
* lagHerero lagHmn.ltr.Herero
=> lagher lagHmn.3ltr.her
=> laghz lagHmn.2ltr.hz
* lagHiligaynon lagHmn.ltr.Hiligaynon
=> laghil lagHmn.3ltr.hil
* lagHimachali_languages; lagHmn.ltr.Himachali_languages;
- lagWestern_Pahari_languages lagHmn.ltr.Western_Pahari_languages
=> laghim lagHmn.3ltr.him
* lagHindi lagHmn.ltr.Hindi
=> laghin lagHmn.3ltr.hin
=> laghi lagHmn.2ltr.hi
* lagHiri_Motu lagHmn.ltr.Hiri_Motu
=> laghmo lagHmn.3ltr.hmo
=> lagho lagHmn.2ltr.ho
* lagHittite lagHmn.ltr.Hittite
=> laghit lagHmn.3ltr.hit
* lagHmong;
- lagHmn.ltr.Hmong;
- lagMong lagHmn.ltr.Mong
=> laghmn lagHmn.3ltr.hmn
* lagHungarian lagHmn.ltr.Hungarian
=> laghun lagHmn.3ltr.hun
=> laghu lagHmn.2ltr.hu
* lagHupa lagHmn.ltr.Hupa
=> laghup lagHmn.3ltr.hup
* lagIban lagHmn.ltr.Iban
=> lagiba lagHmn.3ltr.iba
* lagIcelandic lagHmn.ltr.Icelandic
=> lagice lagHmn.3ltr.ice (Bibl) lagisl lagHmn.3ltr.isl (Term)
=> lagis lagHmn.2ltr.is
* lagIcelandic lagHmn.ltr.Icelandic
=> lagice lagHmn.3ltr.ice (Bibl) lagisl lagHmn.3ltr.isl (Term)
=> lagis lagHmn.2ltr.is
* lagIdo lagHmn.ltr.Ido
=> lagido lagHmn.3ltr.ido
=> lagio lagHmn.2ltr.io
* lagIgbo lagHmn.ltr.Igbo
=> lagibo lagHmn.3ltr.ibo
=> lagig lagHmn.2ltr.ig
* lagIjo_languages lagHmn.ltr.Ijo_languages
=> lagijo lagHmn.3ltr.ijo
* lagIloko lagHmn.ltr.Iloko
=> lagilo lagHmn.3ltr.ilo
* lagInari_Sami lagHmn.ltr.Inari_Sami
=> lagsmn lagHmn.3ltr.smn
* lagIndic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Indic_languages
=> laginc lagHmn.3ltr.inc
* lagIndo_European lagHmn.ltr.Indo_European languages
=> lagine lagHmn.3ltr.ine
* lagIndonesian lagHmn.ltr.Indonesian
=> lagind lagHmn.3ltr.ind
=> lagid lagHmn.2ltr.id
* lagIngush lagHmn.ltr.Ingush
=> laginh lagHmn.3ltr.inh
* lagInterlingua lagHmn.ltr.Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association)
=> lagina lagHmn.3ltr.ina
=> lagia lagHmn.2ltr.ia
* lagInterlingue;
- lagHmn.ltr.Interlingue;
- lagOccidental lagHmn.ltr.Occidental
=> lagile lagHmn.3ltr.ile
=> lagie lagHmn.2ltr.ie
* lagInuktitut lagHmn.ltr.Inuktitut
=> lagiku lagHmn.3ltr.iku
=> lagiu lagHmn.2ltr.iu
* lagInupiaq lagHmn.ltr.Inupiaq
=> lagipk lagHmn.3ltr.ipk
=> lagik lagHmn.2ltr.ik
* lagIranian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Iranian_languages
=> lagira lagHmn.3ltr.ira
* lagIrish lagHmn.ltr.Irish
=> laggle lagHmn.3ltr.gle
=> lagga lagHmn.2ltr.ga
* lagIrish.Middle lagHmn.ltr.Irish.Middle (900_1200)
=> lagmga lagHmn.3ltr.mga
* lagIrish.Old lagHmn.ltr.Irish.Old (to 900)
=> lagsga lagHmn.3ltr.sga
* lagIroquoian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Iroquoian_languages
=> lagiro lagHmn.3ltr.iro
* lagItalian lagHmn.ltr.Italian
=> lagita lagHmn.3ltr.ita
=> lagit lagHmn.2ltr.it
* lagJapanese lagHmn.ltr.Japanese
=> lagjpn lagHmn.3ltr.jpn
=> lagja lagHmn.2ltr.ja
* lagJavanese lagHmn.ltr.Javanese
=> lagjav lagHmn.3ltr.jav
=> lagjv lagHmn.2ltr.jv
* lagJudeo_Arabic lagHmn.ltr.Judeo_Arabic
=> lagjrb lagHmn.3ltr.jrb
* lagJudeo_Persian lagHmn.ltr.Judeo_Persian
=> lagjpr lagHmn.3ltr.jpr
* lagKabardian lagHmn.ltr.Kabardian
=> lagkbd lagHmn.3ltr.kbd
* lagKabyle lagHmn.ltr.Kabyle
=> lagkab lagHmn.3ltr.kab
* lagKachin;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kachin;
- lagJingpho lagHmn.ltr.Jingpho
=> lagkac lagHmn.3ltr.kac
* lagKalaallisut;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kalaallisut;
- lagGreenlandic lagHmn.ltr.Greenlandic
=> lagkal lagHmn.3ltr.kal
=> lagkl lagHmn.2ltr.kl
* lagKalmyk;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kalmyk;
- lagOirat lagHmn.ltr.Oirat
=> lagxal lagHmn.3ltr.xal
* lagKamba lagHmn.ltr.Kamba
=> lagkam lagHmn.3ltr.kam
* lagKannada lagHmn.ltr.Kannada
=> lagkan lagHmn.3ltr.kan
=> lagkn lagHmn.2ltr.kn
* lagKanuri lagHmn.ltr.Kanuri
=> lagkau lagHmn.3ltr.kau
=> lagkr lagHmn.2ltr.kr
* lagKara_Kalpak lagHmn.ltr.Kara_Kalpak
=> lagkaa lagHmn.3ltr.kaa
* lagKarachay_Balkar lagHmn.ltr.Karachay_Balkar
=> lagkrc lagHmn.3ltr.krc
* lagKarelian lagHmn.ltr.Karelian
=> lagkrl lagHmn.3ltr.krl
* lagKaren_languages lagHmn.ltr.Karen_languages
=> lagkar lagHmn.3ltr.kar
* lagKashmiri lagHmn.ltr.Kashmiri
=> lagkas lagHmn.3ltr.kas
=> lagks lagHmn.2ltr.ks
* lagKashubian lagHmn.ltr.Kashubian
=> lagcsb lagHmn.3ltr.csb
* lagKawi lagHmn.ltr.Kawi
=> lagkaw lagHmn.3ltr.kaw
* lagKazakh lagHmn.ltr.Kazakh
=> lagkaz lagHmn.3ltr.kaz
=> lagkk lagHmn.2ltr.kk
* lagKhasi lagHmn.ltr.Khasi
=> lagkha lagHmn.3ltr.kha
* lagKhoisan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Khoisan_languages
=> lagkhi lagHmn.3ltr.khi
* lagKhotanese;
- lagHmn.ltr.Khotanese;
- lagSakan lagHmn.ltr.Sakan
=> lagkho lagHmn.3ltr.kho
* lagKikuyu;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kikuyu;
- lagGikuyu lagHmn.ltr.Gikuyu
=> lagkik lagHmn.3ltr.kik
=> lagki lagHmn.2ltr.ki
* lagKimbundu lagHmn.ltr.Kimbundu
=> lagkmb lagHmn.3ltr.kmb
* lagKinyarwanda lagHmn.ltr.Kinyarwanda
=> lagkin lagHmn.3ltr.kin
=> lagrw lagHmn.2ltr.rw
* lagKirghiz;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kirghiz;
- lagKyrgyz lagHmn.ltr.Kyrgyz
=> lagkir lagHmn.3ltr.kir
=> lagky lagHmn.2ltr.ky
* lagKlingon;
- lagHmn.ltr.Klingon;
- lagtlhIngan_Hol lagHmn.ltr.tlhIngan_Hol
=> lagtlh lagHmn.3ltr.tlh
* lagKomi lagHmn.ltr.Komi
=> lagkom lagHmn.3ltr.kom
=> lagkv lagHmn.2ltr.kv
* lagKongo lagHmn.ltr.Kongo
=> lagkon lagHmn.3ltr.kon
=> lagkg lagHmn.2ltr.kg
* lagKonkani lagHmn.ltr.Konkani
=> lagkok lagHmn.3ltr.kok
* lagKorean lagHmn.ltr.Korean
=> lagkor lagHmn.3ltr.kor
=> lagko lagHmn.2ltr.ko
* lagKosraean lagHmn.ltr.Kosraean
=> lagkos lagHmn.3ltr.kos
* lagKpelle lagHmn.ltr.Kpelle
=> lagkpe lagHmn.3ltr.kpe
* lagKru_languages lagHmn.ltr.Kru_languages
=> lagkro lagHmn.3ltr.kro
* lagKuanyama;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kuanyama;
- lagKwanyama lagHmn.ltr.Kwanyama
=> lagkua lagHmn.3ltr.kua
=> lagkj lagHmn.2ltr.kj
* lagKumyk lagHmn.ltr.Kumyk
=> lagkum lagHmn.3ltr.kum
* lagKurdish lagHmn.ltr.Kurdish
=> lagkur lagHmn.3ltr.kur
=> lagku lagHmn.2ltr.ku
* lagKurukh lagHmn.ltr.Kurukh
=> lagkru lagHmn.3ltr.kru
* lagKutenai lagHmn.ltr.Kutenai
=> lagkut lagHmn.3ltr.kut
* lagLadino lagHmn.ltr.Ladino
=> laglad lagHmn.3ltr.lad
* lagLahnda lagHmn.ltr.Lahnda
=> laglah lagHmn.3ltr.lah
* lagLamba lagHmn.ltr.Lamba
=> laglam lagHmn.3ltr.lam
* lagLand_Dayak lagHmn.ltr.Land_Dayak languages
=> lagday lagHmn.3ltr.day
* lagLao lagHmn.ltr.Lao
=> laglao lagHmn.3ltr.lao
=> laglo lagHmn.2ltr.lo
* lagLatin lagHmn.ltr.Latin
=> laglat lagHmn.3ltr.lat
=> lagla lagHmn.2ltr.la
* lagLatvian lagHmn.ltr.Latvian
=> laglav lagHmn.3ltr.lav
=> laglv lagHmn.2ltr.lv
* lagLezghian lagHmn.ltr.Lezghian
=> laglez lagHmn.3ltr.lez
* lagLimburgan;
- lagHmn.ltr.Limburgan;
- lagLimburger;
- lagHmn.ltr.Limburger;
- lagLimburgish lagHmn.ltr.Limburgish
=> laglim lagHmn.3ltr.lim
=> lagli lagHmn.2ltr.li
* lagLingala lagHmn.ltr.Lingala
=> laglin lagHmn.3ltr.lin
=> lagln lagHmn.2ltr.ln
* lagLithuanian lagHmn.ltr.Lithuanian
=> laglit lagHmn.3ltr.lit
=> laglt lagHmn.2ltr.lt
* lagLojban lagHmn.ltr.Lojban
=> lagjbo lagHmn.3ltr.jbo
* lagLow_German;
- lagHmn.ltr.Low_German;
- lagLow lagHmn.ltr.Low Saxon;
- lagGerman.Low;
- lagHmn.ltr.German.Low;
- lagSaxon.Low lagHmn.ltr.Saxon.Low
=> lagnds lagHmn.3ltr.nds
* lagLower_Sorbian lagHmn.ltr.Lower_Sorbian
=> lagdsb lagHmn.3ltr.dsb
* lagLozi lagHmn.ltr.Lozi
=> lagloz lagHmn.3ltr.loz
* lagLuba_Katanga lagHmn.ltr.Luba_Katanga
=> laglub lagHmn.3ltr.lub
=> laglu lagHmn.2ltr.lu
* lagLuba_Lulua lagHmn.ltr.Luba_Lulua
=> laglua lagHmn.3ltr.lua
* lagLuiseno lagHmn.ltr.Luiseno
=> laglui lagHmn.3ltr.lui
* lagLule_Sami lagHmn.ltr.Lule_Sami
=> lagsmj lagHmn.3ltr.smj
* lagLunda lagHmn.ltr.Lunda
=> laglun lagHmn.3ltr.lun
* lagLuo lagHmn.ltr.Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)
=> lagluo lagHmn.3ltr.luo
* lagLushai lagHmn.ltr.Lushai
=> laglus lagHmn.3ltr.lus
* lagLuxembourgish;
- lagHmn.ltr.Luxembourgish;
- lagLetzeburgesch lagHmn.ltr.Letzeburgesch
=> lagltz lagHmn.3ltr.ltz
=> laglb lagHmn.2ltr.lb
* lagMacedonian lagHmn.ltr.Macedonian
=> lagmac lagHmn.3ltr.mac (Bibl) lagmkd lagHmn.3ltr.mkd (Term)
=> lagmk lagHmn.2ltr.mk
* lagMadurese lagHmn.ltr.Madurese
=> lagmad lagHmn.3ltr.mad
* lagMagahi lagHmn.ltr.Magahi
=> lagmag lagHmn.3ltr.mag
* lagMaithili lagHmn.ltr.Maithili
=> lagmai lagHmn.3ltr.mai
* lagMakasar lagHmn.ltr.Makasar
=> lagmak lagHmn.3ltr.mak
* lagMalagasy lagHmn.ltr.Malagasy
=> lagmlg lagHmn.3ltr.mlg
=> lagmg lagHmn.2ltr.mg
* lagMalay lagHmn.ltr.Malay
=> lagmay lagHmn.3ltr.may (Bibl) lagmsa lagHmn.3ltr.msa (Term)
=> lagms lagHmn.2ltr.ms
* lagMalay lagHmn.ltr.Malay
=> lagmay lagHmn.3ltr.may (Bibl) lagmsa lagHmn.3ltr.msa (Term)
=> lagms lagHmn.2ltr.ms
* lagMalayalam lagHmn.ltr.Malayalam
=> lagmal lagHmn.3ltr.mal
=> lagml lagHmn.2ltr.ml
* lagMaltese lagHmn.ltr.Maltese
=> lagmlt lagHmn.3ltr.mlt
=> lagmt lagHmn.2ltr.mt
* lagManchu lagHmn.ltr.Manchu
=> lagmnc lagHmn.3ltr.mnc
* lagMandar lagHmn.ltr.Mandar
=> lagmdr lagHmn.3ltr.mdr
* lagMandingo lagHmn.ltr.Mandingo
=> lagman lagHmn.3ltr.man
* lagManipuri lagHmn.ltr.Manipuri
=> lagmni lagHmn.3ltr.mni
* lagManobo_languages lagHmn.ltr.Manobo_languages
=> lagmno lagHmn.3ltr.mno
* lagManx lagHmn.ltr.Manx
=> lagglv lagHmn.3ltr.glv
=> laggv lagHmn.2ltr.gv
* lagMaori lagHmn.ltr.Maori
=> lagmao lagHmn.3ltr.mao (Bibl) lagmri lagHmn.3ltr.mri (Term)
=> lagmi lagHmn.2ltr.mi
* lagMaori lagHmn.ltr.Maori
=> lagmao lagHmn.3ltr.mao (Bibl) lagmri lagHmn.3ltr.mri (Term)
=> lagmi lagHmn.2ltr.mi
* lagMapudungun;
- lagHmn.ltr.Mapudungun;
- lagMapuche lagHmn.ltr.Mapuche
=> lagarn lagHmn.3ltr.arn
* lagMarathi lagHmn.ltr.Marathi
=> lagmar lagHmn.3ltr.mar
=> lagmr lagHmn.2ltr.mr
* lagMari lagHmn.ltr.Mari
=> lagchm lagHmn.3ltr.chm
* lagMarshallese lagHmn.ltr.Marshallese
=> lagmah lagHmn.3ltr.mah
=> lagmh lagHmn.2ltr.mh
* lagMarwari lagHmn.ltr.Marwari
=> lagmwr lagHmn.3ltr.mwr
* lagMasai lagHmn.ltr.Masai
=> lagmas lagHmn.3ltr.mas
* lagMayan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Mayan_languages
=> lagmyn lagHmn.3ltr.myn
* lagMende lagHmn.ltr.Mende
=> lagmen lagHmn.3ltr.men
* lagMi'kmaq;
- lagHmn.ltr.Mi'kmaq;
- lagMicmac lagHmn.ltr.Micmac
=> lagmic lagHmn.3ltr.mic
* lagMinangkabau lagHmn.ltr.Minangkabau
=> lagmin lagHmn.3ltr.min
* lagMirandese lagHmn.ltr.Mirandese
=> lagmwl lagHmn.3ltr.mwl
* lagMohawk lagHmn.ltr.Mohawk
=> lagmoh lagHmn.3ltr.moh
* lagMoksha lagHmn.ltr.Moksha
=> lagmdf lagHmn.3ltr.mdf
* lagMon_Khmer lagHmn.ltr.Mon_Khmer languages
=> lagmkh lagHmn.3ltr.mkh
* lagMongo lagHmn.ltr.Mongo
=> laglol lagHmn.3ltr.lol
* lagMongolian lagHmn.ltr.Mongolian
=> lagmon lagHmn.3ltr.mon
=> lagmn lagHmn.2ltr.mn
* lagMossi lagHmn.ltr.Mossi
=> lagmos lagHmn.3ltr.mos
* lagMultiple_languages lagHmn.ltr.Multiple_languages
=> lagmul lagHmn.3ltr.mul
* lagMunda_languages lagHmn.ltr.Munda_languages
=> lagmun lagHmn.3ltr.mun
* lagN'Ko lagHmn.ltr.N'Ko
=> lagnqo lagHmn.3ltr.nqo
* lagNahuatl_languages lagHmn.ltr.Nahuatl_languages
=> lagnah lagHmn.3ltr.nah
* lagNauru lagHmn.ltr.Nauru
=> lagnau lagHmn.3ltr.nau
=> lagna lagHmn.2ltr.na
* lagNavajo;
- lagHmn.ltr.Navajo;
- lagNavaho lagHmn.ltr.Navaho
=> lagnav lagHmn.3ltr.nav
=> lagnv lagHmn.2ltr.nv
* lagNdebele.North;
- lagHmn.ltr.Ndebele.North;
- lagNorth lagHmn.ltr.North Ndebele
=> lagnde lagHmn.3ltr.nde
=> lagnd lagHmn.2ltr.nd
* lagNdebele.South;
- lagHmn.ltr.Ndebele.South;
- lagSouth lagHmn.ltr.South Ndebele
=> lagnbl lagHmn.3ltr.nbl
=> lagnr lagHmn.2ltr.nr
* lagNdonga lagHmn.ltr.Ndonga
=> lagndo lagHmn.3ltr.ndo
=> lagng lagHmn.2ltr.ng
* lagNeapolitan lagHmn.ltr.Neapolitan
=> lagnap lagHmn.3ltr.nap
* lagNepal_Bhasa;
- lagHmn.ltr.Nepal_Bhasa;
- lagNewari lagHmn.ltr.Newari
=> lagnew lagHmn.3ltr.new
* lagNepali lagHmn.ltr.Nepali
=> lagnep lagHmn.3ltr.nep
=> lagne lagHmn.2ltr.ne
* lagNias lagHmn.ltr.Nias
=> lagnia lagHmn.3ltr.nia
* lagNiger_Kordofanian lagHmn.ltr.Niger_Kordofanian languages
=> lagnic lagHmn.3ltr.nic
* lagNilo_Saharan lagHmn.ltr.Nilo_Saharan languages
=> lagssa lagHmn.3ltr.ssa
* lagNiuean lagHmn.ltr.Niuean
=> lagniu lagHmn.3ltr.niu
* lagNo_linguistic lagHmn.ltr.No_linguistic content;
- lagNot lagHmn.ltr.Not applicable
=> lagzxx lagHmn.3ltr.zxx
* lagNogai lagHmn.ltr.Nogai
=> lagnog lagHmn.3ltr.nog
* lagNorse.Old lagHmn.ltr.Norse.Old
=> lagnon lagHmn.3ltr.non
* lagNorth_American lagHmn.ltr.North_American Indian languages
=> lagnai lagHmn.3ltr.nai
* lagNorthern_Frisian lagHmn.ltr.Northern_Frisian
=> lagfrr lagHmn.3ltr.frr
* lagNorthern_Sami lagHmn.ltr.Northern_Sami
=> lagsme lagHmn.3ltr.sme
=> lagse lagHmn.2ltr.se
* lagNorwegian lagHmn.ltr.Norwegian
=> lagnor lagHmn.3ltr.nor
=> lagno lagHmn.2ltr.no
* lagNorwegian_Nynorsk;
- lagHmn.ltr.Norwegian_Nynorsk;
- lagNynorsk.Norwegian lagHmn.ltr.Nynorsk.Norwegian
=> lagnno lagHmn.3ltr.nno
=> lagnn lagHmn.2ltr.nn
* lagNubian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Nubian_languages
=> lagnub lagHmn.3ltr.nub
* lagNyamwezi lagHmn.ltr.Nyamwezi
=> lagnym lagHmn.3ltr.nym
* lagNyankole lagHmn.ltr.Nyankole
=> lagnyn lagHmn.3ltr.nyn
* lagNyoro lagHmn.ltr.Nyoro
=> lagnyo lagHmn.3ltr.nyo
* lagNzima lagHmn.ltr.Nzima
=> lagnzi lagHmn.3ltr.nzi
* lagOccitan lagHmn.ltr.Occitan (post 1500)
=> lagoci lagHmn.3ltr.oci
=> lagoc lagHmn.2ltr.oc
* lagOfficial_Aramaic lagHmn.ltr.Official_Aramaic (700_300 BCE);
- lagImperial lagHmn.ltr.Imperial Aramaic (700_300 BCE)
=> lagarc lagHmn.3ltr.arc
* lagOjibwa lagHmn.ltr.Ojibwa
=> lagoji lagHmn.3ltr.oji
=> lagoj lagHmn.2ltr.oj
* lagOriya lagHmn.ltr.Oriya
=> lagori lagHmn.3ltr.ori
=> lagor lagHmn.2ltr.or
* lagOromo lagHmn.ltr.Oromo
=> lagorm lagHmn.3ltr.orm
=> lagom lagHmn.2ltr.om
* lagOsage lagHmn.ltr.Osage
=> lagosa lagHmn.3ltr.osa
* lagOssetian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Ossetian;
- lagOssetic lagHmn.ltr.Ossetic
=> lagoss lagHmn.3ltr.oss
=> lagos lagHmn.2ltr.os
* lagOtomian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Otomian_languages
=> lagoto lagHmn.3ltr.oto
* lagPahlavi lagHmn.ltr.Pahlavi
=> lagpal lagHmn.3ltr.pal
* lagPalauan lagHmn.ltr.Palauan
=> lagpau lagHmn.3ltr.pau
* lagPali lagHmn.ltr.Pali
=> lagpli lagHmn.3ltr.pli
=> lagpi lagHmn.2ltr.pi
* lagPampanga;
- lagHmn.ltr.Pampanga;
- lagKapampangan lagHmn.ltr.Kapampangan
=> lagpam lagHmn.3ltr.pam
* lagPangasinan lagHmn.ltr.Pangasinan
=> lagpag lagHmn.3ltr.pag
* lagPanjabi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Panjabi;
- lagPunjabi lagHmn.ltr.Punjabi
=> lagpan lagHmn.3ltr.pan
=> lagpa lagHmn.2ltr.pa
* lagPapiamento lagHmn.ltr.Papiamento
=> lagpap lagHmn.3ltr.pap
* lagPapuan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Papuan_languages
=> lagpaa lagHmn.3ltr.paa
* lagPedi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Pedi;
- lagSepedi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Sepedi;
- lagNorthern lagHmn.ltr.Northern Sotho
=> lagnso lagHmn.3ltr.nso
* lagPersian lagHmn.ltr.Persian
=> lagper lagHmn.3ltr.per (Bibl) lagfas lagHmn.3ltr.fas (Term)
=> lagfa lagHmn.2ltr.fa
* lagPersian lagHmn.ltr.Persian
=> lagper lagHmn.3ltr.per (Bibl) lagfas lagHmn.3ltr.fas (Term)
=> lagfa lagHmn.2ltr.fa
* lagPersian.Old lagHmn.ltr.Persian.Old (ca.600_400 B.C.)
=> lagpeo lagHmn.3ltr.peo
* lagPhilippine_languages lagHmn.ltr.Philippine_languages
=> lagphi lagHmn.3ltr.phi
* lagPhoenician lagHmn.ltr.Phoenician
=> lagphn lagHmn.3ltr.phn
* lagPohnpeian lagHmn.ltr.Pohnpeian
=> lagpon lagHmn.3ltr.pon
* lagPolish lagHmn.ltr.Polish
=> lagpol lagHmn.3ltr.pol
=> lagpl lagHmn.2ltr.pl
* lagPortuguese lagHmn.ltr.Portuguese
=> lagpor lagHmn.3ltr.por
=> lagpt lagHmn.2ltr.pt
* lagPrakrit_languages lagHmn.ltr.Prakrit_languages
=> lagpra lagHmn.3ltr.pra
* lagProven?al.Old lagHmn.ltr.Proven?al.Old (to 1500);Occitan.Old (to 1500)
=> lagpro lagHmn.3ltr.pro
* lagPushto;
- lagHmn.ltr.Pushto;
- lagPashto lagHmn.ltr.Pashto
=> lagpus lagHmn.3ltr.pus
=> lagps lagHmn.2ltr.ps
* lagQuechua lagHmn.ltr.Quechua
=> lagque lagHmn.3ltr.que
=> lagqu lagHmn.2ltr.qu
* lagRajasthani lagHmn.ltr.Rajasthani
=> lagraj lagHmn.3ltr.raj
* lagRapanui lagHmn.ltr.Rapanui
=> lagrap lagHmn.3ltr.rap
* lagRarotongan;
- lagHmn.ltr.Rarotongan;
- lagCook lagHmn.ltr.Cook Islands Maori
=> lagrar lagHmn.3ltr.rar
* lagReserved_for lagHmn.ltr.Reserved_for local use
=> lagqaa lagHmn.3ltr.qaa _qtz
* lagRomance_languages lagHmn.ltr.Romance_languages
=> lagroa lagHmn.3ltr.roa
* lagRomanian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Romanian;
- lagMoldavian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Moldavian;
- lagMoldovan lagHmn.ltr.Moldovan
=> lagrum lagHmn.3ltr.rum (Bibl) lagron lagHmn.3ltr.ron (Term)
=> lagro lagHmn.2ltr.ro
* lagRomanian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Romanian;
- lagMoldavian;
- lagHmn.ltr.Moldavian;
- lagMoldovan lagHmn.ltr.Moldovan
=> lagrum lagHmn.3ltr.rum (Bibl) lagron lagHmn.3ltr.ron (Term)
=> lagro lagHmn.2ltr.ro
* lagRomansh lagHmn.ltr.Romansh
=> lagroh lagHmn.3ltr.roh
=> lagrm lagHmn.2ltr.rm
* lagRomany lagHmn.ltr.Romany
=> lagrom lagHmn.3ltr.rom
* lagRundi lagHmn.ltr.Rundi
=> lagrun lagHmn.3ltr.run
=> lagrn lagHmn.2ltr.rn
* lagRussian lagHmn.ltr.Russian
=> lagrus lagHmn.3ltr.rus
=> lagru lagHmn.2ltr.ru
* lagSalishan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Salishan_languages
=> lagsal lagHmn.3ltr.sal
* lagSamaritan_Aramaic lagHmn.ltr.Samaritan_Aramaic
=> lagsam lagHmn.3ltr.sam
* lagSami_languages lagHmn.ltr.Sami_languages
=> lagsmi lagHmn.3ltr.smi
* lagSamoan lagHmn.ltr.Samoan
=> lagsmo lagHmn.3ltr.smo
=> lagsm lagHmn.2ltr.sm
* lagSandawe lagHmn.ltr.Sandawe
=> lagsad lagHmn.3ltr.sad
* lagSango lagHmn.ltr.Sango
=> lagsag lagHmn.3ltr.sag
=> lagsg lagHmn.2ltr.sg
* lagSanskrit lagHmn.ltr.Sanskrit
=> lagsan lagHmn.3ltr.san
=> lagsa lagHmn.2ltr.sa
* lagSantali lagHmn.ltr.Santali
=> lagsat lagHmn.3ltr.sat
* lagSardinian lagHmn.ltr.Sardinian
=> lagsrd lagHmn.3ltr.srd
=> lagsc lagHmn.2ltr.sc
* lagSasak lagHmn.ltr.Sasak
=> lagsas lagHmn.3ltr.sas
* lagScots lagHmn.ltr.Scots
=> lagsco lagHmn.3ltr.sco
* lagSelkup lagHmn.ltr.Selkup
=> lagsel lagHmn.3ltr.sel
* lagSemitic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Semitic_languages
=> lagsem lagHmn.3ltr.sem
* lagSerbian lagHmn.ltr.Serbian
=> lagsrp lagHmn.3ltr.srp
=> lagsr lagHmn.2ltr.sr
* lagSerer lagHmn.ltr.Serer
=> lagsrr lagHmn.3ltr.srr
* lagShan lagHmn.ltr.Shan
=> lagshn lagHmn.3ltr.shn
* lagShona lagHmn.ltr.Shona
=> lagsna lagHmn.3ltr.sna
=> lagsn lagHmn.2ltr.sn
* lagSichuan_Yi;
- lagHmn.ltr.Sichuan_Yi;
- lagNuosu lagHmn.ltr.Nuosu
=> lagiii lagHmn.3ltr.iii
=> lagii lagHmn.2ltr.ii
* lagSicilian lagHmn.ltr.Sicilian
=> lagscn lagHmn.3ltr.scn
* lagSidamo lagHmn.ltr.Sidamo
=> lagsid lagHmn.3ltr.sid
* lagSign_Languages lagHmn.ltr.Sign_Languages
=> lagsgn lagHmn.3ltr.sgn
* lagSiksika lagHmn.ltr.Siksika
=> lagbla lagHmn.3ltr.bla
* lagSindhi lagHmn.ltr.Sindhi
=> lagsnd lagHmn.3ltr.snd
=> lagsd lagHmn.2ltr.sd
* lagSinhala;
- lagHmn.ltr.Sinhala;
- lagSinhalese lagHmn.ltr.Sinhalese
=> lagsin lagHmn.3ltr.sin
=> lagsi lagHmn.2ltr.si
* lagSino_Tibetan lagHmn.ltr.Sino_Tibetan languages
=> lagsit lagHmn.3ltr.sit
* lagSiouan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Siouan_languages
=> lagsio lagHmn.3ltr.sio
* lagSkolt_Sami lagHmn.ltr.Skolt_Sami
=> lagsms lagHmn.3ltr.sms
* lagSlave lagHmn.ltr.Slave (Athapascan)
=> lagden lagHmn.3ltr.den
* lagSlavic_languages lagHmn.ltr.Slavic_languages
=> lagsla lagHmn.3ltr.sla
* lagSlovak lagHmn.ltr.Slovak
=> lagslo lagHmn.3ltr.slo (Bibl) lagslk lagHmn.3ltr.slk (Term)
=> lagsk lagHmn.2ltr.sk
* lagSlovak lagHmn.ltr.Slovak
=> lagslo lagHmn.3ltr.slo (Bibl) lagslk lagHmn.3ltr.slk (Term)
=> lagsk lagHmn.2ltr.sk
* lagSlovenian lagHmn.ltr.Slovenian
=> lagslv lagHmn.3ltr.slv
=> lagsl lagHmn.2ltr.sl
* lagSogdian lagHmn.ltr.Sogdian
=> lagsog lagHmn.3ltr.sog
* lagSomali lagHmn.ltr.Somali
=> lagsom lagHmn.3ltr.som
=> lagso lagHmn.2ltr.so
* lagSonghai_languages lagHmn.ltr.Songhai_languages
=> lagson lagHmn.3ltr.son
* lagSoninke lagHmn.ltr.Soninke
=> lagsnk lagHmn.3ltr.snk
* lagSorbian_languages lagHmn.ltr.Sorbian_languages
=> lagwen lagHmn.3ltr.wen
* lagSotho.Southern lagHmn.ltr.Sotho.Southern
=> lagsot lagHmn.3ltr.sot
=> lagst lagHmn.2ltr.st
* lagSouth_American lagHmn.ltr.South_American Indian languages
=> lagsai lagHmn.3ltr.sai
* lagSouthern_Altai lagHmn.ltr.Southern_Altai
=> lagalt lagHmn.3ltr.alt
* lagSouthern_Sami lagHmn.ltr.Southern_Sami
=> lagsma lagHmn.3ltr.sma
* lagSpanish;
- lagHmn.ltr.Spanish;
- lagCastilian lagHmn.ltr.Castilian
=> lagspa lagHmn.3ltr.spa
=> lages lagHmn.2ltr.es
* lagSranan_Tongo lagHmn.ltr.Sranan_Tongo
=> lagsrn lagHmn.3ltr.srn
* lagSukuma lagHmn.ltr.Sukuma
=> lagsuk lagHmn.3ltr.suk
* lagSumerian lagHmn.ltr.Sumerian
=> lagsux lagHmn.3ltr.sux
* lagSundanese lagHmn.ltr.Sundanese
=> lagsun lagHmn.3ltr.sun
=> lagsu lagHmn.2ltr.su
* lagSusu lagHmn.ltr.Susu
=> lagsus lagHmn.3ltr.sus
* lagSwahili lagHmn.ltr.Swahili
=> lagswa lagHmn.3ltr.swa
=> lagsw lagHmn.2ltr.sw
* lagSwati lagHmn.ltr.Swati
=> lagssw lagHmn.3ltr.ssw
=> lagss lagHmn.2ltr.ss
* lagSwedish lagHmn.ltr.Swedish
=> lagswe lagHmn.3ltr.swe
=> lagsv lagHmn.2ltr.sv
* lagSwiss_German;
- lagHmn.ltr.Swiss_German;
- lagAlemannic;
- lagHmn.ltr.Alemannic;
- lagAlsatian lagHmn.ltr.Alsatian
=> laggsw lagHmn.3ltr.gsw
* lagSyriac lagHmn.ltr.Syriac
=> lagsyr lagHmn.3ltr.syr
* lagTagalog lagHmn.ltr.Tagalog
=> lagtgl lagHmn.3ltr.tgl
=> lagtl lagHmn.2ltr.tl
* lagTahitian lagHmn.ltr.Tahitian
=> lagtah lagHmn.3ltr.tah
=> lagty lagHmn.2ltr.ty
* lagTai_languages lagHmn.ltr.Tai_languages
=> lagtai lagHmn.3ltr.tai
* lagTajik lagHmn.ltr.Tajik
=> lagtgk lagHmn.3ltr.tgk
=> lagtg lagHmn.2ltr.tg
* lagTamashek lagHmn.ltr.Tamashek
=> lagtmh lagHmn.3ltr.tmh
* lagTamil lagHmn.ltr.Tamil
=> lagtam lagHmn.3ltr.tam
=> lagta lagHmn.2ltr.ta
* lagTatar lagHmn.ltr.Tatar
=> lagtat lagHmn.3ltr.tat
=> lagtt lagHmn.2ltr.tt
* lagTelugu lagHmn.ltr.Telugu
=> lagtel lagHmn.3ltr.tel
=> lagte lagHmn.2ltr.te
* lagTereno lagHmn.ltr.Tereno
=> lagter lagHmn.3ltr.ter
* lagTetum lagHmn.ltr.Tetum
=> lagtet lagHmn.3ltr.tet
* lagThai lagHmn.ltr.Thai
=> lagtha lagHmn.3ltr.tha
=> lagth lagHmn.2ltr.th
* lagTibetan lagHmn.ltr.Tibetan
=> lagtib lagHmn.3ltr.tib (Bibl) lagbod lagHmn.3ltr.bod (Term)
=> lagbo lagHmn.2ltr.bo
* lagTibetan lagHmn.ltr.Tibetan
=> lagtib lagHmn.3ltr.tib (Bibl) lagbod lagHmn.3ltr.bod (Term)
=> lagbo lagHmn.2ltr.bo
* lagTigre lagHmn.ltr.Tigre
=> lagtig lagHmn.3ltr.tig
* lagTigrinya lagHmn.ltr.Tigrinya
=> lagtir lagHmn.3ltr.tir
=> lagti lagHmn.2ltr.ti
* lagTimne lagHmn.ltr.Timne
=> lagtem lagHmn.3ltr.tem
* lagTiv lagHmn.ltr.Tiv
=> lagtiv lagHmn.3ltr.tiv
* lagTlingit lagHmn.ltr.Tlingit
=> lagtli lagHmn.3ltr.tli
* lagTok_Pisin lagHmn.ltr.Tok_Pisin
=> lagtpi lagHmn.3ltr.tpi
* lagTokelau lagHmn.ltr.Tokelau
=> lagtkl lagHmn.3ltr.tkl
* lagTonga lagHmn.ltr.Tonga (Nyasa)
=> lagtog lagHmn.3ltr.tog
* lagTonga lagHmn.ltr.Tonga (Tonga Islands)
=> lagton lagHmn.3ltr.ton
=> lagto lagHmn.2ltr.to
* lagTsimshian lagHmn.ltr.Tsimshian
=> lagtsi lagHmn.3ltr.tsi
* lagTsonga lagHmn.ltr.Tsonga
=> lagtso lagHmn.3ltr.tso
=> lagts lagHmn.2ltr.ts
* lagTswana lagHmn.ltr.Tswana
=> lagtsn lagHmn.3ltr.tsn
=> lagtn lagHmn.2ltr.tn
* lagTumbuka lagHmn.ltr.Tumbuka
=> lagtum lagHmn.3ltr.tum
* lagTupi_languages lagHmn.ltr.Tupi_languages
=> lagtup lagHmn.3ltr.tup
* lagTurkish lagHmn.ltr.Turkish
=> lagtur lagHmn.3ltr.tur
=> lagtr lagHmn.2ltr.tr
* lagTurkish.Ottoman lagHmn.ltr.Turkish.Ottoman (1500_1928)
=> lagota lagHmn.3ltr.ota
* lagTurkmen lagHmn.ltr.Turkmen
=> lagtuk lagHmn.3ltr.tuk
=> lagtk lagHmn.2ltr.tk
* lagTuvalu lagHmn.ltr.Tuvalu
=> lagtvl lagHmn.3ltr.tvl
* lagTuvinian lagHmn.ltr.Tuvinian
=> lagtyv lagHmn.3ltr.tyv
* lagTwi lagHmn.ltr.Twi
=> lagtwi lagHmn.3ltr.twi
=> lagtw lagHmn.2ltr.tw
* lagUdmurt lagHmn.ltr.Udmurt
=> lagudm lagHmn.3ltr.udm
* lagUgaritic lagHmn.ltr.Ugaritic
=> laguga lagHmn.3ltr.uga
* lagUighur;
- lagHmn.ltr.Uighur;
- lagUyghur lagHmn.ltr.Uyghur
=> laguig lagHmn.3ltr.uig
=> lagug lagHmn.2ltr.ug
* lagUkrainian lagHmn.ltr.Ukrainian
=> lagukr lagHmn.3ltr.ukr
=> laguk lagHmn.2ltr.uk
* lagUmbundu lagHmn.ltr.Umbundu
=> lagumb lagHmn.3ltr.umb
* lagUncoded_languages lagHmn.ltr.Uncoded_languages
=> lagmis lagHmn.3ltr.mis
* lagUndetermined lagHmn.ltr.Undetermined
=> lagund lagHmn.3ltr.und
* lagUpper_Sorbian lagHmn.ltr.Upper_Sorbian
=> laghsb lagHmn.3ltr.hsb
* lagUrdu lagHmn.ltr.Urdu
=> lagurd lagHmn.3ltr.urd
=> lagur lagHmn.2ltr.ur
* lagUzbek lagHmn.ltr.Uzbek
=> laguzb lagHmn.3ltr.uzb
=> laguz lagHmn.2ltr.uz
* lagVai lagHmn.ltr.Vai
=> lagvai lagHmn.3ltr.vai
* lagVenda lagHmn.ltr.Venda
=> lagven lagHmn.3ltr.ven
=> lagve lagHmn.2ltr.ve
* lagVietnamese lagHmn.ltr.Vietnamese
=> lagvie lagHmn.3ltr.vie
=> lagvi lagHmn.2ltr.vi
* lagVolap?k lagHmn.ltr.Volap?k
=> lagvol lagHmn.3ltr.vol
=> lagvo lagHmn.2ltr.vo
* lagVotic lagHmn.ltr.Votic
=> lagvot lagHmn.3ltr.vot
* lagWakashan_languages lagHmn.ltr.Wakashan_languages
=> lagwak lagHmn.3ltr.wak
* lagWalloon lagHmn.ltr.Walloon
=> lagwln lagHmn.3ltr.wln
=> lagwa lagHmn.2ltr.wa
* lagWaray lagHmn.ltr.Waray
=> lagwar lagHmn.3ltr.war
* lagWasho lagHmn.ltr.Washo
=> lagwas lagHmn.3ltr.was
* lagWelsh lagHmn.ltr.Welsh
=> lagwel lagHmn.3ltr.wel (Bibl) lagcym lagHmn.3ltr.cym (Term)
=> lagcy lagHmn.2ltr.cy
* lagWelsh lagHmn.ltr.Welsh
=> lagwel lagHmn.3ltr.wel (Bibl) lagcym lagHmn.3ltr.cym (Term)
=> lagcy lagHmn.2ltr.cy
* lagWestern_Frisian lagHmn.ltr.Western_Frisian
=> lagfry lagHmn.3ltr.fry
=> lagfy lagHmn.2ltr.fy
* lagWolaitta;
- lagHmn.ltr.Wolaitta;
- lagWolaytta lagHmn.ltr.Wolaytta
=> lagwal lagHmn.3ltr.wal
* lagWolof lagHmn.ltr.Wolof
=> lagwol lagHmn.3ltr.wol
=> lagwo lagHmn.2ltr.wo
* lagXhosa lagHmn.ltr.Xhosa
=> lagxho lagHmn.3ltr.xho
=> lagxh lagHmn.2ltr.xh
* lagYakut lagHmn.ltr.Yakut
=> lagsah lagHmn.3ltr.sah
* lagYao lagHmn.ltr.Yao
=> lagyao lagHmn.3ltr.yao
* lagYapese lagHmn.ltr.Yapese
=> lagyap lagHmn.3ltr.yap
* lagYiddish lagHmn.ltr.Yiddish
=> lagyid lagHmn.3ltr.yid
=> lagyi lagHmn.2ltr.yi
* lagYoruba lagHmn.ltr.Yoruba
=> lagyor lagHmn.3ltr.yor
=> lagyo lagHmn.2ltr.yo
* lagYupik_languages lagHmn.ltr.Yupik_languages
=> lagypk lagHmn.3ltr.ypk
* lagZande_languages lagHmn.ltr.Zande_languages
=> lagznd lagHmn.3ltr.znd
* lagZapotec lagHmn.ltr.Zapotec
=> lagzap lagHmn.3ltr.zap
* lagZaza;
- lagHmn.ltr.Zaza;
- lagDimili;
- lagHmn.ltr.Dimili;
- lagDimli;
- lagHmn.ltr.Dimli;
- lagKirdki;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kirdki;
- lagKirmanjki;
- lagHmn.ltr.Kirmanjki;
- lagZazaki lagHmn.ltr.Zazaki
=> lagzza lagHmn.3ltr.zza
* lagZenaga lagHmn.ltr.Zenaga
=> lagzen lagHmn.3ltr.zen
* lagZhuang;
- lagHmn.ltr.Zhuang;
- lagChuang lagHmn.ltr.Chuang
=> lagzha lagHmn.3ltr.zha
=> lagza lagHmn.2ltr.za
* lagZulu lagHmn.ltr.Zulu
=> lagzul lagHmn.3ltr.zul
=> lagzu lagHmn.2ltr.zu
* lagZuni lagHmn.ltr.Zuni
=> lagzun lagHmn.3ltr.zun
[http://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/code_list.php] {2012-08-17}
3_Letter_CODE:
nikkas codes:
eln; Greek (eliniki) 2007-06-22
elm; Greek - Modern
ela; Greek - Ancient
eld; Greek (elado) 2007-06-22
enu; English - USA
enb; English - GB
sgn; ; Sign Languages
fml; Formal Language, 2007-08-25
cpl; ComPuterLanguage 2007-12-02;
pcl; ProgramingComputerLanguage 2007-12-02 (pgm; ProgrL, 2007-08-26)
kmn; Komono#cptCore683#,
==== used =====
eng; Egnlish
epo; eo; Esperanto
ger/deu; de; German
zho; Chinese
jpn; ja; Japanese
ISO 639-2; ISO 639-1; English Name (539 codes):
aar; aa; Afar
abk; ab; Abkhazian
ace; ; Achinese
ach; ; Acoli
ada; ; Adangme
ady; ; Adygei
ady; ; Adyghe
afa; ; Afro-Asiatic (Other)
afh; ; Afrihili
afr; af; Afrikaans
ain; ; Ainu
aka; ak; Akan
akk; ; Akkadian
alb/sqi; sq; Albanian
ale; ; Aleut
alg; ; Algonquian languages
alt; ; Southern Altai
amh; am; Amharic
ang; ; English, Old (ca.450-1100)
anp; ; Angika
apa; ; Apache languages
ara; ar; Arabic
arc; ; Aramaic
arg; an; Aragonese
arm/hye; hy; Armenian
arn; ; Araucanian
arp; ; Arapaho
art; ; Artificial (Other)
arw; ; Arawak
asm; as; Assamese
ast; ; Asturian
ast; ; Bable
ath; ; Athapascan languages
aus; ; Australian languages
ava; av; Avaric
ave; ae; Avestan
awa; ; Awadhi
aym; ay; Aymara
aze; az; Azerbaijani
bad; ; Banda
bai; ; Bamileke languages
bak; ba; Bashkir
bal; ; Baluchi
bam; bm; Bambara
ban; ; Balinese
baq/eus; eu; Basque
bas; ; Basa
bat; ; Baltic (Other)
bej; ; Beja
bel; be; Belarusian
bem; ; Bemba
ben; bn; Bengali
ber; ; Berber (Other)
bho; ; Bhojpuri
bih; bh; Bihari
bik; ; Bikol
bin; ; Bini
bis; bi; Bislama
bla; ; Siksika
bnt; ; Bantu (Other)
bod/tib; bo; Tibetan
bos; bs; Bosnian
bra; ; Braj
bre; br; Breton
btk; ; Batak (Indonesia)
bua; ; Buriat
bug; ; Buginese
bul; bg; Bulgarian
bur/mya; my; Burmese
byn; ; Bilin
byn; ; Blin
cad; ; Caddo
cai; ; Central American Indian (Other)
car; ; Carib
cat; ca; Catalan
cat; ca; Valencian
cau; ; Caucasian (Other)
ceb; ; Cebuano
cel; ; Celtic (Other)
ces/cze; cs; Czech
cha; ch; Chamorro
chb; ; Chibcha
che; ce; Chechen
chg; ; Chagatai
chi/zho; zh; Chinese
chk; ; Chuukese
chm; ; Mari
chn; ; Chinook jargon
cho; ; Choctaw
chp; ; Chipewyan
chr; ; Cherokee
chu; cu; Church Slavic
chu; cu; Church Slavonic
chu; cu; Old Bulgarian
chu; cu; Old Church Slavonic
chu; cu; Old Slavonic
chv; cv; Chuvash
chy; ; Cheyenne
cmc; ; Chamic languages
cop; ; Coptic
cor; kw; Cornish
cos; co; Corsican
cpe; ; Creoles and pidgins, English based (Other)
cpf; ; Creoles and pidgins, French-based (Other)
cpp; ; Creoles and pidgins, Portuguese-based (Other)
cre; cr; Cree
crh; ; Crimean Tatar
crh; ; Crimean Turkish
crp; ; Creoles and pidgins (Other)
csb; ; Kashubian
cus; ; Cushitic (Other)
cze/ces; cs; Czech
dak; ; Dakota
dan; da; Danish
dar; ; Dargwa
day; ; Dayak
del; ; Delaware
den; ; Slave (Athapascan)
deu/ger; de; German
dgr; ; Dogrib
din; ; Dinka
div; dv; Dhivehi
div; dv; Divehi
div; dv; Maldivian
doi; ; Dogri
dra; ; Dravidian (Other)
dsb; ; Lower Sorbian
dua; ; Duala
dum; ; Dutch, Middle (ca.1050-1350)
dut/nld; nl; Dutch
dut/nld; nl; Flemish
dyu; ; Dyula
dzo; dz; Dzongkha
efi; ; Efik
egy; ; Egyptian (Ancient)
eka; ; Ekajuk
ell/gre; el; Greek, Modern (1453-)
elx; ; Elamite
eng; en; English
enm; ; English, Middle (1100-1500)
epo; eo; Esperanto
est; et; Estonian
eus/baq; eu; Basque
ewe; ee; Ewe
ewo; ; Ewondo
fan; ; Fang
fao; fo; Faroese
fas/per; fa; Persian
fat; ; Fanti
fij; fj; Fijian
fil; ; Filipino
fil; ; Pilipino
fin; fi; Finnish
fiu; ; Finno-Ugrian (Other)
fon; ; Fon
fra/fre; fr; French
fre/fra; fr; French
frm; ; French, Middle (ca.1400-1600)
fro; ; French, Old (842-ca.1400)
frr; ; Northern Frisian
frs; ; Eastern Frisian
fry; fy; Western Frisian
ful; ff; Fulah
fur; ; Friulian
gaa; ; Ga
gay; ; Gayo
gba; ; Gbaya
gem; ; Germanic (Other)
geo/kat; ka; Georgian
ger/deu; de; German
gez; ; Geez
gil; ; Gilbertese
gla; gd; Gaelic
gla; gd; Scottish Gaelic
gle; ga; Irish
glg; gl; Galician
glv; gv; Manx
gmh; ; German, Middle High (ca.1050-1500)
goh; ; German, Old High (ca.750-1050)
gon; ; Gondi
gor; ; Gorontalo
got; ; Gothic
grb; ; Grebo
grc; ; Greek, Ancient (to 1453)
gre/ell; el; Greek, Modern (1453-)
grn; gn; Guarani
gsw; ; Alemani
gsw; ; Swiss German
guj; gu; Gujarati
gwi; ; Gwich?in
hai; ; Haida
hat; ht; Haitian
hat; ht; Haitian Creole
hau; ha; Hausa
haw; ; Hawaiian
heb; he; Hebrew
her; hz; Herero
hil; ; Hiligaynon
him; ; Himachali
hin; hi; Hindi
hit; ; Hittite
hmn; ; Hmong
hmo; ho; Hiri Motu
hsb; ; Upper Sorbian
hun; hu; Hungarian
hup; ; Hupa
hye/arm; hy; Armenian
iba; ; Iban
ibo; ig; Igbo
ice/isl; is; Icelandic
ido; io; Ido
iii; ii; Sichuan Yi
ijo; ; Ijo
iku; iu; Inuktitut
ile; ie; Interlingue
ilo; ; Iloko
ina; ia; Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association)
inc; ; Indic (Other)
ind; id; Indonesian
ine; ; Indo-European (Other)
inh; ; Ingush
ipk; ik; Inupiaq
ira; ; Iranian (Other)
iro; ; Iroquoian languages
ita; it; Italian
jav; jv; Javanese
jbo; ; Lojban
jpn; ja; Japanese
jpr; ; Judeo-Persian
jrb; ; Judeo-Arabic
kaa; ; Kara-Kalpak
kab; ; Kabyle
kac; ; Kachin
kal; kl; Greenlandic
kal; kl; Kalaallisut
kam; ; Kamba
kan; kn; Kannada
kar; ; Karen
kas; ks; Kashmiri
kat/geo; ka; Georgian
kau; kr; Kanuri
kaw; ; Kawi
kaz; kk; Kazakh
kbd; ; Kabardian
kha; ; Khasi
khi; ; Khoisan (Other)
khm; km; Khmer
kho; ; Khotanese
kik; ki; Gikuyu
kik; ki; Kikuyu
kin; rw; Kinyarwanda
kir; ky; Kirghiz
kmb; ; Kimbundu
kok; ; Konkani
kom; kv; Komi
kon; kg; Kongo
kor; ko; Korean
kos; ; Kosraean
kpe; ; Kpelle
krc; ; Karachay-Balkar
krl; ; Karelian
kro; ; Kru
kru; ; Kurukh
kua; kj; Kuanyama
kua; kj; Kwanyama
kum; ; Kumyk
kur; ku; Kurdish
kut; ; Kutenai
lad; ; Ladino
lah; ; Lahnda
lam; ; Lamba
lao; lo; Lao
lat; la; Latin
lav; lv; Latvian
lez; ; Lezghian
lim; li; Limburgan
lim; li; Limburger
lim; li; Limburgish
lin; ln; Lingala
lit; lt; Lithuanian
lol; ; Mongo
loz; ; Lozi
ltz; lb; Letzeburgesch
ltz; lb; Luxembourgish
lua; ; Luba-Lulua
lub; lu; Luba-Katanga
lug; lg; Ganda
lui; ; Luiseno
lun; ; Lunda
luo; ; Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)
lus; ; Lushai
mac/mkd; mk; Macedonian
mad; ; Madurese
mag; ; Magahi
mah; mh; Marshallese
mai; ; Maithili
mak; ; Makasar
mal; ml; Malayalam
man; ; Mandingo
mao/mri; mi; Maori
map; ; Austronesian (Other)
mar; mr; Marathi
mas; ; Masai
may/msa; ms; Malay
mdf; ; Moksha
mdr; ; Mandar
men; ; Mende
mga; ; Irish, Middle (900-1200)
mic; ; Mi'kmaq
mic; ; Micmac
min; ; Minangkabau
mis; ; Miscellaneous languages
mkd/mac; mk; Macedonian
mkh; ; Mon-Khmer (Other)
mlg; mg; Malagasy
mlt; mt; Maltese
mnc; ; Manchu
mni; ; Manipuri
mno; ; Manobo languages
moh; ; Mohawk
mol; mo; Moldavian
mon; mn; Mongolian
mos; ; Mossi
mri/mao; mi; Maori
msa/may; ms; Malay
mul; ; Multiple languages
mun; ; Munda languages
mus; ; Creek
mwl; ; Mirandese
mwr; ; Marwari
mya/bur; my; Burmese
myn; ; Mayan languages
myv; ; Erzya
nah; ; Nahuatl
nai; ; North American Indian
nap; ; Neapolitan
nau; na; Nauru
nav; nv; Navaho
nav; nv; Navajo
nbl; nr; Ndebele, South
nbl; nr; South Ndebele
nde; nd; Ndebele, North
nde; nd; North Ndebele
ndo; ng; Ndonga
nds; ; German, Low
nds; ; Low German
nds; ; Low Saxon
nds; ; Saxon, Low
nep; ne; Nepali
new; ; Nepal Bhasa
new; ; Newari
nia; ; Nias
nic; ; Niger-Kordofanian (Other)
niu; ; Niuean
nno; nn; Norwegian Nynorsk
nno; nn; Nynorsk, Norwegian
nob; nb; Bokma*l, Norwegian
nob; nb; Norwegian Bokma*l
nog; ; Nogai
non; ; Norse, Old
nor; no; Norwegian
nqo; ; N'Ko
nso; ; Northern Sotho
nso; ; Pedi
nso; ; Sepedi
nso; ; Sotho, Northern
nub; ; Nubian languages
nwc; ; Classical Nepal Bhasa
nwc; ; Classical Newari
nwc; ; Old Newari
nya; ny; Chewa
nya; ny; Chichewa
nya; ny; Nyanja
nym; ; Nyamwezi
nyn; ; Nyankole
nyo; ; Nyoro
nzi; ; Nzima
oci; oc; Occitan (post 1500)
oci; oc; Provenc,al
oji; oj; Ojibwa
ori; or; Oriya
orm; om; Oromo
osa; ; Osage
oss; os; Ossetian
oss; os; Ossetic
ota; ; Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928)
oto; ; Otomian languages
paa; ; Papuan (Other)
pag; ; Pangasinan
pal; ; Pahlavi
pam; ; Pampanga
pan; pa; Panjabi
pan; pa; Punjabi
pap; ; Papiamento
pau; ; Palauan
peo; ; Persian, Old (ca.600-400 B.C.)
per/fas; fa; Persian
phi; ; Philippine (Other)
phn; ; Phoenician
pli; pi; Pali
pol; pl; Polish
pon; ; Pohnpeian
por; pt; Portuguese
pra; ; Prakrit languages
pro; ; Provenc,al, Old (to 1500)
pus; ps; Pushto
qaa-qtz; ; Reserved for local use
que; qu; Quechua
raj; ; Rajasthani
rap; ; Rapanui
rar; ; Rarotongan
roa; ; Romance (Other)
roh; rm; Raeto-Romance
rom; ; Romany
ron/rum; ro; Romanian
rum/ron; ro; Romanian
run; rn; Rundi
rup; ; Aromanian
rup; ; Arumanian
rup; ; Macedo-Romanian
rus; ru; Russian
sad; ; Sandawe
sag; sg; Sango
sah; ; Yakut
sai; ; South American Indian (Other)
sal; ; Salishan languages
sam; ; Samaritan Aramaic
san; sa; Sanskrit
sas; ; Sasak
sat; ; Santali
scc/srp; sr; Serbian
scn; ; Sicilian
sco; ; Scots
scr/hrv; hr; Croatian
sel; ; Selkup
sem; ; Semitic (Other)
sga; ; Irish, Old (to 900)
sgn; ; Sign Languages
shn; ; Shan
sid; ; Sidamo
sin; si; Sinhala
sin; si; Sinhalese
sio; ; Siouan languages
sit; ; Sino-Tibetan (Other)
sla; ; Slavic (Other)
slk/slo; sk; Slovak
slo/slk; sk; Slovak
slv; sl; Slovenian
sma; ; Southern Sami
sme; se; Northern Sami
smi; ; Sami languages (Other)
smj; ; Lule Sami
smn; ; Inari Sami
smo; sm; Samoan
sms; ; Skolt Sami
sna; sn; Shona
snd; sd; Sindhi
snk; ; Soninke
sog; ; Sogdian
som; so; Somali
son; ; Songhai
sot; st; Sotho, Southern
spa; es; Castilian
spa; es; Spanish
sqi/alb; sq; Albanian
srd; sc; Sardinian
srn; ; Sranan Togo
srr; ; Serer
ssa; ; Nilo-Saharan (Other)
ssw; ss; Swati
suk; ; Sukuma
sun; su; Sundanese
sus; ; Susu
sux; ; Sumerian
swa; sw; Swahili
swe; sv; Swedish
syr; ; Syriac
tah; ty; Tahitian
tai; ; Tai (Other)
tam; ta; Tamil
tat; tt; Tatar
tel; te; Telugu
tem; ; Timne
ter; ; Tereno
tet; ; Tetum
tgk; tg; Tajik
tgl; tl; Tagalog
tha; th; Thai
tib/bod; bo; Tibetan
tig; ; Tigre
tir; ti; Tigrinya
tiv; ; Tiv
tkl; ; Tokelau
tlh; ; Klingon
tlh; ; tlhIngan-Hol
tli; ; Tlingit
tmh; ; Tamashek
tog; ; Tonga (Nyasa)
ton; to; Tonga (Tonga Islands)
tpi; ; Tok Pisin
tsi; ; Tsimshian
tsn; tn; Tswana
tso; ts; Tsonga
tuk; tk; Turkmen
tum; ; Tumbuka
tup; ; Tupi languages
tur; tr; Turkish
tut; ; Altaic (Other)
tvl; ; Tuvalu
twi; tw; Twi
tyv; ; Tuvinian
udm; ; Udmurt
uga; ; Ugaritic
uig; ug; Uighur
uig; ug; Uyghur
ukr; uk; Ukrainian
umb; ; Umbundu
und; ; Undetermined
urd; ur; Urdu
uzb; uz; Uzbek
vai; ; Vai
ven; ve; Venda
vie; vi; Vietnamese
vol; vo; "Volapu""k"
vot; ; Votic
wak; ; Wakashan languages
wal; ; Walamo
war; ; Waray
was; ; Washo
wel/cym; cy; Welsh
wen; ; Sorbian languages
w l n; wa; Walloon
wol; wo; Wolof
xal; ; Kalmyk
xal; ; Oirat
xho; xh; Xhosa
yao; ; Yao
yap; ; Yapese
yid; yi; Yiddish
yor; yo; Yoruba
ypk; ; Yupik languages
zap; ; Zapotec
zen; ; Zenaga
zha; za; Chuang
zha; za; Zhuang
zho/chi; zh; Chinese
znd; ; Zande
zul; zu; Zulu
zun; ; Zuni
zxx; ; No linguistic content
zza; ; Dimili
zza; ; Dimli
zza; ; Kirdki
zza; ; Kirmanjki
zza; ; Zaza
zza; ; Zazaki
3LCODE:
[2006-11-13]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.3LETTER.ISO.639-3 (instance; 2007),
ISO 639-3:2007, Codes for the representation of names of languages — Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages, is an international standard for language codes in the ISO 639 series. The standard describes three-letter codes for identifying languages. It extends the ISO 639-2 alpha-3 codes with an aim to cover all known natural languages. The standard was published by ISO on 2007-02-05.[1]
It is intended for use in a wide range of applications, in particular computer systems where many languages need to be supported. It provides an enumeration of languages as complete as possible, including living and extinct, ancient and constructed, major and minor, written and unwritten.[1] However, it does not include reconstructed languages such as Proto-Indo-European.[2]
It is a superset of ISO 639-1 and of the individual languages in ISO 639-2. ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 focused on major languages, most frequently represented in the total body of the world's literature. Since ISO 639-2 also includes language collections and Part 3 does not, ISO 639-3 is not a superset of ISO 639-2. Where B and T codes exist in ISO 639-2, ISO 639-3 uses the T-codes.
...
As of April 2012, the standard contains 7776 entries.[3] The inventory of languages is based on a number of sources including: the individual languages contained in 639-2, modern languages from the Ethnologue, historic varieties, ancient languages and artificial languages from Anthony Aristar at the Linguist List as well as languages recommended within the annual public commenting period.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639-3] 2012-08-17
_ISO.639-3.2007:
lhn.3ltr:
Id Part2B Part2T Part1 Scope Language_Type Ref_Name Comment
aaa I L Ghotuo
aab I L Alumu-Tesu
aac I L Ari
aad I L Amal
aae I L Arbλreshλ Albanian
aaf I L Aranadan
aag I L Ambrak
aah I L Abu' Arapesh
aai I L Arifama-Miniafia
aak I L Ankave
aal I L Afade
aam I L Aramanik
aan I L Anambι
aao I L Algerian Saharan Arabic
aap I L Parα Arαra
aaq I E Eastern Abnaki
aar aar aar aa I L Afar
aas I L Aasαx
aat I L Arvanitika Albanian
aau I L Abau
aaw I L Solong
aax I L Mandobo Atas
aaz I L Amarasi
aba I L Abι
abb I L Bankon
abc I L Ambala Ayta
abd I L Manide
abe I E Western Abnaki
abf I L Abai Sungai
abg I L Abaga
abh I L Tajiki Arabic
abi I L Abidji
abj I E Aka-Bea
abk abk abk ab I L Abkhazian
abl I L Lampung Nyo
abm I L Abanyom
abn I L Abua
abo I L Abon
abp I L Abellen Ayta
abq I L Abaza
abr I L Abron
abs I L Ambonese Malay
a b t I L Ambulas
abu I L Abure
abv I L Baharna Arabic
abw I L Pal
abx I L Inabaknon
aby I L Aneme Wake
abz I L Abui
aca I L Achagua
acb I L Αncα
acd I L Gikyode
ace ace ace I L Achinese
acf I L Saint Lucian Creole French
ach ach ach I L Acoli
aci I E Aka-Cari
ack I E Aka-Kora
acl I E Akar-Bale
acm I L Mesopotamian Arabic
acn I L Achang
acp I L Eastern Acipa
acq I L Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic
acr I L Achi
acs I E Acroα
act I L Achterhoeks
acu I L Achuar-Shiwiar
acv I L Achumawi
acw I L Hijazi Arabic
acx I L Omani Arabic
acy I L Cypriot Arabic
acz I L Acheron
ada ada ada I L Adangme
adb I L Adabe
add I L Dzodinka
ade I L Adele
adf I L Dhofari Arabic
adg I L Andegerebinha
adh I L Adhola
adi I L Adi
adj I L Adioukrou
adl I L Galo
adn I L Adang
ado I L Abu
adp I L Adap
adq I L Adangbe
adr I L Adonara
ads I L Adamorobe Sign Language
adt I L Adnyamathanha
adu I L Aduge
adw I L Amundava
adx I L Amdo Tibetan
ady ady ady I L Adyghe
adz I L Adzera
aea I E Areba
aeb I L Tunisian Arabic
aec I L Saidi Arabic
aed I L Argentine Sign Language
aee I L Northeast Pashayi
aek I L Haeke
ael I L Ambele
aem I L Arem
aen I L Armenian Sign Language
aeq I L Aer
aer I L Eastern Arrernte
aes I E Alsea
aeu I L Akeu
aew I L Ambakich
aey I L Amele
aez I L Aeka
afb I L Gulf Arabic
afd I L Andai
afe I L Putukwam
afg I L Afghan Sign Language
afh afh afh I C Afrihili
afi I L Akrukay
afk I L Nanubae
afn I L Defaka
afo I L Eloyi
afp I L Tapei
afr afr afr af I L Afrikaans
afs I L Afro-Seminole Creole
aft I L Afitti
afu I L Awutu
afz I L Obokuitai
aga I E Aguano
agb I L Legbo
agc I L Agatu
agd I L Agarabi
age I L Angal
agf I L Arguni
agg I L Angor
agh I L Ngelima
agi I L Agariya
agj I L Argobba
agk I L Isarog Agta
agl I L Fembe
agm I L Angaataha
agn I L Agutaynen
ago I L Tainae
agq I L Aghem
agr I L Aguaruna
ags I L Esimbi
agt I L Central Cagayan Agta
agu I L Aguacateco
agv I L Remontado Dumagat
agw I L Kahua
agx I L Aghul
agy I L Southern Alta
agz I L Mt. Iriga Agta
aha I L Ahanta
ahb I L Axamb
ahg I L Qimant
ahh I L Aghu
ahi I L Tiagbamrin Aizi
ahk I L Akha
ahl I L Igo
ahm I L Mobumrin Aizi
ahn I L ΐhΰn
aho I E Ahom
ahp I L Aproumu Aizi
ahr I L Ahirani
ahs I L Ashe
aht I L Ahtena
aia I L Arosi
aib I L Ainu (China)
aic I L Ainbai
aid I E Alagith
aie I L Amara
aif I L Agi
aig I L Antigua and Barbuda Creole English
aih I L Ai-Cham
aii I L Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
aij I L Lishanid Noshan
aik I L Ake
ail I L Aimele
aim I L Aimol
ain ain ain I L Ainu (Japan)
aio I L Aiton
aip I L Burumakok
aiq I L Aimaq
air I L Airoran
ais I L Nataoran Amis
ait I E Arikem
aiw I L Aari
aix I L Aighon
aiy I L Ali
aja I L Aja (Sudan)
ajg I L Aja (Benin)
aji I L Ajiλ
ajn I L Andajin
ajp I L South Levantine Arabic
ajt I L Judeo-Tunisian Arabic
aju I L Judeo-Moroccan Arabic
ajw I E Ajawa
ajz I L Amri Karbi
aka aka aka ak M L Akan
akb I L Batak Angkola
akc I L Mpur
akd I L Ukpet-Ehom
ake I L Akawaio
akf I L Akpa
akg I L Anakalangu
akh I L Angal Heneng
aki I L Aiome
akj I E Aka-Jeru
akk akk akk I A Akkadian
akl I L Aklanon
akm I E Aka-Bo
ako I L Akurio
akp I L Siwu
akq I L Ak
akr I L Araki
aks I L Akaselem
akt I L Akolet
aku I L Akum
akv I L Akhvakh
akw I L Akwa
akx I E Aka-Kede
aky I E Aka-Kol
akz I L Alabama
ala I L Alago
alc I L Qawasqar
ald I L Alladian
ale ale ale I L Aleut
alf I L Alege
alh I L Alawa
ali I L Amaimon
alj I L Alangan
alk I L Alak
all I L Allar
alm I L Amblong
aln I L Gheg Albanian
alo I L Larike-Wakasihu
alp I L Alune
alq I L Algonquin
alr I L Alutor
als I L Tosk Albanian
alt alt alt I L Southern Altai
alu I L 'Are'are
alw I L Alaba-K’abeena
alx I L Amol
aly I L Alyawarr
alz I L Alur
ama I E Amanayι
amb I L Ambo
amc I L Amahuaca
ame I L Yanesha'
amf I L Hamer-Banna
amg I L Amurdak
amh amh amh am I L Amharic
ami I L Amis
amj I L Amdang
amk I L Ambai
aml I L War-Jaintia
amm I L Ama (Papua New Guinea)
amn I L Amanab
amo I L Amo
amp I L Alamblak
amq I L Amahai
amr I L Amarakaeri
ams I L Southern Amami-Oshima
amt I L Amto
amu I L Guerrero Amuzgo
amv I L Ambelau
amw I L Western Neo-Aramaic
amx I L Anmatyerre
amy I L Ami
amz I E Atampaya
ana I E Andaqui
anb I E Andoa
anc I L Ngas
and I L Ansus
ane I L Xβrβcωω
anf I L Animere
ang ang ang I H Old English (ca. 450-1100)
anh I L Nend
ani I L Andi
anj I L Anor
ank I L Goemai
anl I L Anu-Hkongso Chin
anm I L Anal
ann I L Obolo
ano I L Andoque
anp anp anp I L Angika
anq I L Jarawa (India)
anr I L Andh
ans I E Anserma
ant I L Antakarinya
anu I L Anuak
anv I L Denya
anw I L Anaang
anx I L Andra-Hus
any I L Anyin
anz I L Anem
aoa I L Angolar
aob I L Abom
aoc I L Pemon
aod I L Andarum
aoe I L Angal Enen
aof I L Bragat
aog I L Angoram
aoh I E Arma
aoi I L Anindilyakwa
aoj I L Mufian
aok I L Arhφ
aol I L Alor
aom I L Φmie
aon I L Bumbita Arapesh
aor I E Aore
aos I L Taikat
aot I L A'tong
aou I L A'ou
aox I L Atorada
aoz I L Uab Meto
apb I L Sa'a
apc I L North Levantine Arabic
apd I L Sudanese Arabic
ape I L Bukiyip
apf I L Pahanan Agta
apg I L Ampanang
aph I L Athpariya
api I L Apiakα
apj I L Jicarilla Apache
apk I L Kiowa Apache
apl I L Lipan Apache
apm I L Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache
apn I L Apinayι
apo I L Ambul
app I L Apma
apq I L A-Pucikwar
apr I L Arop-Lokep
aps I L Arop-Sissano
apt I L Apatani
apu I L Apurinγ
apv I E Alapmunte
apw I L Western Apache
apx I L Aputai
apy I L Apalaν
apz I L Safeyoka
aqc I L Archi
aqd I L Ampari Dogon
aqg I L Arigidi
aqm I L Atohwaim
aqn I L Northern Alta
aqp I E Atakapa
aqr I L Arhβ
aqz I L Akuntsu
ara ara ara ar M L Arabic
arb I L Standard Arabic
arc arc arc I A Official Aramaic (700-300 BCE)
ard I E Arabana
are I L Western Arrarnta
arg arg arg an I L Aragonese
arh I L Arhuaco
ari I L Arikara
arj I E Arapaso
ark I L Arikapϊ
arl I L Arabela
arn arn arn I L Mapudungun
aro I L Araona
arp arp arp I L Arapaho
arq I L Algerian Arabic
arr I L Karo (Brazil)
ars I L Najdi Arabic
aru I E Aruα (Amazonas State)
arv I L Arbore
arw arw arw I L Arawak
arx I L Aruα (Rodonia State)
ary I L Moroccan Arabic
arz I L Egyptian Arabic
asa I L Asu (Tanzania)
asb I L Assiniboine
asc I L Casuarina Coast Asmat
asd I L Asas
ase I L American Sign Language
asf I L Australian Sign Language
asg I L Cishingini
ash I E Abishira
asi I L Buruwai
asj I L Nsari
ask I L Ashkun
asl I L Asilulu
asm asm asm as I L Assamese
asn I L Xingϊ Asurinν
aso I L Dano
asp I L Algerian Sign Language
asq I L Austrian Sign Language
asr I L Asuri
ass I L Ipulo
ast ast ast I L Asturian
asu I L Tocantins Asurini
asv I L Asoa
asw I L Australian Aborigines Sign Language
asx I L Muratayak
asy I L Yaosakor Asmat
asz I L As
ata I L Pele-Ata
atb I L Zaiwa
atc I E Atsahuaca
atd I L Ata Manobo
ate I L Atemble
atg I L Ivbie North-Okpela-Arhe
ati I L Attiι
atj I L Atikamekw
atk I L Ati
atl I L Mt. Iraya Agta
atm I L Ata
atn I L Ashtiani
ato I L Atong
atp I L Pudtol Atta
atq I L Aralle-Tabulahan
atr I L Waimiri-Atroari
ats I L Gros Ventre
att I L Pamplona Atta
atu I L Reel
atv I L Northern Altai
atw I L Atsugewi
atx I L Arutani
aty I L Aneityum
atz I L Arta
aua I L Asumboa
aub I L Alugu
auc I L Waorani
aud I L Anuta
aue I L =/Kx'au//'ein
aug I L Aguna
auh I L Aushi
aui I L Anuki
auj I L Awjilah
auk I L Heyo
aul I L Aulua
aum I L Asu (Nigeria)
aun I L Molmo One
auo I E Auyokawa
aup I L Makayam
auq I L Anus
aur I L Aruek
aut I L Austral
auu I L Auye
auw I L Awyi
aux I E Aurα
auy I L Awiyaana
auz I L Uzbeki Arabic
ava ava ava av I L Avaric
avb I L Avau
avd I L Alviri-Vidari
ave ave ave ae I A Avestan
avi I L Avikam
avk I C Kotava
avl I L Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic
avm I E Angkamuthi
avn I L Avatime
avo I E Agavotaguerra
avs I E Aushiri
avt I L Au
avu I L Avokaya
avv I L Avα-Canoeiro
awa awa awa I L Awadhi
awb I L Awa (Papua New Guinea)
awc I L Cicipu
awe I L Awetν
awg I E Anguthimri
awh I L Awbono
awi I L Aekyom
awk I E Awabakal
awm I L Arawum
awn I L Awngi
awo I L Awak
awr I L Awera
aws I L South Awyu
awt I L Arawetι
awu I L Central Awyu
awv I L Jair Awyu
aww I L Awun
awx I L Awara
awy I L Edera Awyu
axb I E Abipon
axe I E Ayerrerenge
axg I E Mato Grosso Arαra
axk I L Yaka (Central African Republic)
axm I H Middle Armenian
axx I L Xaragure
aya I L Awar
ayb I L Ayizo Gbe
ayc I L Southern Aymara
ayd I E Ayabadhu
aye I L Ayere
ayg I L Ginyanga
ayh I L Hadrami Arabic
ayi I L Leyigha
ayk I L Akuku
ayl I L Libyan Arabic
aym aym aym ay M L Aymara
ayn I L Sanaani Arabic
ayo I L Ayoreo
ayp I L North Mesopotamian Arabic
ayq I L Ayi (Papua New Guinea)
ayr I L Central Aymara
ays I L Sorsogon Ayta
ayt I L Magbukun Ayta
ayu I L Ayu
ayy I E Tayabas Ayta
ayz I L Mai Brat
aza I L Azha
azb I L South Azerbaijani
azd I L Eastern Durango Nahuatl
aze aze aze az M L Azerbaijani
azg I L San Pedro Amuzgos Amuzgo
azj I L North Azerbaijani
azm I L Ipalapa Amuzgo
azn I L Western Durango Nahuatl
azo I L Awing
azt I L Faire Atta
azz I L Highland Puebla Nahuatl
baa I L Babatana
bab I L Bainouk-Gunyuρo
bac I L Badui
bae I E Barι
baf I L Nubaca
bag I L Tuki
bah I L Bahamas Creole English
baj I L Barakai
bak bak bak ba I L Bashkir
bal bal bal M L Baluchi
bam bam bam bm I L Bambara
ban ban ban I L Balinese
bao I L Waimaha
bap I L Bantawa
bar I L Bavarian
bas bas bas I L Basa (Cameroon)
bau I L Bada (Nigeria)
bav I L Vengo
baw I L Bambili-Bambui
bax I L Bamun
bay I L Batuley
bba I L Baatonum
bbb I L Barai
bbc I L Batak Toba
bbd I L Bau
bbe I L Bangba
bbf I L Baibai
bbg I L Barama
bbh I L Bugan
bbi I L Barombi
bbj I L Ghomαlα'
bbk I L Babanki
bbl I L Bats
bbm I L Babango
bbn I L Uneapa
bbo I L Northern Bobo Madarι
bbp I L West Central Banda
bbq I L Bamali
bbr I L Girawa
bbs I L Bakpinka
bbt I L Mburku
bbu I L Kulung (Nigeria)
bbv I L Karnai
bbw I L Baba
bbx I L Bubia
bby I L Befang
bbz I L Babalia Creole Arabic
bca I L Central Bai
bcb I L Bainouk-Samik
bcc I L Southern Balochi
bcd I L North Babar
bce I L Bamenyam
bcf I L Bamu
bcg I L Baga Binari
bch I L Bariai
bci I L Baoulι
bcj I L Bardi
bck I L Bunaba
bcl I L Central Bikol
bcm I L Bannoni
bcn I L Bali (Nigeria)
bco I L Kaluli
bcp I L Bali (Democratic Republic of Congo)
bcq I L Bench
bcr I L Babine
bcs I L Kohumono
bct I L Bendi
bcu I L Awad Bing
bcv I L Shoo-Minda-Nye
bcw I L Bana
bcy I L Bacama
bcz I L Bainouk-Gunyaamolo
bda I L Bayot
bdb I L Basap
bdc I L Emberα-Baudσ
bdd I L Bunama
bde I L Bade
bdf I L Biage
bdg I L Bonggi
bdh I L Baka (Sudan)
bdi I L Burun
bdj I L Bai
bdk I L Budukh
bdl I L Indonesian Bajau
bdm I L Buduma
bdn I L Baldemu
bdo I L Morom
bdp I L Bende
bdq I L Bahnar
bdr I L West Coast Bajau
bds I L Burunge
bdt I L Bokoto
bdu I L Oroko
bdv I L Bodo Parja
bdw I L Baham
bdx I L Budong-Budong
bdy I L Bandjalang
bdz I L Badeshi
bea I L Beaver
beb I L Bebele
bec I L Iceve-Maci
bed I L Bedoanas
bee I L Byangsi
bef I L Benabena
beg I L Belait
beh I L Biali
bei I L Bekati'
bej bej bej I L Beja
bek I L Bebeli
bel bel bel be I L Belarusian
bem bem bem I L Bemba (Zambia)
ben ben ben bn I L Bengali
beo I L Beami
bep I L Besoa
beq I L Beembe
bes I L Besme
bet I L Guiberoua Bιte
beu I L Blagar
bev I L Daloa Bιtι
bew I L Betawi
bex I L Jur Modo
bey I L Beli (Papua New Guinea)
bez I L Bena (Tanzania)
bfa I L Bari
bfb I L Pauri Bareli
bfc I L Northern Bai
bfd I L Bafut
bfe I L Betaf
bff I L Bofi
bfg I L Busang Kayan
bfh I L Blafe
bfi I L British Sign Language
bfj I L Bafanji
bfk I L Ban Khor Sign Language
bfl I L Banda-Ndιlι
bfm I L Mmen
bfn I L Bunak
bfo I L Malba Birifor
bfp I L Beba
bfq I L Badaga
bfr I L Bazigar
bfs I L Southern Bai
bft I L Balti
bfu I L Gahri
bfw I L Bondo
bfx I L Bantayanon
bfy I L Bagheli
bfz I L Mahasu Pahari
bga I L Gwamhi-Wuri
bgb I L Bobongko
bgc I L Haryanvi
bgd I L Rathwi Bareli
bge I L Bauria
bgf I L Bangandu
bgg I L Bugun
bgi I L Giangan
bgj I L Bangolan
bgk I L Bit
bgl I L Bo (Laos)
bgm I L Baga Mboteni
bgn I L Western Balochi
bgo I L Baga Koga
bgp I L Eastern Balochi
bgq I L Bagri
bgr I L Bawm Chin
bgs I L Tagabawa
bgt I L Bughotu
bgu I L Mbongno
bgv I L Warkay-Bipim
bgw I L Bhatri
bgx I L Balkan Gagauz Turkish
bgy I L Benggoi
bgz I L Banggai
bha I L Bharia
bhb I L Bhili
bhc I L Biga
bhd I L Bhadrawahi
bhe I L Bhaya
bhf I L Odiai
bhg I L Binandere
bhh I L Bukharic
bhi I L Bhilali
bhj I L Bahing
bhl I L Bimin
bhm I L Bathari
bhn I L Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
bho bho bho I L Bhojpuri
bhp I L Bima
bhq I L Tukang Besi South
bhr I L Bara Malagasy
bhs I L Buwal
bht I L Bhattiyali
bhu I L Bhunjia
bhv I L Bahau
bhw I L Biak
bhx I L Bhalay
bhy I L Bhele
bhz I L Bada (Indonesia)
bia I L Badimaya
bib I L Bissa
bic I L Bikaru
bid I L Bidiyo
bie I L Bepour
bif I L Biafada
big I L Biangai
bij I L Vaghat-Ya-Bijim-Legeri
bik bik bik M L Bikol
bil I L Bile
bim I L Bimoba
bin bin bin I L Bini
bio I L Nai
bip I L Bila
biq I L Bipi
bir I L Bisorio
bis bis bis bi I L Bislama
bit I L Berinomo
biu I L Biete
biv I L Southern Birifor
biw I L Kol (Cameroon)
bix I L Bijori
biy I L Birhor
biz I L Baloi
bja I L Budza
bjb I E Banggarla
bjc I L Bariji
bje I L Biao-Jiao Mien
bjf I L Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
bjg I L Bidyogo
bjh I L Bahinemo
bji I L Burji
bjj I L Kanauji
bjk I L Barok
bjl I L Bulu (Papua New Guinea)
bjm I L Bajelani
bjn I L Banjar
bjo I L Mid-Southern Banda
bjr I L Binumarien
bjs I L Bajan
bjt I L Balanta-Ganja
bju I L Busuu
bjv I L Bedjond
bjw I L Bakwι
bjx I L Banao Itneg
bjy I E Bayali
bjz I L Baruga
bka I L Kyak
bkc I L Baka (Cameroon)
bkd I L Binukid
bkf I L Beeke
bkg I L Buraka
bkh I L Bakoko
bki I L Baki
bkj I L Pande
bkk I L Brokskat
bkl I L Berik
bkm I L Kom (Cameroon)
bkn I L Bukitan
bko I L Kwa'
bkp I L Boko (Democratic Republic of Congo)
bkq I L Bakairν
bkr I L Bakumpai
bks I L Northern Sorsoganon
bkt I L Boloki
bku I L Buhid
bkv I L Bekwarra
bkw I L Bekwel
bkx I L Baikeno
bky I L Bokyi
bkz I L Bungku
bla bla bla I L Siksika
blb I L Bilua
blc I L Bella Coola
bld I L Bolango
ble I L Balanta-Kentohe
blf I L Buol
blg I L Balau
blh I L Kuwaa
bli I L Bolia
blj I L Bolongan
blk I L Pa'o Karen
bll I E Biloxi
blm I L Beli (Sudan)
bln I L Southern Catanduanes Bikol
blo I L Anii
blp I L Blablanga
blq I L Baluan-Pam
blr I L Blang
bls I L Balaesang
blt I L Tai Dam
blv I L Bolo
blw I L Balangao
blx I L Mag-Indi Ayta
bly I L Notre
blz I L Balantak
bma I L Lame
bmb I L Bembe
bmc I L Biem
bmd I L Baga Manduri
bme I L Limassa
bmf I L Bom
bmg I L Bamwe
bmh I L Kein
bmi I L Bagirmi
bmj I L Bote-Majhi
bmk I L Ghayavi
bml I L Bomboli
bmm I L Northern Betsimisaraka Malagasy
bmn I E Bina (Papua New Guinea)
bmo I L Bambalang
bmp I L Bulgebi
bmq I L Bomu
bmr I L Muinane
bms I L Bilma Kanuri
bmt I L Biao Mon
bmu I L Somba-Siawari
bmv I L Bum
bmw I L Bomwali
bmx I L Baimak
bmy I L Bemba (Democratic Republic of Congo)
bmz I L Baramu
bna I L Bonerate
bnb I L Bookan
bnc M L Bontok
bnd I L Banda (Indonesia)
bne I L Bintauna
bnf I L Masiwang
bng I L Benga
bni I L Bangi
bnj I L Eastern Tawbuid
bnk I L Bierebo
bnl I L Boon
bnm I L Batanga
bnn I L Bunun
bno I L Bantoanon
bnp I L Bola
bnq I L Bantik
bnr I L Butmas-Tur
bns I L Bundeli
bnu I L Bentong
bnv I L Bonerif
bnw I L Bisis
bnx I L Bangubangu
bny I L Bintulu
bnz I L Beezen
boa I L Bora
bob I L Aweer
bod tib bod bo I L Tibetan
boe I L Mundabli
bof I L Bolon
bog I L Bamako Sign Language
boh I L Boma
boi I E Barbareρo
boj I L Anjam
bok I L Bonjo
bol I L Bole
bom I L Berom
bon I L Bine
boo I L Tiemacθwθ Bozo
bop I L Bonkiman
boq I L Bogaya
bor I L Borτro
bos bos bos bs I L Bosnian
bot I L Bongo
bou I L Bondei
bov I L Tuwuli
bow I E Rema
box I L Buamu
boy I L Bodo (Central African Republic)
boz I L Tiιyaxo Bozo
bpa I L Dakaka
bpb I E Barbacoas
bpd I L Banda-Banda
bpg I L Bonggo
bph I L Botlikh
bpi I L Bagupi
bpj I L Binji
bpk I L Orowe
bpl I L Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin
bpm I L Biyom
bpn I L Dzao Min
bpo I L Anasi
bpp I L Kaure
bpq I L Banda Malay
bpr I L Koronadal Blaan
bps I L Sarangani Blaan
bpt I E Barrow Point
bpu I L Bongu
bpv I L Bian Marind
bpw I L Bo (Papua New Guinea)
bpx I L Palya Bareli
bpy I L Bishnupriya
bpz I L Bilba
bqa I L Tchumbuli
bqb I L Bagusa
bqc I L Boko (Benin)
bqd I L Bung
bqf I E Baga Kaloum
bqg I L Bago-Kusuntu
bqh I L Baima
bqi I L Bakhtiari
bqj I L Bandial
bqk I L Banda-Mbrθs
bql I L Bilakura
bqm I L Wumboko
bqn I L Bulgarian Sign Language
bqo I L Balo
bqp I L Busa
bqq I L Biritai
bqr I L Burusu
bqs I L Bosngun
bqt I L Bamukumbit
bqu I L Boguru
bqv I L Koro Wachi
bqw I L Buru (Nigeria)
bqx I L Baangi
bqy I L Bengkala Sign Language
bqz I L Bakaka
bra bra bra I L Braj
brb I L Lave
brc I E Berbice Creole Dutch
brd I L Baraamu
bre bre bre br I L Breton
brf I L Bera
brg I L Baure
brh I L Brahui
bri I L Mokpwe
brj I L Bieria
brk I E Birked
brl I L Birwa
brm I L Barambu
brn I L Boruca
bro I L Brokkat
brp I L Barapasi
brq I L Breri
brr I L Birao
brs I L Baras
brt I L Bitare
bru I L Eastern Bru
brv I L Western Bru
brw I L Bellari
brx I L Bodo (India)
bry I L Burui
brz I L Bilbil
bsa I L Abinomn
bsb I L Brunei Bisaya
bsc I L Bassari
bse I L Wushi
bsf I L Bauchi
bsg I L Bashkardi
bsh I L Kati
bsi I L Bassossi
bsj I L Bangwinji
bsk I L Burushaski
bsl I E Basa-Gumna
bsm I L Busami
bsn I L Barasana-Eduria
bso I L Buso
bsp I L Baga Sitemu
bsq I L Bassa
bsr I L Bassa-Kontagora
bss I L Akoose
bst I L Basketo
bsu I L Bahonsuai
bsv I E Baga Sobanι
bsw I L Baiso
bsx I L Yangkam
bsy I L Sabah Bisaya
bta I L Bata
btc I L Bati (Cameroon)
btd I L Batak Dairi
bte I E Gamo-Ningi
btf I L Birgit
btg I L Gagnoa Bιtι
bth I L Biatah Bidayuh
bti I L Burate
btj I L Bacanese Malay
btl I L Bhatola
btm I L Batak Mandailing
btn I L Ratagnon
bto I L Rinconada Bikol
btp I L Budibud
btq I L Batek
btr I L Baetora
bts I L Batak Simalungun
btt I L Bete-Bendi
btu I L Batu
btv I L Bateri
btw I L Butuanon
btx I L Batak Karo
bty I L Bobot
btz I L Batak Alas-Kluet
bua bua bua M L Buriat
bub I L Bua
buc I L Bushi
bud I L Ntcham
bue I E Beothuk
buf I L Bushoong
bug bug bug I L Buginese
buh I L Younuo Bunu
bui I L Bongili
buj I L Basa-Gurmana
buk I L Bugawac
bul bul bul bg I L Bulgarian
bum I L Bulu (Cameroon)
bun I L Sherbro
buo I L Terei
bup I L Busoa
buq I L Brem
bus I L Bokobaru
but I L Bungain
buu I L Budu
buv I L Bun
buw I L Bubi
bux I L Boghom
buy I L Bullom So
buz I L Bukwen
bva I L Barein
bvb I L Bube
bvc I L Baelelea
bvd I L Baeggu
bve I L Berau Malay
bvf I L Boor
bvg I L Bonkeng
bvh I L Bure
bvi I L Belanda Viri
bvj I L Baan
bvk I L Bukat
bvl I L Bolivian Sign Language
bvm I L Bamunka
bvn I L Buna
bvo I L Bolgo
bvq I L Birri
bvr I L Burarra
bvt I L Bati (Indonesia)
bvu I L Bukit Malay
bvv I E Baniva
bvw I L Boga
bvx I L Dibole
bvy I L Baybayanon
bvz I L Bauzi
bwa I L Bwatoo
bwb I L Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua
bwc I L Bwile
bwd I L Bwaidoka
bwe I L Bwe Karen
bwf I L Boselewa
bwg I L Barwe
bwh I L Bishuo
bwi I L Baniwa
bwj I L Lαα Lαα Bwamu
bwk I L Bauwaki
bwl I L Bwela
bwm I L Biwat
bwn I L Wunai Bunu
bwo I L Boro (Ethiopia)
bwp I L Mandobo Bawah
bwq I L Southern Bobo Madarι
bwr I L Bura-Pabir
bws I L Bomboma
bwt I L Bafaw-Balong
bwu I L Buli (Ghana)
bww I L Bwa
bwx I L Bu-Nao Bunu
bwy I L Cwi Bwamu
bwz I L Bwisi
bxa I L Bauro
bxb I L Belanda Bor
bxc I L Molengue
bxd I L Pela
bxe I L Birale
bxf I L Bilur
bxg I L Bangala
bxh I L Buhutu
bxi I E Pirlatapa
bxj I L Bayungu
bxk I L Bukusu
bxl I L Jalkunan
bxm I L Mongolia Buriat
bxn I L Burduna
bxo I L Barikanchi
bxp I L Bebil
bxq I L Beele
bxr I L Russia Buriat
bxs I L Busam
bxu I L China Buriat
bxv I L Berakou
bxw I L Bankagooma
bxx I L Borna (Democratic Republic of Congo)
bxz I L Binahari
bya I L Batak
byb I L Bikya
byc I L Ubaghara
byd I L Benyadu'
bye I L Pouye
byf I L Bete
byg I E Baygo
byh I L Bhujel
byi I L Buyu
byj I L Bina (Nigeria)
byk I L Biao
byl I L Bayono
bym I L Bidyara
byn byn byn I L Bilin
byo I L Biyo
byp I L Bumaji
byq I E Basay
byr I L Baruya
bys I L Burak
byt I E Berti
byv I L Medumba
byw I L Belhariya
byx I L Qaqet
byy I L Buya
byz I L Banaro
bza I L Bandi
bzb I L Andio
bzc I L Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy
bzd I L Bribri
bze I L Jenaama Bozo
bzf I L Boikin
bzg I L Babuza
bzh I L Mapos Buang
bzi I L Bisu
bzj I L Belize Kriol English
bzk I L Nicaragua Creole English
bzl I L Boano (Sulawesi)
bzm I L Bolondo
bzn I L Boano (Maluku)
bzo I L Bozaba
bzp I L Kemberano
bzq I L Buli (Indonesia)
bzr I E Biri
bzs I L Brazilian Sign Language
bzt I C Brithenig
bzu I L Burmeso
bzv I L Bebe
bzw I L Basa (Nigeria)
bzx I L Kelengaxo Bozo
bzy I L Obanliku
bzz I L Evant
caa I L Chortν
cab I L Garifuna
cac I L Chuj
cad cad cad I L Caddo
cae I L Lehar
caf I L Southern Carrier
cag I L Nivaclι
cah I L Cahuarano
caj I E Chanι
cak I L Kaqchikel
cal I L Carolinian
cam I L Cemuhξ
can I L Chambri
cao I L Chαcobo
cap I L Chipaya
caq I L Car Nicobarese
car car car I L Galibi Carib
cas I L Tsimanι
cat cat cat ca I L Catalan
cav I L Cavineρa
caw I L Callawalla
cax I L Chiquitano
cay I L Cayuga
caz I E Canichana
cbb I L Cabiyarν
cbc I L Carapana
cbd I L Carijona
cbe I E Chipiajes
cbg I L Chimila
cbh I E Cagua
cbi I L Chachi
cbj I L Ede Cabe
cbk I L Chavacano
cbl I L Bualkhaw Chin
cbn I L Nyahkur
cbo I L Izora
cbr I L Cashibo-Cacataibo
cbs I L Cashinahua
cbt I L Chayahuita
cbu I L Candoshi-Shapra
cbv I L Cacua
cbw I L Kinabalian
cby I L Carabayo
cca I E Cauca
ccc I L Chamicuro
ccd I L Cafundo Creole
cce I L Chopi
ccg I L Samba Daka
cch I L Atsam
ccj I L Kasanga
ccl I L Cutchi-Swahili
ccm I L Malaccan Creole Malay
cco I L Comaltepec Chinantec
ccp I L Chakma
ccr I E Cacaopera
cda I L Choni
cde I L Chenchu
cdf I L Chiru
cdg I L Chamari
cdh I L Chambeali
cdi I L Chodri
cdj I L Churahi
cdm I L Chepang
cdn I L Chaudangsi
cdo I L Min Dong Chinese
cdr I L Cinda-Regi-Tiyal
cds I L Chadian Sign Language
cdy I L Chadong
cdz I L Koda
cea I E Lower Chehalis
ceb ceb ceb I L Cebuano
ceg I L Chamacoco
cek I L Eastern Khumi Chin
cen I L Cen
ces cze ces cs I L Czech
cet I L Centϊϊm
cfa I L Dijim-Bwilim
cfd I L Cara
cfg I L Como Karim
cfm I L Falam Chin
cga I L Changriwa
cgc I L Kagayanen
cgg I L Chiga
cgk I L Chocangacakha
cha cha cha ch I L Chamorro
chb chb chb I E Chibcha
chc I E Catawba
chd I L Highland Oaxaca Chontal
che che che ce I L Chechen
chf I L Tabasco Chontal
chg chg chg I E Chagatai
chh I L Chinook
chj I L Ojitlαn Chinantec
chk chk chk I L Chuukese
chl I L Cahuilla
chm chm chm M L Mari (Russia)
chn chn chn I L Chinook jargon
cho cho cho I L Choctaw
chp chp chp I L Chipewyan
chq I L Quiotepec Chinantec
chr chr chr I L Cherokee
cht I E Cholσn
chu chu chu cu I A Church Slavic
chv chv chv cv I L Chuvash
chw I L Chuwabu
chx I L Chantyal
chy chy chy I L Cheyenne
chz I L Ozumacνn Chinantec
cia I L Cia-Cia
cib I L Ci Gbe
cic I L Chickasaw
cid I E Chimariko
cie I L Cineni
cih I L Chinali
cik I L Chitkuli Kinnauri
cim I L Cimbrian
cin I L Cinta Larga
cip I L Chiapanec
cir I L Tiri
ciw I L Chippewa
ciy I L Chaima
cja I L Western Cham
cje I L Chru
cjh I E Upper Chehalis
cji I L Chamalal
cjk I L Chokwe
cjm I L Eastern Cham
cjn I L Chenapian
cjo I L Ashιninka Pajonal
cjp I L Cabιcar
cjs I L Shor
cjv I L Chuave
cjy I L Jinyu Chinese
ckb I L Central Kurdish
ckh I L Chak
ckl I L Cibak
ckn I L Kaang Chin
cko I L Anufo
ckq I L Kajakse
ckr I L Kairak
cks I L Tayo
ckt I L Chukot
cku I L Koasati
ckv I L Kavalan
ckx I L Caka
cky I L Cakfem-Mushere
ckz I L Cakchiquel-Quichι Mixed Language
cla I L Ron
clc I L Chilcotin
cld I L Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
cle I L Lealao Chinantec
clh I L Chilisso
cli I L Chakali
clj I L Laitu Chin
clk I L Idu-Mishmi
cll I L Chala
clm I L Clallam
clo I L Lowland Oaxaca Chontal
clt I L Lautu Chin
clu I L Caluyanun
clw I L Chulym
cly I L Eastern Highland Chatino
cma I L Maa
cme I L Cerma
cmg I H Classical Mongolian
cmi I L Emberα-Chamν
cml I L Campalagian
cmm I E Michigamea
cmn I L Mandarin Chinese
cmo I L Central Mnong
cmr I L Mro-Khimi Chin
cms I A Messapic
cmt I L Camtho
cna I L Changthang
cnb I L Chinbon Chin
cnc I L Cττng
cng I L Northern Qiang
cnh I L Haka Chin
cni I L Ashαninka
cnk I L Khumi Chin
cnl I L Lalana Chinantec
cno I L Con
cns I L Central Asmat
cnt I L Tepetotutla Chinantec
cnu I L Chenoua
cnw I L Ngawn Chin
cnx I H Middle Cornish
coa I L Cocos Islands Malay
cob I E Chicomuceltec
coc I L Cocopa
cod I L Cocama-Cocamilla
coe I L Koreguaje
cof I L Colorado
cog I L Chong
coh I L Chonyi-Dzihana-Kauma
coj I E Cochimi
cok I L Santa Teresa Cora
col I L Columbia-Wenatchi
com I L Comanche
con I L Cofαn
coo I L Comox
cop cop cop I E Coptic
coq I E Coquille
cor cor cor kw I L Cornish
cos cos cos co I L Corsican
cot I L Caquinte
cou I L Wamey
cov I L Cao Miao
cow I E Cowlitz
cox I L Nanti
coy I E Coyaima
coz I L Chochotec
cpa I L Palantla Chinantec
cpb I L Ucayali-Yurϊa Ashιninka
cpc I L Ajyνninka Apurucayali
cpg I E Cappadocian Greek
cpi I L Chinese Pidgin English
cpn I L Cherepon
cps I L Capiznon
cpu I L Pichis Ashιninka
cpx I L Pu-Xian Chinese
cpy I L South Ucayali Ashιninka
cqd I L Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao
cqu I L Chilean Quechua
cra I L Chara
crb I E Island Carib
crc I L Lonwolwol
crd I L Coeur d'Alene
cre cre cre cr M L Cree
crf I E Caramanta
crg I L Michif
crh crh crh I L Crimean Tatar
cri I L Sγotomense
crj I L Southern East Cree
crk I L Plains Cree
crl I L Northern East Cree
crm I L Moose Cree
crn I L El Nayar Cora
cro I L Crow
crq I L Iyo'wujwa Chorote
crr I E Carolina Algonquian
crs I L Seselwa Creole French
crt I L Iyojwa'ja Chorote
crv I L Chaura
crw I L Chrau
crx I L Carrier
cry I L Cori
crz I E Cruzeρo
csa I L Chiltepec Chinantec
csb csb csb I L Kashubian
csc I L Catalan Sign Language
csd I L Chiangmai Sign Language
cse I L Czech Sign Language
csf I L Cuba Sign Language
csg I L Chilean Sign Language
csh I L Asho Chin
csi I E Coast Miwok
csk I L Jola-Kasa
csl I L Chinese Sign Language
csm I L Central Sierra Miwok
csn I L Colombian Sign Language
cso I L Sochiapam Chinantec
csq I L Croatia Sign Language
csr I L Costa Rican Sign Language
css I E Southern Ohlone
cst I L Northern Ohlone
csv I L Sumtu Chin
csw I L Swampy Cree
csy I L Siyin Chin
csz I L Coos
cta I L Tataltepec Chatino
ctc I L Chetco
ctd I L Tedim Chin
cte I L Tepinapa Chinantec
ctg I L Chittagonian
cth I L Thaiphum Chin
ctl I L Tlacoatzintepec Chinantec
ctm I E Chitimacha
ctn I L Chhintange
cto I L Emberα-Catνo
ctp I L Western Highland Chatino
cts I L Northern Catanduanes Bikol
ctt I L Wayanad Chetti
ctu I L Chol
ctz I L Zacatepec Chatino
cua I L Cua
cub I L Cubeo
cuc I L Usila Chinantec
cug I L Cung
cuh I L Chuka
cui I L Cuiba
cuj I L Mashco Piro
cuk I L San Blas Kuna
cul I L Culina
cum I E Cumeral
cuo I E Cumanagoto
cup I E Cupeρo
cuq I L Cun
cur I L Chhulung
cut I L Teutila Cuicatec
cuu I L Tai Ya
cuv I L Cuvok
cuw I L Chukwa
cux I L Tepeuxila Cuicatec
cvg I L Chug
cvn I L Valle Nacional Chinantec
cwa I L Kabwa
cwb I L Maindo
cwd I L Woods Cree
cwe I L Kwere
cwg I L Chewong
cwt I L Kuwaataay
cya I L Nopala Chatino
cyb I E Cayubaba
cym wel cym cy I L Welsh
cyo I L Cuyonon
czh I L Huizhou Chinese
czk I E Knaanic
czn I L Zenzontepec Chatino
czo I L Min Zhong Chinese
czt I L Zotung Chin
daa I L Dangalιat
dac I L Dambi
dad I L Marik
dae I L Duupa
daf I L Dan
dag I L Dagbani
dah I L Gwahatike
dai I L Day
daj I L Dar Fur Daju
dak dak dak I L Dakota
dal I L Dahalo
dam I L Damakawa
dan dan dan da I L Danish
dao I L Daai Chin
daq I L Dandami Maria
dar dar dar I L Dargwa
das I L Daho-Doo
dau I L Dar Sila Daju
dav I L Taita
daw I L Davawenyo
dax I L Dayi
daz I L Dao
dba I L Bangi Me
dbb I L Deno
dbd I L Dadiya
dbe I L Dabe
dbf I L Edopi
dbg I L Dogul Dom Dogon
dbi I L Doka
dbj I L Ida'an
dbl I L Dyirbal
dbm I L Duguri
dbn I L Duriankere
dbo I L Dulbu
dbp I L Duwai
dbq I L Daba
dbr I L Dabarre
dbt I L Ben Tey Dogon
dbu I L Bondum Dom Dogon
dbv I L Dungu
dbw I L Bankan Tey Dogon
dby I L Dibiyaso
dcc I L Deccan
dcr I E Negerhollands
dda I E Dadi Dadi
ddd I L Dongotono
dde I L Doondo
ddg I L Fataluku
ddi I L West Goodenough
ddj I L Jaru
ddn I L Dendi (Benin)
ddo I L Dido
ddr I E Dhudhuroa
dds I L Donno So Dogon
ddw I L Dawera-Daweloor
dec I L Dagik
ded I L Dedua
dee I L Dewoin
def I L Dezfuli
deg I L Degema
deh I L Dehwari
dei I L Demisa
dek I L Dek
del del del M L Delaware
dem I L Dem
den den den M L Slave (Athapascan)
dep I E Pidgin Delaware
deq I L Dendi (Central African Republic)
der I L Deori
des I L Desano
deu ger deu de I L German
dev I L Domung
dez I L Dengese
dga I L Southern Dagaare
dgb I L Bunoge Dogon
dgc I L Casiguran Dumagat Agta
dgd I L Dagaari Dioula
dge I L Degenan
dgg I L Doga
dgh I L Dghwede
dgi I L Northern Dagara
dgk I L Dagba
dgl I L Andaandi
dgn I E Dagoman
dgo I L Dogri (individual language)
dgr dgr dgr I L Dogrib
dgs I L Dogoso
dgt I E Ndrag'ngith
dgu I L Degaru
dgw I E Daungwurrung
dgx I L Doghoro
dgz I L Daga
dhd I L Dhundari
dhg I L Dhangu
dhi I L Dhimal
dhl I L Dhalandji
dhm I L Zemba
dhn I L Dhanki
dho I L Dhodia
dhr I L Dhargari
dhs I L Dhaiso
dhu I E Dhurga
dhv I L Dehu
dhw I L Dhanwar (Nepal)
dia I L Dia
dib I L South Central Dinka
dic I L Lakota Dida
did I L Didinga
dif I E Dieri
dig I L Digo
dih I L Kumiai
dii I L Dimbong
dij I L Dai
dik I L Southwestern Dinka
dil I L Dilling
dim I L Dime
din din din M L Dinka
dio I L Dibo
dip I L Northeastern Dinka
diq I L Dimli (individual language)
dir I L Dirim
dis I L Dimasa
dit I E Dirari
diu I L Diriku
div div div dv I L Dhivehi
diw I L Northwestern Dinka
dix I L Dixon Reef
diy I L Diuwe
diz I L Ding
dja I E Djadjawurrung
djb I L Djinba
djc I L Dar Daju Daju
djd I L Djamindjung
dje I L Zarma
djf I E Djangun
dji I L Djinang
djj I L Djeebbana
djk I L Eastern Maroon Creole
djl I E Djiwarli
djm I L Jamsay Dogon
djn I L Djauan
djo I L Jangkang
djr I L Djambarrpuyngu
dju I L Kapriman
djw I E Djawi
dka I L Dakpakha
dkk I L Dakka
dkr I L Kuijau
dks I L Southeastern Dinka
dkx I L Mazagway
dlg I L Dolgan
dlm I E Dalmatian
dln I L Darlong
dma I L Duma
dmb I L Mombo Dogon
dmc I L Dimir
dmd I E Madhi Madhi
dme I L Dugwor
dmg I L Upper Kinabatangan
dmk I L Domaaki
dml I L Dameli
dmm I L Dama
dmo I L Kemedzung
dmr I L East Damar
dms I L Dampelas
dmu I L Dubu
dmv I L Dumpas
dmx I L Dema
dmy I L Demta
dna I L Upper Grand Valley Dani
dnd I L Daonda
dne I L Ndendeule
dng I L Dungan
dni I L Lower Grand Valley Dani
dnk I L Dengka
dnn I L Dzωωngoo
dnr I L Danaru
dnt I L Mid Grand Valley Dani
dnu I L Danau
dnv I L Danu
dnw I L Western Dani
dny I L Denν
doa I L Dom
dob I L Dobu
doc I L Northern Dong
doe I L Doe
dof I L Domu
doh I L Dong
doi doi doi M L Dogri (macrolanguage)
dok I L Dondo
dol I L Doso
don I L Toura (Papua New Guinea)
doo I L Dongo
dop I L Lukpa
doq I L Dominican Sign Language
dor I L Dori'o
dos I L Dogosι
dot I L Dass
dov I L Dombe
dow I L Doyayo
dox I L Bussa
doy I L Dompo
doz I L Dorze
dpp I L Papar
drb I L Dair
drc I L Minderico
drd I L Darmiya
dre I L Dolpo
drg I L Rungus
dri I L C'lela
drl I L Paakantyi
drn I L West Damar
dro I L Daro-Matu Melanau
drq I E Dura
drr I E Dororo
drs I L Gedeo
drt I L Drents
dru I L Rukai
dry I L Darai
dsb dsb dsb I L Lower Sorbian
dse I L Dutch Sign Language
dsh I L Daasanach
dsi I L Disa
dsl I L Danish Sign Language
dsn I L Dusner
dso I L Desiya
dsq I L Tadaksahak
dta I L Daur
dtb I L Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan
dtd I L Ditidaht
dth I E Adithinngithigh
dti I L Ana Tinga Dogon
dtk I L Tene Kan Dogon
dtm I L Tomo Kan Dogon
dto I L Tommo So Dogon
dtp I L Central Dusun
dtr I L Lotud
dts I L Toro So Dogon
dtt I L Toro Tegu Dogon
dtu I L Tebul Ure Dogon
dty I L Dotyali
dua dua dua I L Duala
dub I L Dubli
duc I L Duna
dud I L Hun-Saare
due I L Umiray Dumaget Agta
duf I L Dumbea
dug I L Duruma
duh I L Dungra Bhil
dui I L Dumun
duj I L Dhuwal
duk I L Uyajitaya
dul I L Alabat Island Agta
dum dum dum I H Middle Dutch (ca. 1050-1350)
dun I L Dusun Deyah
duo I L Dupaninan Agta
dup I L Duano
duq I L Dusun Malang
dur I L Dii
dus I L Dumi
duu I L Drung
duv I L Duvle
duw I L Dusun Witu
dux I L Duungooma
duy I E Dicamay Agta
duz I E Duli
dva I L Duau
dwa I L Diri
dwr I L Dawro
dws I C Dutton World Speedwords
dww I L Dawawa
dya I L Dyan
dyb I E Dyaberdyaber
dyd I E Dyugun
dyg I E Villa Viciosa Agta
dyi I L Djimini Senoufo
dym I L Yanda Dom Dogon
dyn I L Dyangadi
dyo I L Jola-Fonyi
dyu dyu dyu I L Dyula
dyy I L Dyaabugay
dza I L Tunzu
dzd I L Daza
dzg I L Dazaga
dzl I L Dzalakha
dzn I L Dzando
dzo dzo dzo dz I L Dzongkha
ebg I L Ebughu
ebk I L Eastern Bontok
ebo I L Teke-Ebo
ebr I L Ebriι
ebu I L Embu
ecr I A Eteocretan
ecs I L Ecuadorian Sign Language
ecy I A Eteocypriot
eee I L E
efa I L Efai
efe I L Efe
efi efi efi I L Efik
ega I L Ega
egl I L Emilian
ego I L Eggon
egy egy egy I A Egyptian (Ancient)
ehu I L Ehueun
eip I L Eipomek
eit I L Eitiep
eiv I L Askopan
eja I L Ejamat
eka eka eka I L Ekajuk
eke I L Ekit
ekg I L Ekari
eki I L Eki
ekk I L Standard Estonian
ekl I L Kol (Bangladesh)
ekm I L Elip
eko I L Koti
ekp I L Ekpeye
ekr I L Yace
eky I L Eastern Kayah
ele I L Elepi
elh I L El Hugeirat
eli I E Nding
elk I L Elkei
ell gre ell el I L Modern Greek (1453-)
elm I L Eleme
elo I L El Molo
elu I L Elu
elx elx elx I A Elamite
ema I L Emai-Iuleha-Ora
emb I L Embaloh
eme I L Emerillon
emg I L Eastern Meohang
emi I L Mussau-Emira
emk I L Eastern Maninkakan
emm I E Mamulique
emn I L Eman
emo I E Emok
emp I L Northern Emberα
ems I L Pacific Gulf Yupik
emu I L Eastern Muria
emw I L Emplawas
emx I L Erromintxela
emy I E Epigraphic Mayan
ena I L Apali
enb I L Markweeta
enc I L En
end I L Ende
enf I L Forest Enets
eng eng eng en I L English
enh I L Tundra Enets
enm enm enm I H Middle English (1100-1500)
enn I L Engenni
eno I L Enggano
enq I L Enga
enr I L Emumu
enu I L Enu
env I L Enwan (Edu State)
enw I L Enwan (Akwa Ibom State)
eot I L Beti (Cτte d'Ivoire)
epi I L Epie
epo epo epo eo I C Esperanto
era I L Eravallan
erg I L Sie
erh I L Eruwa
eri I L Ogea
erk I L South Efate
ero I L Horpa
err I E Erre
ers I L Ersu
ert I L Eritai
erw I L Erokwanas
ese I L Ese Ejja
esh I L Eshtehardi
esi I L North Alaskan Inupiatun
esk I L Northwest Alaska Inupiatun
esl I L Egypt Sign Language
esm I E Esuma
esn I L Salvadoran Sign Language
eso I L Estonian Sign Language
esq I E Esselen
ess I L Central Siberian Yupik
est est est et M L Estonian
esu I L Central Yupik
etb I L Etebi
etc I E Etchemin
eth I L Ethiopian Sign Language
etn I L Eton (Vanuatu)
eto I L Eton (Cameroon)
etr I L Edolo
ets I L Yekhee
ett I A Etruscan
etu I L Ejagham
etx I L Eten
etz I L Semimi
eus baq eus eu I L Basque
eve I L Even
evh I L Uvbie
evn I L Evenki
ewe ewe ewe ee I L Ewe
ewo ewo ewo I L Ewondo
ext I L Extremaduran
eya I E Eyak
eyo I L Keiyo
eze I L Uzekwe
faa I L Fasu
fab I L Fa D'ambu
fad I L Wagi
faf I L Fagani
fag I L Finongan
fah I L Baissa Fali
fai I L Faiwol
faj I L Faita
fak I L Fang (Cameroon)
fal I L South Fali
fam I L Fam
fan fan fan I L Fang (Equatorial Guinea)
fao fao fao fo I L Faroese
fap I L Palor
far I L Fataleka
fas per fas fa M L Persian
fat fat fat I L Fanti
fau I L Fayu
fax I L Fala
fay I L Southwestern Fars
faz I L Northwestern Fars
fbl I L West Albay Bikol
fcs I L Quebec Sign Language
fer I L Feroge
ffi I L Foia Foia
ffm I L Maasina Fulfulde
fgr I L Fongoro
fia I L Nobiin
fie I L Fyer
fij fij fij fj I L Fijian
fil fil fil I L Filipino
fin fin fin fi I L Finnish
fip I L Fipa
fir I L Firan
fit I L Tornedalen Finnish
fiw I L Fiwaga
fkk I L Kirya-Konzel
fkv I L Kven Finnish
fla I L Kalispel-Pend d'Oreille
flh I L Foau
fli I L Fali
fll I L North Fali
fln I E Flinders Island
flr I L Fuliiru
fly I L Tsotsitaal
fmp I L Fe'fe'
fmu I L Far Western Muria
fng I L Fanagalo
fni I L Fania
fod I L Foodo
foi I L Foi
fom I L Foma
fon fon fon I L Fon
for I L Fore
fos I E Siraya
fpe I L Fernando Po Creole English
fqs I L Fas
fra fre fra fr I L French
frc I L Cajun French
frd I L Fordata
frk I E Frankish
frm frm frm I H Middle French (ca. 1400-1600)
fro fro fro I H Old French (842-ca. 1400)
frp I L Arpitan
frq I L Forak
frr frr frr I L Northern Frisian
frs frs frs I L Eastern Frisian
frt I L Fortsenal
fry fry fry fy I L Western Frisian
fse I L Finnish Sign Language
fsl I L French Sign Language
fss I L Finland-Swedish Sign Language
fub I L Adamawa Fulfulde
fuc I L Pulaar
fud I L East Futuna
fue I L Borgu Fulfulde
fuf I L Pular
fuh I L Western Niger Fulfulde
fui I L Bagirmi Fulfulde
fuj I L Ko
ful ful ful ff M L Fulah
fum I L Fum
fun I L Fulniτ
fuq I L Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde
fur fur fur I L Friulian
fut I L Futuna-Aniwa
fuu I L Furu
fuv I L Nigerian Fulfulde
fuy I L Fuyug
fvr I L Fur
fwa I L Fwβi
fwe I L Fwe
gaa gaa gaa I L Ga
gab I L Gabri
gac I L Mixed Great Andamanese
gad I L Gaddang
gae I L Guarequena
gaf I L Gende
gag I L Gagauz
gah I L Alekano
gai I L Borei
gaj I L Gadsup
gak I L Gamkonora
gal I L Galoli
gam I L Kandawo
gan I L Gan Chinese
gao I L Gants
gap I L Gal
gaq I L Gata'
gar I L Galeya
gas I L Adiwasi Garasia
gat I L Kenati
gau I L Mudhili Gadaba
gaw I L Nobonob
gax I L Borana-Arsi-Guji Oromo
gay gay gay I L Gayo
gaz I L West Central Oromo
gba gba gba M L Gbaya (Central African Republic)
gbb I L Kaytetye
gbd I L Karadjeri
gbe I L Niksek
gbf I L Gaikundi
gbg I L Gbanziri
gbh I L Defi Gbe
gbi I L Galela
gbj I L Bodo Gadaba
gbk I L Gaddi
gbl I L Gamit
gbm I L Garhwali
gbn I L Mo'da
gbo I L Northern Grebo
gbp I L Gbaya-Bossangoa
gbq I L Gbaya-Bozoum
gbr I L Gbagyi
gbs I L Gbesi Gbe
gbu I L Gagadu
gbv I L Gbanu
gbx I L Eastern Xwla Gbe
gby I L Gbari
gbz I L Zoroastrian Dari
gcc I L Mali
gcd I E Ganggalida
gce I E Galice
gcf I L Guadeloupean Creole French
gcl I L Grenadian Creole English
gcn I L Gaina
gcr I L Guianese Creole French
gct I L Colonia Tovar German
gda I L Gade Lohar
gdb I L Pottangi Ollar Gadaba
gdc I E Gugu Badhun
gdd I L Gedaged
gde I L Gude
gdf I L Guduf-Gava
gdg I L Ga'dang
gdh I L Gadjerawang
gdi I L Gundi
gdj I L Gurdjar
gdk I L Gadang
gdl I L Dirasha
gdm I L Laal
gdn I L Umanakaina
gdo I L Ghodoberi
gdq I L Mehri
gdr I L Wipi
gds I L Ghandruk Sign Language
gdu I L Gudu
gdx I L Godwari
gea I L Geruma
geb I L Kire
gec I L Gboloo Grebo
ged I L Gade
geg I L Gengle
geh I L Hutterite German
gei I L Gebe
gej I L Gen
gek I L Yiwom
gel I L ut-Ma'in
geq I L Geme
ges I L Geser-Gorom
gew I L Gera
gex I L Garre
gey I L Enya
gez gez gez I A Geez
gfk I L Patpatar
gft I E Gafat
gfx I L Mangetti Dune !Xung
gga I L Gao
ggb I L Gbii
ggd I E Gugadj
gge I L Guragone
ggg I L Gurgula
ggk I E Kungarakany
ggl I L Ganglau
ggn I L Eastern Gurung
ggo I L Southern Gondi
ggr I E Aghu Tharnggalu
ggt I L Gitua
ggu I L Gagu
ggw I L Gogodala
gha I L Ghadamθs
ghc I E Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic
ghe I L Southern Ghale
ghh I L Northern Ghale
ghk I L Geko Karen
ghl I L Ghulfan
ghn I L Ghanongga
gho I E Ghomara
ghr I L Ghera
ghs I L Guhu-Samane
ght I L Kuke
gia I L Kitja
gib I L Gibanawa
gic I L Gail
gid I L Gidar
gig I L Goaria
gil gil gil I L Gilbertese
gim I L Gimi (Eastern Highlands)
gin I L Hinukh
gip I L Gimi (West New Britain)
giq I L Green Gelao
gir I L Red Gelao
gis I L North Giziga
git I L Gitxsan
giu I L Mulao
giw I L White Gelao
gix I L Gilima
giy I L Giyug
giz I L South Giziga
gji I L Geji
gjk I L Kachi Koli
gjn I L Gonja
gju I L Gujari
gka I L Guya
gke I L Ndai
gkn I L Gokana
gko I E Kok-Nar
gkp I L Guinea Kpelle
gla gla gla gd I L Scottish Gaelic
glc I L Bon Gula
gld I L Nanai
gle gle gle ga I L Irish
glg glg glg gl I L Galician
glh I L Northwest Pashayi
gli I E Guliguli
glj I L Gula Iro
glk I L Gilaki
glo I L Galambu
glr I L Glaro-Twabo
glu I L Gula (Chad)
glv glv glv gv I L Manx
glw I L Glavda
gly I E Gule
gma I E Gambera
gmb I L Gula'alaa
gmd I L Mαghdμ
gmh gmh gmh I H Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)
gml I H Middle Low German
gmm I L Gbaya-Mbodomo
gmn I L Gimnime
gmu I L Gumalu
gmv I L Gamo
gmx I L Magoma
gmy I A Mycenaean Greek
gna I L Kaansa
gnb I L Gangte
gnc I E Guanche
gnd I L Zulgo-Gemzek
gne I L Ganang
gng I L Ngangam
gnh I L Lere
gni I L Gooniyandi
gnk I L //Gana
gnl I E Gangulu
gnm I L Ginuman
gnn I L Gumatj
gno I L Northern Gondi
gnq I L Gana
gnr I E Gureng Gureng
gnt I L Guntai
gnu I L Gnau
gnw I L Western Bolivian Guaranν
gnz I L Ganzi
goa I L Guro
gob I L Playero
goc I L Gorakor
god I L Godiι
goe I L Gongduk
gof I L Gofa
gog I L Gogo
goh goh goh I H Old High German (ca. 750-1050)
goi I L Gobasi
goj I L Gowlan
gok I L Gowli
gol I L Gola
gom I L Goan Konkani
gon gon gon M L Gondi
goo I L Gone Dau
gop I L Yeretuar
goq I L Gorap
gor gor gor I L Gorontalo
gos I L Gronings
got got got I A Gothic
gou I L Gavar
gow I L Gorowa
gox I L Gobu
goy I L Goundo
goz I L Gozarkhani
gpa I L Gupa-Abawa
gpe I L Ghanaian Pidgin English
gpn I L Taiap
gqa I L Ga'anda
gqi I L Guiqiong
gqn I E Guana (Brazil)
gqr I L Gor
gqu I L Qau
gra I L Rajput Garasia
grb grb grb M L Grebo
grc grc grc I H Ancient Greek (to 1453)
grd I L Guruntum-Mbaaru
grg I L Madi
grh I L Gbiri-Niragu
gri I L Ghari
grj I L Southern Grebo
grm I L Kota Marudu Talantang
grn grn grn gn M L Guarani
gro I L Groma
grq I L Gorovu
grr I L Taznatit
grs I L Gresi
grt I L Garo
gru I L Kistane
grv I L Central Grebo
grw I L Gweda
grx I L Guriaso
gry I L Barclayville Grebo
grz I L Guramalum
gse I L Ghanaian Sign Language
gsg I L German Sign Language
gsl I L Gusilay
gsm I L Guatemalan Sign Language
gsn I L Gusan
gso I L Southwest Gbaya
gsp I L Wasembo
gss I L Greek Sign Language
gsw gsw gsw I L Swiss German
gta I L Guatσ
gti I L Gbati-ri
gua I L Shiki
gub I L Guajajαra
guc I L Wayuu
gud I L Yocobouι Dida
gue I L Gurinji
guf I L Gupapuyngu
gug I L Paraguayan Guaranν
guh I L Guahibo
gui I L Eastern Bolivian Guaranν
guj guj guj gu I L Gujarati
guk I L Gumuz
gul I L Sea Island Creole English
gum I L Guambiano
gun I L Mbyα Guaranν
guo I L Guayabero
gup I L Gunwinggu
guq I L Achι
gur I L Farefare
gus I L Guinean Sign Language
gut I L Malιku Jaνka
guu I L Yanomamφ
guv I E Gey
guw I L Gun
gux I L Gourmanchιma
guz I L Gusii
gva I L Guana (Paraguay)
gvc I L Guanano
gve I L Duwet
gvf I L Golin
gvj I L Guajα
gvl I L Gulay
gvm I L Gurmana
gvn I L Kuku-Yalanji
gvo I L Gaviγo Do Jiparanα
gvp I L Parα Gaviγo
gvr I L Western Gurung
gvs I L Gumawana
gvy I E Guyani
gwa I L Mbato
gwb I L Gwa
gwc I L Kalami
gwd I L Gawwada
gwe I L Gweno
gwf I L Gowro
gwg I L Moo
gwi gwi gwi I L Gwich'in
gwj I L /Gwi
gwm I E Awngthim
gwn I L Gwandara
gwr I L Gwere
gwt I L Gawar-Bati
gwu I E Guwamu
gww I L Kwini
gwx I L Gua
gxx I L Wθ Southern
gya I L Northwest Gbaya
gyb I L Garus
gyd I L Kayardild
gye I L Gyem
gyf I E Gungabula
gyg I L Gbayi
gyi I L Gyele
gyl I L Gayil
gym I L Ngδbere
gyn I L Guyanese Creole English
gyr I L Guarayu
gyy I E Gunya
gza I L Ganza
gzi I L Gazi
gzn I L Gane
haa I L Han
hab I L Hanoi Sign Language
hac I L Gurani
had I L Hatam
hae I L Eastern Oromo
haf I L Haiphong Sign Language
hag I L Hanga
hah I L Hahon
hai hai hai M L Haida
haj I L Hajong
hak I L Hakka Chinese
hal I L Halang
ham I L Hewa
han I L Hangaza
hao I L Hakφ
hap I L Hupla
haq I L Ha
har I L Harari
has I L Haisla
hat hat hat ht I L Haitian
hau hau hau ha I L Hausa
hav I L Havu
haw haw haw I L Hawaiian
hax I L Southern Haida
hay I L Haya
haz I L Hazaragi
hba I L Hamba
hbb I L Huba
hbn I L Heiban
hbo I H Ancient Hebrew
hbs sh M L Serbo-Croatian Code element for 639-1 has been deprecated
hbu I L Habu
hca I L Andaman Creole Hindi
hch I L Huichol
hdn I L Northern Haida
hds I L Honduras Sign Language
hdy I L Hadiyya
hea I L Northern Qiandong Miao
heb heb heb he I L Hebrew
hed I L Herdι
heg I L Helong
heh I L Hehe
hei I L Heiltsuk
hem I L Hemba
her her her hz I L Herero
hgm I L Hai//om
hgw I L Haigwai
hhi I L Hoia Hoia
hhr I L Kerak
hhy I L Hoyahoya
hia I L Lamang
hib I E Hibito
hid I L Hidatsa
hif I L Fiji Hindi
hig I L Kamwe
hih I L Pamosu
hii I L Hinduri
hij I L Hijuk
hik I L Seit-Kaitetu
hil hil hil I L Hiligaynon
hin hin hin hi I L Hindi
hio I L Tsoa
hir I L Himarimγ
hit hit hit I A Hittite
hiw I L Hiw
hix I L Hixkaryαna
hji I L Haji
hka I L Kahe
hke I L Hunde
hkk I L Hunjara-Kaina Ke
hks I L Hong Kong Sign Language
hla I L Halia
hlb I L Halbi
hld I L Halang Doan
hle I L Hlersu
hlt I L Matu Chin
hlu I A Hieroglyphic Luwian
hma I L Southern Mashan Hmong
hmb I L Humburi Senni Songhay
hmc I L Central Huishui Hmong
hmd I L Large Flowery Miao
hme I L Eastern Huishui Hmong
hmf I L Hmong Don
hmg I L Southwestern Guiyang Hmong
hmh I L Southwestern Huishui Hmong
hmi I L Northern Huishui Hmong
hmj I L Ge
hmk I E Maek
hml I L Luopohe Hmong
hmm I L Central Mashan Hmong
hmn hmn hmn M L Hmong
hmo hmo hmo ho I L Hiri Motu
hmp I L Northern Mashan Hmong
hmq I L Eastern Qiandong Miao
hmr I L Hmar
hms I L Southern Qiandong Miao
hmt I L Hamtai
hmu I L Hamap
hmv I L Hmong Dτ
hmw I L Western Mashan Hmong
hmy I L Southern Guiyang Hmong
hmz I L Hmong Shua
hna I L Mina (Cameroon)
hnd I L Southern Hindko
hne I L Chhattisgarhi
hnh I L //Ani
hni I L Hani
hnj I L Hmong Njua
hnn I L Hanunoo
hno I L Northern Hindko
hns I L Caribbean Hindustani
hnu I L Hung
hoa I L Hoava
hob I L Mari (Madang Province)
hoc I L Ho
hod I E Holma
hoe I L Horom
hoh I L Hobyσt
hoi I L Holikachuk
hoj I L Hadothi
hol I L Holu
hom I E Homa
hoo I L Holoholo
hop I L Hopi
hor I E Horo
hos I L Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language
hot I L Hote
hov I L Hovongan
how I L Honi
hoy I L Holiya
hoz I L Hozo
hpo I L Hpon
hps I L Hawai'i Pidgin Sign Language
hra I L Hrangkhol
hre I L Hre
hrk I L Haruku
hrm I L Horned Miao
hro I L Haroi
hrt I L Hιrtevin
hru I L Hruso
hrv hrv hrv hr I L Croatian
hrx I L Hunsrik
hrz I L Harzani
hsb hsb hsb I L Upper Sorbian
hsh I L Hungarian Sign Language
hsl I L Hausa Sign Language
hsn I L Xiang Chinese
hss I L Harsusi
hti I L Hoti
hto I L Minica Huitoto
hts I L Hadza
htu I L Hitu
htx I A Middle Hittite
hub I L Huambisa
huc I L =/Hua
hud I L Huaulu
hue I L San Francisco Del Mar Huave
huf I L Humene
hug I L Huachipaeri
huh I L Huilliche
hui I L Huli
huj I L Northern Guiyang Hmong
huk I L Hulung
hul I L Hula
hum I L Hungana
hun hun hun hu I L Hungarian
huo I L Hu
hup hup hup I L Hupa
huq I L Tsat
hur I L Halkomelem
hus I L Huastec
hut I L Humla
huu I L Murui Huitoto
huv I L San Mateo Del Mar Huave
huw I E Hukumina
hux I L Nόpode Huitoto
huy I L Hulaulα
huz I L Hunzib
hvc I L Haitian Vodoun Culture Language
hve I L San Dionisio Del Mar Huave
hvk I L Haveke
hvn I L Sabu
hvv I L Santa Marνa Del Mar Huave
hwa I L Wanι
hwc I L Hawai'i Creole English
hwo I L Hwana
hya I L Hya
hye arm hye hy I L Armenian
iai I L Iaai
ian I L Iatmul
iap I L Iapama
iar I L Purari
iba iba iba I L Iban
ibb I L Ibibio
ibd I L Iwaidja
ibe I L Akpes
ibg I L Ibanag
ibl I L Ibaloi
ibm I L Agoi
ibn I L Ibino
ibo ibo ibo ig I L Igbo
ibr I L Ibuoro
ibu I L Ibu
iby I L Ibani
ica I L Ede Ica
ich I L Etkywan
icl I L Icelandic Sign Language
icr I L Islander Creole English
ida I L Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki
idb I L Indo-Portuguese
idc I L Idon
idd I L Ede Idaca
ide I L Idere
idi I L Idi
ido ido ido io I C Ido
idr I L Indri
ids I L Idesa
idt I L Idatι
idu I L Idoma
ifa I L Amganad Ifugao
ifb I L Batad Ifugao
ife I L Ifθ
iff I E Ifo
ifk I L Tuwali Ifugao
ifm I L Teke-Fuumu
ifu I L Mayoyao Ifugao
ify I L Keley-I Kallahan
igb I L Ebira
ige I L Igede
igg I L Igana
igl I L Igala
igm I L Kanggape
ign I L Ignaciano
igo I L Isebe
igs I C Interglossa
igw I L Igwe
ihb I L Iha Based Pidgin
ihi I L Ihievbe
ihp I L Iha
ihw I E Bidhawal
iii iii iii ii I L Sichuan Yi
ijc I L Izon
ije I L Biseni
ijj I L Ede Ije
ijn I L Kalabari
ijs I L Southeast Ijo
ike I L Eastern Canadian Inuktitut
iki I L Iko
ikk I L Ika
ikl I L Ikulu
iko I L Olulumo-Ikom
ikp I L Ikpeshi
ikt I L Inuinnaqtun
iku iku iku iu M L Inuktitut
ikv I L Iku-Gora-Ankwa
ikw I L Ikwere
ikx I L Ik
ikz I L Ikizu
ila I L Ile Ape
ilb I L Ila
ile ile ile ie I C Interlingue
ilg I E Garig-Ilgar
ili I L Ili Turki
ilk I L Ilongot
ill I L Iranun
ilo ilo ilo I L Iloko
ils I L International Sign
ilu I L Ili'uun
ilv I L Ilue
ilw I L Talur
ima I L Mala Malasar
ime I L Imeraguen
imi I L Anamgura
iml I E Miluk
imn I L Imonda
imo I L Imbongu
imr I L Imroing
ims I A Marsian
imy I A Milyan
ina ina ina ia I C Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association)
inb I L Inga
ind ind ind id I L Indonesian
ing I L Degexit'an
inh inh inh I L Ingush
inj I L Jungle Inga
inl I L Indonesian Sign Language
inm I A Minaean
inn I L Isinai
ino I L Inoke-Yate
inp I L Iρapari
ins I L Indian Sign Language
int I L Intha
inz I E Ineseρo
ior I L Inor
iou I L Tuma-Irumu
iow I E Iowa-Oto
ipi I L Ipili
ipk ipk ipk ik M L Inupiaq
ipo I L Ipiko
iqu I L Iquito
ire I L Iresim
irh I L Irarutu
iri I L Irigwe
irk I L Iraqw
irn I L Irαntxe
irr I L Ir
iru I L Irula
irx I L Kamberau
iry I L Iraya
isa I L Isabi
isc I L Isconahua
isd I L Isnag
ise I L Italian Sign Language
isg I L Irish Sign Language
ish I L Esan
isi I L Nkem-Nkum
isk I L Ishkashimi
isl ice isl is I L Icelandic
ism I L Masimasi
isn I L Isanzu
iso I L Isoko
isr I L Israeli Sign Language
ist I L Istriot
isu I L Isu (Menchum Division)
ita ita ita it I L Italian
itb I L Binongan Itneg
ite I E Itene
iti I L Inlaod Itneg
itk I L Judeo-Italian
itl I L Itelmen
itm I L Itu Mbon Uzo
ito I L Itonama
itr I L Iteri
its I L Isekiri
itt I L Maeng Itneg
itv I L Itawit
itw I L Ito
itx I L Itik
ity I L Moyadan Itneg
itz I L Itzα
ium I L Iu Mien
ivb I L Ibatan
ivv I L Ivatan
iwk I L I-Wak
iwm I L Iwam
iwo I L Iwur
iws I L Sepik Iwam
ixc I L Ixcatec
ixl I L Ixil
iya I L Iyayu
iyo I L Mesaka
iyx I L Yaka (Congo)
izh I L Ingrian
izi I L Izi-Ezaa-Ikwo-Mgbo
izr I L Izere
jaa I L Jamamadν
jab I L Hyam
jac I L Popti'
jad I L Jahanka
jae I L Yabem
jaf I L Jara
jah I L Jah Hut
jaj I L Zazao
jak I L Jakun
jal I L Yalahatan
jam I L Jamaican Creole English
jan I E Jandai
jao I L Yanyuwa
jaq I L Yaqay
jas I L New Caledonian Javanese
jat I L Jakati
jau I L Yaur
jav jav jav jv I L Javanese
jax I L Jambi Malay
jay I L Yan-nhangu
jaz I L Jawe
jbe I L Judeo-Berber
jbj I L Arandai
jbk I L Barikewa
jbn I L Nafusi
jbo jbo jbo I C Lojban
jbr I L Jofotek-Bromnya
jbt I L Jabutν
jbu I L Jukun Takum
jbw I E Yawijibaya
jcs I L Jamaican Country Sign Language
jct I L Krymchak
jda I L Jad
jdg I L Jadgali
jdt I L Judeo-Tat
jeb I L Jebero
jee I L Jerung
jeg I L Jeng
jeh I L Jeh
jei I L Yei
jek I L Jeri Kuo
jel I L Yelmek
jen I L Dza
jer I L Jere
jet I L Manem
jeu I L Jonkor Bourmataguil
jgb I E Ngbee
jge I L Judeo-Georgian
jgk I L Gwak
jgo I L Ngomba
jhi I L Jehai
jhs I L Jhankot Sign Language
jia I L Jina
jib I L Jibu
jic I L Tol
jid I L Bu
jie I L Jilbe
jig I L Djingili
jih I L sTodsde
jii I L Jiiddu
jil I L Jilim
jim I L Jimi (Cameroon)
jio I L Jiamao
jiq I L Guanyinqiao
jit I L Jita
jiu I L Youle Jinuo
jiv I L Shuar
jiy I L Buyuan Jinuo
jjr I L Bankal
jkm I L Mobwa Karen
jko I L Kubo
jkp I L Paku Karen
jkr I L Koro (India)
jku I L Labir
jle I L Ngile
jls I L Jamaican Sign Language
jma I L Dima
jmb I L Zumbun
jmc I L Machame
jmd I L Yamdena
jmi I L Jimi (Nigeria)
jml I L Jumli
jmn I L Makuri Naga
jmr I L Kamara
jms I L Mashi (Nigeria)
jmw I L Mouwase
jmx I L Western Juxtlahuaca Mixtec
jna I L Jangshung
jnd I L Jandavra
jng I E Yangman
jni I L Janji
jnj I L Yemsa
jnl I L Rawat
jns I L Jaunsari
job I L Joba
jod I L Wojenaka
jor I E Jorα
jos I L Jordanian Sign Language
jow I L Jowulu
jpa I H Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
jpn jpn jpn ja I L Japanese
jpr jpr jpr I L Judeo-Persian
jqr I L Jaqaru
jra I L Jarai
jrb jrb jrb M L Judeo-Arabic
jrr I L Jiru
jrt I L Jorto
jru I L Japrerνa
jsl I L Japanese Sign Language
jua I L Jϊma
jub I L Wannu
juc I E Jurchen
jud I L Worodougou
juh I L Hυne
jui I E Ngadjuri
juk I L Wapan
jul I L Jirel
jum I L Jumjum
jun I L Juang
juo I L Jiba
jup I L Hupdλ
jur I L Jurϊna
jus I L Jumla Sign Language
jut I L Jutish
juu I L Ju
juw I L Wγpha
juy I L Juray
jvd I E Javindo
jvn I L Caribbean Javanese
jwi I L Jwira-Pepesa
jya I L Jiarong
jye I L Judeo-Yemeni Arabic
jyy I L Jaya
kaa kaa kaa I L Kara-Kalpak
kab kab kab I L Kabyle
kac kac kac I L Kachin
kad I L Adara
kae I E Ketangalan
kaf I L Katso
kag I L Kajaman
kah I L Kara (Central African Republic)
kai I L Karekare
kaj I L Jju
kak I L Kayapa Kallahan
kal kal kal kl I L Kalaallisut
kam kam kam I L Kamba (Kenya)
kan kan kan kn I L Kannada
kao I L Xaasongaxango
kap I L Bezhta
kaq I L Capanahua
kas kas kas ks I L Kashmiri
kat geo kat ka I L Georgian
kau kau kau kr M L Kanuri
kav I L Katukνna
kaw kaw kaw I A Kawi
kax I L Kao
kay I L Kamayurα
kaz kaz kaz kk I L Kazakh
kba I E Kalarko
kbb I E Kaxuiβna
kbc I L Kadiwιu
kbd kbd kbd I L Kabardian
kbe I L Kanju
kbf I E Kakauhua
kbg I L Khamba
kbh I L Camsα
kbi I L Kaptiau
kbj I L Kari
kbk I L Grass Koiari
kbl I L Kanembu
kbm I L Iwal
kbn I L Kare (Central African Republic)
kbo I L Keliko
kbp I L Kabiyθ
kbq I L Kamano
kbr I L Kafa
kbs I L Kande
kbt I L Abadi
kbu I L Kabutra
kbv I L Dera (Indonesia)
kbw I L Kaiep
kbx I L Ap Ma
kby I L Manga Kanuri
kbz I L Duhwa
kca I L Khanty
kcb I L Kawacha
kcc I L Lubila
kcd I L Ngkβlmpw Kanum
kce I L Kaivi
kcf I L Ukaan
kcg I L Tyap
kch I L Vono
kci I L Kamantan
kcj I L Kobiana
kck I L Kalanga
kcl I L Kela (Papua New Guinea)
kcm I L Gula (Central African Republic)
kcn I L Nubi
kco I L Kinalakna
kcp I L Kanga
kcq I L Kamo
kcr I L Katla
kcs I L Koenoem
kct I L Kaian
kcu I L Kami (Tanzania)
kcv I L Kete
kcw I L Kabwari
kcx I L Kachama-Ganjule
kcy I L Korandje
kcz I L Konongo
kda I E Worimi
kdc I L Kutu
kdd I L Yankunytjatjara
kde I L Makonde
kdf I L Mamusi
kdg I L Seba
kdh I L Tem
kdi I L Kumam
kdj I L Karamojong
kdk I L Numee
kdl I L Tsikimba
kdm I L Kagoma
kdn I L Kunda
kdp I L Kaningdon-Nindem
kdq I L Koch
kdr I L Karaim
kdt I L Kuy
kdu I L Kadaru
kdw I L Koneraw
kdx I L Kam
kdy I L Keder
kdz I L Kwaja
kea I L Kabuverdianu
keb I L Kιlι
kec I L Keiga
ked I L Kerewe
kee I L Eastern Keres
kef I L Kpessi
keg I L Tese
keh I L Keak
kei I L Kei
kej I L Kadar
kek I L Kekchν
kel I L Kela (Democratic Republic of Congo)
kem I L Kemak
ken I L Kenyang
keo I L Kakwa
kep I L Kaikadi
keq I L Kamar
ker I L Kera
kes I L Kugbo
ket I L Ket
keu I L Akebu
kev I L Kanikkaran
kew I L West Kewa
kex I L Kukna
key I L Kupia
kez I L Kukele
kfa I L Kodava
kfb I L Northwestern Kolami
kfc I L Konda-Dora
kfd I L Korra Koraga
kfe I L Kota (India)
kff I L Koya
kfg I L Kudiya
kfh I L Kurichiya
kfi I L Kannada Kurumba
kfj I L Kemiehua
kfk I L Kinnauri
kfl I L Kung
kfm I L Khunsari
kfn I L Kuk
kfo I L Koro (Cτte d'Ivoire)
kfp I L Korwa
kfq I L Korku
kfr I L Kachchi
kfs I L Bilaspuri
kft I L Kanjari
kfu I L Katkari
kfv I L Kurmukar
kfw I L Kharam Naga
kfx I L Kullu Pahari
kfy I L Kumaoni
kfz I L Koromfι
kga I L Koyaga
kgb I L Kawe
kgc I L Kasseng
kgd I L Kataang
kge I L Komering
kgf I L Kube
kgg I L Kusunda
kgi I L Selangor Sign Language
kgj I L Gamale Kham
kgk I L Kaiwα
kgl I E Kunggari
kgm I E Karipϊna
kgn I L Karingani
kgo I L Krongo
kgp I L Kaingang
kgq I L Kamoro
kgr I L Abun
kgs I L Kumbainggar
kgt I L Somyev
kgu I L Kobol
kgv I L Karas
kgw I L Karon Dori
kgx I L Kamaru
kgy I L Kyerung
kha kha kha I L Khasi
khb I L Lό
khc I L Tukang Besi North
khd I L Bδdi Kanum
khe I L Korowai
khf I L Khuen
khg I L Khams Tibetan
khh I L Kehu
khj I L Kuturmi
khk I L Halh Mongolian
khl I L Lusi
khm khm khm km I L Central Khmer
khn I L Khandesi
kho kho kho I A Khotanese
khp I L Kapori
khq I L Koyra Chiini Songhay
khr I L Kharia
khs I L Kasua
kht I L Khamti
khu I L Nkhumbi
khv I L Khvarshi
khw I L Khowar
khx I L Kanu
khy I L Kele (Democratic Republic of Congo)
khz I L Keapara
kia I L Kim
kib I L Koalib
kic I L Kickapoo
kid I L Koshin
kie I L Kibet
kif I L Eastern Parbate Kham
kig I L Kimaama
kih I L Kilmeri
kii I E Kitsai
kij I L Kilivila
kik kik kik ki I L Kikuyu
kil I L Kariya
kim I L Karagas
kin kin kin rw I L Kinyarwanda
kio I L Kiowa
kip I L Sheshi Kham
kiq I L Kosadle
kir kir kir ky I L Kirghiz
kis I L Kis
kit I L Agob
kiu I L Kirmanjki (individual language)
kiv I L Kimbu
kiw I L Northeast Kiwai
kix I L Khiamniungan Naga
kiy I L Kirikiri
kiz I L Kisi
kja I L Mlap
kjb I L Q'anjob'al
kjc I L Coastal Konjo
kjd I L Southern Kiwai
kje I L Kisar
kjf I L Khalaj
kjg I L Khmu
kjh I L Khakas
kji I L Zabana
kjj I L Khinalugh
kjk I L Highland Konjo
kjl I L Western Parbate Kham
kjm I L Khαng
kjn I L Kunjen
kjo I L Harijan Kinnauri
kjp I L Pwo Eastern Karen
kjq I L Western Keres
kjr I L Kurudu
kjs I L East Kewa
kjt I L Phrae Pwo Karen
kju I L Kashaya
kjx I L Ramopa
kjy I L Erave
kjz I L Bumthangkha
kka I L Kakanda
kkb I L Kwerisa
kkc I L Odoodee
kkd I L Kinuku
kke I L Kakabe
kkf I L Kalaktang Monpa
kkg I L Mabaka Valley Kalinga
kkh I L Khόn
kki I L Kagulu
kkj I L Kako
kkk I L Kokota
kkl I L Kosarek Yale
kkm I L Kiong
kkn I L Kon Keu
kko I L Karko
kkp I L Gugubera
kkq I L Kaiku
kkr I L Kir-Balar
kks I L Giiwo
kkt I L Koi
kku I L Tumi
kkv I L Kangean
kkw I L Teke-Kukuya
kkx I L Kohin
kky I L Guguyimidjir
kkz I L Kaska
kla I E Klamath-Modoc
klb I L Kiliwa
klc I L Kolbila
kld I L Gamilaraay
kle I L Kulung (Nepal)
klf I L Kendeje
klg I L Tagakaulo
klh I L Weliki
kli I L Kalumpang
klj I L Turkic Khalaj
klk I L Kono (Nigeria)
kll I L Kagan Kalagan
klm I L Migum
kln M L Kalenjin
klo I L Kapya
klp I L Kamasa
klq I L Rumu
klr I L Khaling
kls I L Kalasha
klt I L Nukna
klu I L Klao
klv I L Maskelynes
klw I L Lindu
klx I L Koluwawa
kly I L Kalao
klz I L Kabola
kma I L Konni
kmb kmb kmb I L Kimbundu
kmc I L Southern Dong
kmd I L Majukayang Kalinga
kme I L Bakole
kmf I L Kare (Papua New Guinea)
kmg I L Kβte
kmh I L Kalam
kmi I L Kami (Nigeria)
kmj I L Kumarbhag Paharia
kmk I L Limos Kalinga
kml I L Tanudan Kalinga
kmm I L Kom (India)
kmn I L Awtuw
kmo I L Kwoma
kmp I L Gimme
kmq I L Kwama
kmr I L Northern Kurdish
kms I L Kamasau
kmt I L Kemtuik
kmu I L Kanite
kmv I L Karipϊna Creole French
kmw I L Komo (Democratic Republic of Congo)
kmx I L Waboda
kmy I L Koma
kmz I L Khorasani Turkish
kna I L Dera (Nigeria)
knb I L Lubuagan Kalinga
knc I L Central Kanuri
knd I L Konda
kne I L Kankanaey
knf I L Mankanya
kng I L Koongo
kni I L Kanufi
knj I L Western Kanjobal
knk I L Kuranko
knl I L Keninjal
knm I L Kanamarν
knn I L Konkani (individual language)
kno I L Kono (Sierra Leone)
knp I L Kwanja
knq I L Kintaq
knr I L Kaningra
kns I L Kensiu
knt I L Panoan Katukνna
knu I L Kono (Guinea)
knv I L Tabo
knw I L Kung-Ekoka
knx I L Kendayan
kny I L Kanyok
knz I L Kalamsι
koa I L Konomala
koc I E Kpati
kod I L Kodi
koe I L Kacipo-Balesi
kof I E Kubi
kog I L Cogui
koh I L Koyo
koi I L Komi-Permyak
koj I L Sara Dunjo
kok kok kok M L Konkani (macrolanguage)
kol I L Kol (Papua New Guinea)
kom kom kom kv M L Komi
kon kon kon kg M L Kongo
koo I L Konzo
kop I L Waube
koq I L Kota (Gabon)
kor kor kor ko I L Korean
kos kos kos I L Kosraean
kot I L Lagwan
kou I L Koke
kov I L Kudu-Camo
kow I L Kugama
kox I E Coxima
koy I L Koyukon
koz I L Korak
kpa I L Kutto
kpb I L Mullu Kurumba
kpc I L Curripaco
kpd I L Koba
kpe kpe kpe M L Kpelle
kpf I L Komba
kpg I L Kapingamarangi
kph I L Kplang
kpi I L Kofei
kpj I L Karajα
kpk I L Kpan
kpl I L Kpala
kpm I L Koho
kpn I E Kepkiriwαt
kpo I L Ikposo
kpq I L Korupun-Sela
kpr I L Korafe-Yegha
kps I L Tehit
kpt I L Karata
kpu I L Kafoa
kpv I L Komi-Zyrian
kpw I L Kobon
kpx I L Mountain Koiali
kpy I L Koryak
kpz I L Kupsabiny
kqa I L Mum
kqb I L Kovai
kqc I L Doromu-Koki
kqd I L Koy Sanjaq Surat
kqe I L Kalagan
kqf I L Kakabai
kqg I L Khe
kqh I L Kisankasa
kqi I L Koitabu
kqj I L Koromira
kqk I L Kotafon Gbe
kql I L Kyenele
kqm I L Khisa
kqn I L Kaonde
kqo I L Eastern Krahn
kqp I L Kimrι
kqq I L Krenak
kqr I L Kimaragang
kqs I L Northern Kissi
kqt I L Klias River Kadazan
kqu I E Seroa
kqv I L Okolod
kqw I L Kandas
kqx I L Mser
kqy I L Koorete
kqz I E Korana
kra I L Kumhali
krb I E Karkin
krc krc krc I L Karachay-Balkar
krd I L Kairui-Midiki
kre I L Panarα
krf I L Koro (Vanuatu)
krh I L Kurama
kri I L Krio
krj I L Kinaray-A
krk I E Kerek
krl krl krl I L Karelian
krm I L Krim
krn I L Sapo
krp I L Korop
krr I L Kru'ng 2
krs I L Gbaya (Sudan)
krt I L Tumari Kanuri
kru kru kru I L Kurukh
krv I L Kavet
krw I L Western Krahn
krx I L Karon
kry I L Kryts
krz I L Sota Kanum
ksa I L Shuwa-Zamani
ksb I L Shambala
ksc I L Southern Kalinga
ksd I L Kuanua
kse I L Kuni
ksf I L Bafia
ksg I L Kusaghe
ksh I L Kφlsch
ksi I L Krisa
ksj I L Uare
ksk I L Kansa
ksl I L Kumalu
ksm I L Kumba
ksn I L Kasiguranin
kso I L Kofa
ksp I L Kaba
ksq I L Kwaami
ksr I L Borong
kss I L Southern Kisi
kst I L Winyι
ksu I L Khamyang
ksv I L Kusu
ksw I L S'gaw Karen
ksx I L Kedang
ksy I L Kharia Thar
ksz I L Kodaku
kta I L Katua
ktb I L Kambaata
ktc I L Kholok
ktd I L Kokata
kte I L Nubri
ktf I L Kwami
ktg I E Kalkutung
kth I L Karanga
kti I L North Muyu
ktj I L Plapo Krumen
ktk I E Kaniet
ktl I L Koroshi
ktm I L Kurti
ktn I L Karitiβna
kto I L Kuot
ktp I L Kaduo
ktq I E Katabaga
ktr I L Kota Marudu Tinagas
kts I L South Muyu
ktt I L Ketum
ktu I L Kituba (Democratic Republic of Congo)
ktv I L Eastern Katu
ktw I E Kato
ktx I L Kaxararν
kty I L Kango (Bas-Uιlι District)
ktz I L Ju/'hoan
kua kua kua kj I L Kuanyama
kub I L Kutep
kuc I L Kwinsu
kud I L 'Auhelawa
kue I L Kuman
kuf I L Western Katu
kug I L Kupa
kuh I L Kushi
kui I L Kuikϊro-Kalapαlo
kuj I L Kuria
kuk I L Kepo'
kul I L Kulere
kum kum kum I L Kumyk
kun I L Kunama
kuo I L Kumukio
kup I L Kunimaipa
kuq I L Karipuna
kur kur kur ku M L Kurdish
kus I L Kusaal
kut kut kut I L Kutenai
kuu I L Upper Kuskokwim
kuv I L Kur
kuw I L Kpagua
kux I L Kukatja
kuy I L Kuuku-Ya'u
kuz I E Kunza
kva I L Bagvalal
kvb I L Kubu
kvc I L Kove
kvd I L Kui (Indonesia)
kve I L Kalabakan
kvf I L Kabalai
kvg I L Kuni-Boazi
kvh I L Komodo
kvi I L Kwang
kvj I L Psikye
kvk I L Korean Sign Language
kvl I L Kayaw
kvm I L Kendem
kvn I L Border Kuna
kvo I L Dobel
kvp I L Kompane
kvq I L Geba Karen
kvr I L Kerinci
kvs I L Kunggara
kvt I L Lahta Karen
kvu I L Yinbaw Karen
kvv I L Kola
kvw I L Wersing
kvx I L Parkari Koli
kvy I L Yintale Karen
kvz I L Tsakwambo
kwa I L Dβw
kwb I L Kwa
kwc I L Likwala
kwd I L Kwaio
kwe I L Kwerba
kwf I L Kwara'ae
kwg I L Sara Kaba Deme
kwh I L Kowiai
kwi I L Awa-Cuaiquer
kwj I L Kwanga
kwk I L Kwakiutl
kwl I L Kofyar
kwm I L Kwambi
kwn I L Kwangali
kwo I L Kwomtari
kwp I L Kodia
kwq I L Kwak
kwr I L Kwer
kws I L Kwese
kwt I L Kwesten
kwu I L Kwakum
kwv I L Sara Kaba Nαΰ
kww I L Kwinti
kwx I L Khirwar
kwy I L San Salvador Kongo
kwz I E Kwadi
kxa I L Kairiru
kxb I L Krobu
kxc I L Konso
kxd I L Brunei
kxe I L Kakihum
kxf I L Manumanaw Karen
kxh I L Karo (Ethiopia)
kxi I L Keningau Murut
kxj I L Kulfa
kxk I L Zayein Karen
kxl I L Nepali Kurux
kxm I L Northern Khmer
kxn I L Kanowit-Tanjong Melanau
kxo I E Kanoι
kxp I L Wadiyara Koli
kxq I L Smδrky Kanum
kxr I L Koro (Papua New Guinea)
kxs I L Kangjia
kxt I L Koiwat
kxu I L Kui (India)
kxv I L Kuvi
kxw I L Konai
kxx I L Likuba
kxy I L Kayong
kxz I L Kerewo
kya I L Kwaya
kyb I L Butbut Kalinga
kyc I L Kyaka
kyd I L Karey
kye I L Krache
kyf I L Kouya
kyg I L Keyagana
kyh I L Karok
kyi I L Kiput
kyj I L Karao
kyk I L Kamayo
kyl I L Kalapuya
kym I L Kpatili
kyn I L Northern Binukidnon
kyo I L Kelon
kyp I L Kang
kyq I L Kenga
kyr I L Kuruαya
kys I L Baram Kayan
kyt I L Kayagar
kyu I L Western Kayah
kyv I L Kayort
kyw I L Kudmali
kyx I L Rapoisi
kyy I L Kambaira
kyz I L Kayabν
kza I L Western Karaboro
kzb I L Kaibobo
kzc I L Bondoukou Kulango
kzd I L Kadai
kze I L Kosena
kzf I L Da'a Kaili
kzg I L Kikai
kzi I L Kelabit
kzj I L Coastal Kadazan
kzk I E Kazukuru
kzl I L Kayeli
kzm I L Kais
kzn I L Kokola
kzo I L Kaningi
kzp I L Kaidipang
kzq I L Kaike
kzr I L Karang
kzs I L Sugut Dusun
kzt I L Tambunan Dusun
kzu I L Kayupulau
kzv I L Komyandaret
kzw I E Karirν-Xocσ
kzx I L Kamarian
kzy I L Kango (Tshopo District)
kzz I L Kalabra
laa I L Southern Subanen
lab I A Linear A
lac I L Lacandon
lad lad lad I L Ladino
lae I L Pattani
laf I L Lafofa
lag I L Langi
lah lah lah M L Lahnda
lai I L Lambya
laj I L Lango (Uganda)
lak I L Laka (Nigeria)
lal I L Lalia
lam lam lam I L Lamba
lan I L Laru
lao lao lao lo I L Lao
lap I L Laka (Chad)
laq I L Qabiao
lar I L Larteh
las I L Lama (Togo)
lat lat lat la I A Latin
lau I L Laba
lav lav lav lv M L Latvian
law I L Lauje
lax I L Tiwa
lay I L Lama (Myanmar)
laz I E Aribwatsa
lba I E Lui
lbb I L Label
lbc I L Lakkia
lbe I L Lak
lbf I L Tinani
lbg I L Laopang
lbi I L La'bi
lbj I L Ladakhi
lbk I L Central Bontok
lbl I L Libon Bikol
lbm I L Lodhi
lbn I L Lamet
lbo I L Laven
lbq I L Wampar
lbr I L Lohorung
lbs I L Libyan Sign Language
lbt I L Lachi
lbu I L Labu
lbv I L Lavatbura-Lamusong
lbw I L Tolaki
lbx I L Lawangan
lby I E Lamu-Lamu
lbz I L Lardil
lcc I L Legenyem
lcd I L Lola
lce I L Loncong
lcf I L Lubu
lch I L Luchazi
lcl I L Lisela
lcm I L Tungag
lcp I L Western Lawa
lcs I L Lisabata-Nuniali
ldb I L Du~ya
ldd I L Luri
ldg I L Lenyima
ldh I L Lamja-Dengsa-Tola
ldi I L Laari
ldj I L Lemoro
ldk I L Leelau
ldl I L Kaan
ldm I L Landoma
ldn I C Lαadan
ldo I L Loo
ldp I L Tso
ldq I L Lufu
lea I L Lega-Shabunda
leb I L Lala-Bisa
lec I L Leco
led I L Lendu
lee I L Lyιlι
lef I L Lelemi
leg I L Lengua
leh I L Lenje
lei I L Lemio
lej I L Lengola
lek I L Leipon
lel I L Lele (Democratic Republic of Congo)
lem I L Nomaande
len I E Lenca
leo I L Leti (Cameroon)
lep I L Lepcha
leq I L Lembena
ler I L Lenkau
les I L Lese
let I L Lesing-Gelimi
leu I L Kara (Papua New Guinea)
lev I L Lamma
lew I L Ledo Kaili
lex I L Luang
ley I L Lemolang
lez lez lez I L Lezghian
lfa I L Lefa
lfn I C Lingua Franca Nova
lga I L Lungga
lgb I L Laghu
lgg I L Lugbara
lgh I L Laghuu
lgi I L Lengilu
lgk I L Lingarak
lgl I L Wala
lgm I L Lega-Mwenga
lgn I L Opuuo
lgq I L Logba
lgr I L Lengo
lgt I L Pahi
lgu I L Longgu
lgz I L Ligenza
lha I L Laha (Viet Nam)
lhh I L Laha (Indonesia)
lhi I L Lahu Shi
lhl I L Lahul Lohar
lhm I L Lhomi
lhn I L Lahanan
lhp I L Lhokpu
lhs I E Mlahsφ
lht I L Lo-Toga
lhu I L Lahu
lia I L West-Central Limba
lib I L Likum
lic I L Hlai
lid I L Nyindrou
lie I L Likila
lif I L Limbu
lig I L Ligbi
lih I L Lihir
lii I L Lingkhim
lij I L Ligurian
lik I L Lika
lil I L Lillooet
lim lim lim li I L Limburgan
lin lin lin ln I L Lingala
lio I L Liki
lip I L Sekpele
liq I L Libido
lir I L Liberian English
lis I L Lisu
lit lit lit lt I L Lithuanian
liu I L Logorik
liv I L Liv
liw I L Col
lix I L Liabuku
liy I L Banda-Bambari
liz I L Libinza
lje I L Rampi
lji I L Laiyolo
ljl I L Li'o
ljp I L Lampung Api
lka I L Lakalei
lkb I L Kabras
lkc I L Kucong
lkd I L Lakondκ
lke I L Kenyi
lkh I L Lakha
lki I L Laki
lkj I L Remun
lkl I L Laeko-Libuat
lkn I L Lakon
lko I L Khayo
lkr I L Pδri
lks I L Kisa
lkt I L Lakota
lky I L Lokoya
lla I L Lala-Roba
llb I L Lolo
llc I L Lele (Guinea)
lld I L Ladin
lle I L Lele (Papua New Guinea)
llf I E Hermit
llg I L Lole
llh I L Lamu
lli I L Teke-Laali
llj I E Ladji Ladji
llk I E Lelak
lll I L Lilau
llm I L Lasalimu
lln I L Lele (Chad)
llo I L Khlor
llp I L North Efate
llq I L Lolak
lls I L Lithuanian Sign Language
llu I L Lau
llx I L Lauan
lma I L East Limba
lmb I L Merei
lmc I E Limilagan
lmd I L Lumun
lme I L Pιvι
lmf I L South Lembata
lmg I L Lamogai
lmh I L Lambichhong
lmi I L Lombi
lmj I L West Lembata
lmk I L Lamkang
lml I L Hano
lmm I L Lamam
lmn I L Lambadi
lmo I L Lombard
lmp I L Limbum
lmq I L Lamatuka
lmr I L Lamalera
lmu I L Lamenu
lmv I L Lomaiviti
lmw I L Lake Miwok
lmx I L Laimbue
lmy I L Lamboya
lmz I E Lumbee
lna I L Langbashe
lnb I L Mbalanhu
lnd I L Lundayeh
lag I A Langobardic
lnh I L Lanoh
lni I L Daantanai'
lnj I E Leningitij
lnl I L South Central Banda
lnm I L Langam
lnn I L Lorediakarkar
lno I L Lango (Sudan)
lns I L Lamnso'
lnu I L Longuda
lnz I L Lonzo
loa I L Loloda
lob I L Lobi
loc I L Inonhan
loe I L Saluan
lof I L Logol
log I L Logo
loh I L Narim
loi I L Loma (Cτte d'Ivoire)
loj I L Lou
lok I L Loko
lol lol lol I L Mongo
lom I L Loma (Liberia)
lon I L Malawi Lomwe
loo I L Lombo
lop I L Lopa
loq I L Lobala
lor I L Tιιn
los I L Loniu
lot I L Otuho
lou I L Louisiana Creole French
lov I L Lopi
low I L Tampias Lobu
lox I L Loun
loy I L Loke
loz loz loz I L Lozi
lpa I L Lelepa
lpe I L Lepki
lpn I L Long Phuri Naga
lpo I L Lipo
lpx I L Lopit
lra I L Rara Bakati'
lrc I L Northern Luri
lre I E Laurentian
lrg I E Laragia
lri I L Marachi
lrk I L Loarki
lrl I L Lari
lrm I L Marama
lrn I L Lorang
lro I L Laro
lrr I L Southern Yamphu
lrt I L Larantuka Malay
lrv I L Larevat
lrz I L Lemerig
lsa I L Lasgerdi
lsd I L Lishana Deni
lse I L Lusengo
lsg I L Lyons Sign Language
lsh I L Lish
lsi I L Lashi
lsl I L Latvian Sign Language
lsm I L Saamia
lso I L Laos Sign Language
lsp I L Panamanian Sign Language
lsr I L Aruop
lss I L Lasi
lst I L Trinidad and Tobago Sign Language
lsy I L Mauritian Sign Language
ltc I H Late Middle Chinese
ltg I L Latgalian
lti I L Leti (Indonesia)
ltn I L Latundκ
lto I L Tsotso
lts I L Tachoni
ltu I L Latu
ltz ltz ltz lb I L Luxembourgish
lua lua lua I L Luba-Lulua
lub lub lub lu I L Luba-Katanga
luc I L Aringa
lud I L Ludian
lue I L Luvale
luf I L Laua
lug lug lug lg I L Ganda
lui lui lui I L Luiseno
luj I L Luna
luk I L Lunanakha
lul I L Olu'bo
lum I L Luimbi
lun lun lun I L Lunda
luo luo luo I L Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)
lup I L Lumbu
luq I L Lucumi
lur I L Laura
lus lus lus I L Lushai
lut I L Lushootseed
luu I L Lumba-Yakkha
luv I L Luwati
luw I L Luo (Cameroon)
luy M L Luyia
luz I L Southern Luri
lva I L Maku'a
lvk I L Lavukaleve
lvs I L Standard Latvian
lvu I L Levuka
lwa I L Lwalu
lwe I L Lewo Eleng
lwg I L Wanga
lwh I L White Lachi
lwl I L Eastern Lawa
lwm I L Laomian
lwo I L Luwo
lwt I L Lewotobi
lww I L Lewo
lya I L Layakha
lyg I L Lyngngam
lyn I L Luyana
lzh I H Literary Chinese
lzl I L Litzlitz
lzn I L Leinong Naga
lzz I L Laz
maa I L San Jerσnimo Tecσatl Mazatec
mab I L Yutanduchi Mixtec
mad mad mad I L Madurese
mae I L Bo-Rukul
maf I L Mafa
mag mag mag I L Magahi
mah mah mah mh I L Marshallese
mai mai mai I L Maithili
maj I L Jalapa De Dνaz Mazatec
mak mak mak I L Makasar
mal mal mal ml I L Malayalam
mam I L Mam
man man man M L Mandingo
maq I L Chiquihuitlαn Mazatec
mar mar mar mr I L Marathi
mas mas mas I L Masai
mat I L San Francisco Matlatzinca
mau I L Huautla Mazatec
mav I L Saterι-Mawι
maw I L Mampruli
max I L North Moluccan Malay
maz I L Central Mazahua
mba I L Higaonon
mbb I L Western Bukidnon Manobo
mbc I L Macushi
mbd I L Dibabawon Manobo
mbe I E Molale
mbf I L Baba Malay
mbh I L Mangseng
mbi I L Ilianen Manobo
mbj I L Nadλb
mbk I L Malol
mbl I L Maxakalν
mbm I L Ombamba
mbn I L Macaguαn
mbo I L Mbo (Cameroon)
mbp I L Malayo
mbq I L Maisin
mbr I L Nukak Makϊ
mbs I L Sarangani Manobo
mbt I L Matigsalug Manobo
mbu I L Mbula-Bwazza
mbv I L Mbulungish
mbw I L Maring
mbx I L Mari (East Sepik Province)
mby I L Memoni
mbz I L Amoltepec Mixtec
mca I L Maca
mcb I L Machiguenga
mcc I L Bitur
mcd I L Sharanahua
mce I L Itundujia Mixtec
mcf I L Matsιs
mcg I L Mapoyo
mch I L Maquiritari
mci I L Mese
mcj I L Mvanip
mck I L Mbunda
mcl I E Macaguaje
mcm I L Malaccan Creole Portuguese
mcn I L Masana
mco I L Coatlαn Mixe
mcp I L Makaa
mcq I L Ese
mcr I L Menya
mcs I L Mambai
mct_lag I L Mengisa
mcu I L Cameroon Mambila
mcv I L Minanibai
mcw I L Mawa (Chad)
mcx I L Mpiemo
mcy I L South Watut
mcz I L Mawan
mda I L Mada (Nigeria)
mdb I L Morigi
mdc I L Male (Papua New Guinea)
mdd I L Mbum
mde I L Maba (Chad)
mdf mdf mdf I L Moksha
mdg I L Massalat
mdh I L Maguindanaon
mdi I L Mamvu
mdj I L Mangbetu
mdk I L Mangbutu
mdl I L Maltese Sign Language
mdm I L Mayogo
mdn I L Mbati
mdp I L Mbala
mdq I L Mbole
mdr mdr mdr I L Mandar
mds I L Maria (Papua New Guinea)
mdt I L Mbere
mdu I L Mboko
mdv I L Santa Lucνa Monteverde Mixtec
mdw I L Mbosi
mdx I L Dizin
mdy I L Male (Ethiopia)
mdz I L Suruν Do Parα
mea I L Menka
meb I L Ikobi
mec I L Mara
med I L Melpa
mee I L Mengen
mef I L Megam
meg I L Mea
meh I L Southwestern Tlaxiaco Mixtec
mei I L Midob
mej I L Meyah
mek I L Mekeo
mel I L Central Melanau
mem I E Mangala
men men men I L Mende (Sierra Leone)
meo I L Kedah Malay
mep I L Miriwung
meq I L Merey
mer I L Meru
mes I L Masmaje
met I L Mato
meu I L Motu
mev I L Mann
mew I L Maaka
mey I L Hassaniyya
mez I L Menominee
mfa I L Pattani Malay
mfb I L Bangka
mfc I L Mba
mfd I L Mendankwe-Nkwen
mfe I L Morisyen
mff I L Naki
mfg I L Mixifore
mfh I L Matal
mfi I L Wandala
mfj I L Mefele
mfk I L North Mofu
mfl I L Putai
mfm I L Marghi South
mfn I L Cross River Mbembe
mfo I L Mbe
mfp I L Makassar Malay
mfq I L Moba
mfr I L Marithiel
mfs I L Mexican Sign Language
mft I L Mokerang
mfu I L Mbwela
mfv I L Mandjak
mfw I E Mulaha
mfx I L Melo
mfy I L Mayo
mfz I L Mabaan
mga mga mga I H Middle Irish (900-1200)
mgb I L Mararit
mgc I L Morokodo
mgd I L Moru
mge I L Mango
mgf I L Maklew
mgg I L Mpumpong
mgh I L Makhuwa-Meetto
mgi I L Lijili
mgj I L Abureni
mgk I L Mawes
mgl I L Maleu-Kilenge
mgm I L Mambae
mgn I L Mbangi
mgo I L Meta'
mgp I L Eastern Magar
mgq I L Malila
mgr I L Mambwe-Lungu
mgs I L Manda (Tanzania)
mgt I L Mongol
mgu I L Mailu
mgv I L Matengo
mgw I L Matumbi
mgy I L Mbunga
mgz I L Mbugwe
mha I L Manda (India)
mhb I L Mahongwe
mhc I L Mocho
mhd I L Mbugu
mhe I L Besisi
mhf I L Mamaa
mhg I L Margu
mhh I L Maskoy Pidgin
mhi I L Ma'di
mhj I L Mogholi
mhk I L Mungaka
mhl I L Mauwake
mhm I L Makhuwa-Moniga
mhn I L Mσcheno
mho I L Mashi (Zambia)
mhp I L Balinese Malay
mhq I L Mandan
mhr I L Eastern Mari
mhs I L Buru (Indonesia)
mht I L Mandahuaca
mhu I L Digaro-Mishmi
mhw I L Mbukushu
mhx I L Maru
mhy I L Ma'anyan
mhz I L Mor (Mor Islands)
mia I L Miami
mib I L Atatlαhuca Mixtec
mic mic mic I L Mi'kmaq
mid I L Mandaic
mie I L Ocotepec Mixtec
mif I L Mofu-Gudur
mig I L San Miguel El Grande Mixtec
mih I L Chayuco Mixtec
mii I L Chigmecatitlαn Mixtec
mij I L Abar
mik I L Mikasuki
mil I L Peρoles Mixtec
mim I L Alacatlatzala Mixtec
min min min I L Minangkabau
mio I L Pinotepa Nacional Mixtec
mip I L Apasco-Apoala Mixtec
miq I L Mνskito
mir I L Isthmus Mixe
mis mis mis S S Uncoded languages
mit I L Southern Puebla Mixtec
miu I L Cacaloxtepec Mixtec
miw I L Akoye
mix I L Mixtepec Mixtec
miy I L Ayutla Mixtec
miz I L Coatzospan Mixtec
mjc I L San Juan Colorado Mixtec
mjd I L Northwest Maidu
mje I E Muskum
mjg I L Tu
mjh I L Mwera (Nyasa)
mji I L Kim Mun
mjj I L Mawak
mjk I L Matukar
mjl I L Mandeali
mjm I L Medebur
mjn I L Ma (Papua New Guinea)
mjo I L Malankuravan
mjp I L Malapandaram
mjq I E Malaryan
mjr I L Malavedan
mjs I L Miship
mjt I L Sauria Paharia
mju I L Manna-Dora
mjv I L Mannan
mjw I L Karbi
mjx I L Mahali
mjy I E Mahican
mjz I L Majhi
mka I L Mbre
mkb I L Mal Paharia
mkc I L Siliput
mkd mac mkd mk I L Macedonian
mke I L Mawchi
mkf I L Miya
mkg I L Mak (China)
mki I L Dhatki
mkj I L Mokilese
mkk I L Byep
mkl I L Mokole
mkm I L Moklen
mkn I L Kupang Malay
mko I L Mingang Doso
mkp I L Moikodi
mkq I E Bay Miwok
mkr I L Malas
mks I L Silacayoapan Mixtec
mkt I L Vamale
mku I L Konyanka Maninka
mkv I L Mafea
mkw I L Kituba (Congo)
mkx I L Kinamiging Manobo
mky I L East Makian
mkz I L Makasae
mla I L Malo
mlb I L Mbule
mlc I L Cao Lan
mld I L Malakhel
mle I L Manambu
mlf I L Mal
mlg mlg mlg mg M L Malagasy
mlh I L Mape
mli I L Malimpung
mlj I L Miltu
mlk I L Ilwana
mll I L Malua Bay
mlm I L Mulam
mln I L Malango
mlo I L Mlomp
mlp I L Bargam
mlq I L Western Maninkakan
mlr I L Vame
mls I L Masalit
mlt mlt mlt mt I L Maltese
mlu I L To'abaita
mlv I L Motlav
mlw I L Moloko
mlx I L Malfaxal
mlz I L Malaynon
mma I L Mama
mmb I L Momina
mmc I L Michoacαn Mazahua
mmd I L Maonan
mme I L Mae
mmf I L Mundat
mmg I L North Ambrym
mmh I L Mehinαku
mmi I L Musar
mmj I L Majhwar
mmk I L Mukha-Dora
mml I L Man Met
mmm I L Maii
mmn I L Mamanwa
mmo I L Mangga Buang
mmp I L Siawi
mmq I L Musak
mmr I L Western Xiangxi Miao
mmt I L Malalamai
mmu I L Mmaala
mmv I E Miriti
mmw I L Emae
mmx I L Madak
mmy I L Migaama
mmz I L Mabaale
mna I L Mbula
mnb I L Muna
mnc mnc mnc I L Manchu
mnd I L Mondι
mne I L Naba
mnf I L Mundani
mng I L Eastern Mnong
mnh I L Mono (Democratic Republic of Congo)
mni mni mni I L Manipuri
mnj I L Munji
mnk I L Mandinka
mnl I L Tiale
mnm I L Mapena
mnn I L Southern Mnong
mnp I L Min Bei Chinese
mnq I L Minriq
mnr I L Mono (USA)
mns I L Mansi
mnt I E Maykulan
mnu I L Mer
mnv I L Rennell-Bellona
mnw I L Mon
mnx I L Manikion
mny I L Manyawa
mnz I L Moni
moa I L Mwan
moc I L Mocovν
mod I E Mobilian
moe I L Montagnais
mog I L Mongondow
moh moh moh I L Mohawk
moi I L Mboi
moj I L Monzombo
mok I L Morori
mom I E Mangue
mon mon mon mn M L Mongolian
moo I L Monom
mop I L Mopαn Maya
moq I L Mor (Bomberai Peninsula)
mor I L Moro
mos mos mos I L Mossi
mot I L Barν
mou I L Mogum
mov I L Mohave
mow I L Moi (Congo)
mox I L Molima
moy I L Shekkacho
moz I L Mukulu
mpa I L Mpoto
mpb I L Mullukmulluk
mpc I L Mangarayi
mpd I L Machinere
mpe I L Majang
mpg I L Marba
mph I L Maung
mpi I L Mpade
mpj I L Martu Wangka
mpk I L Mbara (Chad)
mpl I L Middle Watut
mpm I L Yosondϊa Mixtec
mpn I L Mindiri
mpo I L Miu
mpp I L Migabac
mpq I L Matνs
mpr I L Vangunu
mps I L Dadibi
mpt I L Mian
mpu I L Makurαp
mpv I L Mungkip
mpw I L Mapidian
mpx I L Misima-Panaeati
mpy I L Mapia
mpz I L Mpi
mqa I L Maba (Indonesia)
mqb I L Mbuko
mqc I L Mangole
mqe I L Matepi
mqf I L Momuna
mqg I L Kota Bangun Kutai Malay
mqh I L Tlazoyaltepec Mixtec
mqi I L Mariri
mqj I L Mamasa
mqk I L Rajah Kabunsuwan Manobo
mql I L Mbelime
mqm I L South Marquesan
mqn I L Moronene
mqo I L Modole
mqp I L Manipa
mqq I L Minokok
mqr I L Mander
mqs I L West Makian
mqt I L Mok
mqu I L Mandari
mqv I L Mosimo
mqw I L Murupi
mqx I L Mamuju
mqy I L Manggarai
mqz I L Pano
mra I L Mlabri
mrb I L Marino
mrc I L Maricopa
mrd I L Western Magar
mre I E Martha's Vineyard Sign Language
mrf I L Elseng
mrg I L Mising
mrh I L Mara Chin
mri mao mri mi I L Maori
mrj I L Western Mari
mrk I L Hmwaveke
mrl I L Mortlockese
mrm I L Merlav
mrn I L Cheke Holo
mro I L Mru
mrp I L Morouas
mrq I L North Marquesan
mrr I L Maria (India)
mrs I L Maragus
mrt I L Marghi Central
mru I L Mono (Cameroon)
mrv I L Mangareva
mrw I L Maranao
mrx I L Maremgi
mry I L Mandaya
mrz I L Marind
msa may msa ms M L Malay (macrolanguage)
msb I L Masbatenyo
msc I L Sankaran Maninka
msd I L Yucatec Maya Sign Language
mse I L Musey
msf I L Mekwei
msg I L Moraid
msh I L Masikoro Malagasy
msi I L Sabah Malay
msj I L Ma (Democratic Republic of Congo)
msk I L Mansaka
msl I L Molof
msm I L Agusan Manobo
msn I L Vurλs
mso I L Mombum
msp I E Maritsauα
msq I L Caac
msr I L Mongolian Sign Language
mss I L West Masela
msu I L Musom
msv I L Maslam
msw I L Mansoanka
msx I L Moresada
msy I L Aruamu
msz I L Momare
mta I L Cotabato Manobo
mtb I L Anyin Morofo
mtc I L Munit
mtd I L Mualang
mte I L Mono (Solomon Islands)
mtf I L Murik (Papua New Guinea)
mtg I L Una
mth I L Munggui
mti I L Maiwa (Papua New Guinea)
mtj I L Moskona
mtk I L Mbe'
mtl I L Montol
mtm I E Mator
mtn I E Matagalpa
mto I L Totontepec Mixe
mtp I L Wichν Lhamtιs Nocten
mtq I L Muong
mtr I L Mewari
mts I L Yora
mtt I L Mota
mtu I L Tututepec Mixtec
mtv I L Asaro'o
mtw I L Southern Binukidnon
mtx I L Tidaα Mixtec
mty I L Nabi
mua I L Mundang
mub I L Mubi
muc I L Mbu'
mud I L Mednyj Aleut
mue I L Media Lengua
mug I L Musgu
muh I L Mόndό
mui I L Musi
muj I L Mabire
muk I L Mugom
mul mul mul S S Multiple languages
mum I L Maiwala
muo I L Nyong
mup I L Malvi
muq I L Eastern Xiangxi Miao
mur I L Murle
mus mus mus I L Creek
mut I L Western Muria
muu I L Yaaku
muv I L Muthuvan
mux I L Bo-Ung
muy I L Muyang
muz I L Mursi
mva I L Manam
mvb I E Mattole
mvd I L Mamboru
mve I L Marwari (Pakistan)
mvf I L Peripheral Mongolian
mvg I L Yucuaρe Mixtec
mvh I L Mulgi
mvi I L Miyako
mvk I L Mekmek
mvl I E Mbara (Australia)
mvm I L Muya
mvn I L Minaveha
mvo I L Marovo
mvp I L Duri
mvq I L Moere
mvr I L Marau
mvs I L Massep
mvt I L Mpotovoro
mvu I L Marfa
mvv I L Tagal Murut
mvw I L Machinga
mvx I L Meoswar
mvy I L Indus Kohistani
mvz I L Mesqan
mwa I L Mwatebu
mwb I L Juwal
mwc I L Are
mwd I L Mudbura
mwe I L Mwera (Chimwera)
mwf I L Murrinh-Patha
mwg I L Aiklep
mwh I L Mouk-Aria
mwi I L Labo
mwj I L Maligo
mwk I L Kita Maninkakan
mwl mwl mwl I L Mirandese
mwm I L Sar
mwn I L Nyamwanga
mwo I L Central Maewo
mwp I L Kala Lagaw Ya
mwq I L Mόn Chin
mwr mwr mwr M L Marwari
mws I L Mwimbi-Muthambi
mwt I L Moken
mwu I E Mittu
mwv I L Mentawai
mww I L Hmong Daw
mwx I L Mediak
mwy I L Mosiro
mwz I L Moingi
mxa I L Northwest Oaxaca Mixtec
mxb I L Tezoatlαn Mixtec
mxc I L Manyika
mxd I L Modang
mxe I L Mele-Fila
mxf I L Malgbe
mxg I L Mbangala
mxh I L Mvuba
mxi I E Mozarabic
mxj I L Miju-Mishmi
mxk I L Monumbo
mxl I L Maxi Gbe
mxm I L Meramera
mxn I L Moi (Indonesia)
mxo I L Mbowe
mxp I L Tlahuitoltepec Mixe
mxq I L Juquila Mixe
mxr I L Murik (Malaysia)
mxs I L Huitepec Mixtec
mxt I L Jamiltepec Mixtec
mxu I L Mada (Cameroon)
mxv I L Metlatσnoc Mixtec
mxw I L Namo
mxx I L Mahou
mxy I L Southeastern Nochixtlαn Mixtec
mxz I L Central Masela
mya bur mya my I L Burmese
myb I L Mbay
myc I L Mayeka
myd I L Maramba
mye I L Myene
myf I L Bambassi
myg I L Manta
myh I L Makah
myi I L Mina (India)
myj I L Mangayat
myk I L Mamara Senoufo
myl I L Moma
mym I L Me'en
myo I L Anfillo
myp I L Pirahγ
myq I L Forest Maninka
myr I L Muniche
mys I E Mesmes
myu I L Mundurukϊ
myv myv myv I L Erzya
myw I L Muyuw
myx I L Masaaba
myy I L Macuna
myz I H Classical Mandaic
mza I L Santa Marνa Zacatepec Mixtec
mzb I L Tumzabt
mzc I L Madagascar Sign Language
mzd I L Malimba
mze I L Morawa
mzg I L Monastic Sign Language
mzh I L Wichν Lhamtιs Gόisnay
mzi I L Ixcatlαn Mazatec
mzj I L Manya
mzk I L Nigeria Mambila
mzl I L Mazatlαn Mixe
mzm I L Mumuye
mzn I L Mazanderani
mzo I E Matipuhy
mzp I L Movima
mzq I L Mori Atas
mzr I L Marϊbo
mzs I L Macanese
mzt I L Mintil
mzu I L Inapang
mzv I L Manza
mzw I L Deg
mzx I L Mawayana
mzy I L Mozambican Sign Language
mzz I L Maiadomu
naa I L Namla
nab I L Southern Nambikuαra
nac I L Narak
nad I L Nijadali
nae I L Naka'ela
naf I L Nabak
nag I L Naga Pidgin
naj I L Nalu
nak I L Nakanai
nal I L Nalik
nam I L Ngan'gityemerri
nan I L Min Nan Chinese
nao I L Naaba
nap nap nap I L Neapolitan
naq I L Nama (Namibia)
nar I L Iguta
nas I L Naasioi
nat I L Hungworo
nau nau nau na I L Nauru
nav nav nav nv I L Navajo
naw I L Nawuri
nax I L Nakwi
nay I E Narrinyeri
naz I L Coatepec Nahuatl
nba I L Nyemba
nbb I L Ndoe
nbc I L Chang Naga
nbd I L Ngbinda
nbe I L Konyak Naga
nbg I L Nagarchal
nbh I L Ngamo
nbi I L Mao Naga
nbj I L Ngarinman
nbk I L Nake
nbl nbl nbl nr I L South Ndebele
nbm I L Ngbaka Ma'bo
nbn I L Kuri
nbo I L Nkukoli
nbp I L Nnam
nbq I L Nggem
nbr I L Numana-Nunku-Gbantu-Numbu
nbs I L Namibian Sign Language
nbt I L Na
nbu I L Rongmei Naga
nbv I L Ngamambo
nbw I L Southern Ngbandi
nbx I E Ngura
nby I L Ningera
nca I L Iyo
ncb I L Central Nicobarese
ncc I L Ponam
ncd I L Nachering
nce I L Yale
ncf I L Notsi
ncg I L Nisga'a
nch I L Central Huasteca Nahuatl
nci I H Classical Nahuatl
ncj I L Northern Puebla Nahuatl
nck I L Nakara
ncl I L Michoacαn Nahuatl
ncm I L Nambo
ncn I L Nauna
nco I L Sibe
ncp I L Ndaktup
ncr I L Ncane
ncs I L Nicaraguan Sign Language
nct I L Chothe Naga
ncu I L Chumburung
ncx I L Central Puebla Nahuatl
ncz I E Natchez
nda I L Ndasa
ndb I L Kenswei Nsei
ndc I L Ndau
ndd I L Nde-Nsele-Nta
nde nde nde nd I L North Ndebele
ndf I E Nadruvian
ndg I L Ndengereko
ndh I L Ndali
ndi I L Samba Leko
ndj I L Ndamba
ndk I L Ndaka
ndl I L Ndolo
ndm I L Ndam
ndn I L Ngundi
ndo ndo ndo ng I L Ndonga
ndp I L Ndo
ndq I L Ndombe
ndr I L Ndoola
nds nds nds I L Low German
ndt I L Ndunga
ndu I L Dugun
ndv I L Ndut
ndw I L Ndobo
ndx I L Nduga
ndy I L Lutos
ndz I L Ndogo
nea I L Eastern Ngad'a
neb I L Toura (Cτte d'Ivoire)
nec I L Nedebang
ned I L Nde-Gbite
nee I L Nκlκmwa-Nixumwak
nef I L Nefamese
neg I L Negidal
neh I L Nyenkha
nei I A Neo-Hittite
nej I L Neko
nek I L Neku
nem I L Nemi
nen I L Nengone
neo I L Nα-Meo
nep nep nep ne M L Nepali (macrolanguage)
neq I L North Central Mixe
ner I L Yahadian
nes I L Bhoti Kinnauri
net I L Nete
neu I C Neo
nev I L Nyaheun
new new new I L Newari
nex I L Neme
ney I L Neyo
nez I L Nez Perce
nfa I L Dhao
nfd I L Ahwai
nfl I L Ayiwo
nfr I L Nafaanra
nfu I L Mfumte
nga I L Ngbaka
ngb I L Northern Ngbandi
ngc I L Ngombe (Democratic Republic of Congo)
ngd I L Ngando (Central African Republic)
nge I L Ngemba
ngg I L Ngbaka Manza
ngh I L N/u
ngi I L Ngizim
ngj I L Ngie
ngk I L Ngalkbun
ngl I L Lomwe
ngm I L Ngatik Men's Creole
ngn I L Ngwo
ngo I L Ngoni
ngp I L Ngulu
ngq I L Ngurimi
ngr I L Engdewu
ngs I L Gvoko
ngt I L Ngeq
ngu I L Guerrero Nahuatl
ngv I E Nagumi
ngw I L Ngwaba
ngx I L Nggwahyi
ngy I L Tibea
ngz I L Ngungwel
nha I L Nhanda
nhb I L Beng
nhc I E Tabasco Nahuatl
nhd I L Chiripα
nhe I L Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl
nhf I L Nhuwala
nhg I L Tetelcingo Nahuatl
nhh I L Nahari
nhi I L Zacatlαn-Ahuacatlαn-Tepetzintla Nahuatl
nhk I L Isthmus-Cosoleacaque Nahuatl
nhm I L Morelos Nahuatl
nhn I L Central Nahuatl
nho I L Takuu
nhp I L Isthmus-Pajapan Nahuatl
nhq I L Huaxcaleca Nahuatl
nhr I L Naro
nht I L Ometepec Nahuatl
nhu I L Noone
nhv I L Temascaltepec Nahuatl
nhw I L Western Huasteca Nahuatl
nhx I L Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl
nhy I L Northern Oaxaca Nahuatl
nhz I L Santa Marνa La Alta Nahuatl
nia nia nia I L Nias
nib I L Nakame
nid I E Ngandi
nie I L Niellim
nif I L Nek
nig I E Ngalakan
nih I L Nyiha (Tanzania)
nii I L Nii
nij I L Ngaju
nik I L Southern Nicobarese
nil I L Nila
nim I L Nilamba
nin I L Ninzo
nio I L Nganasan
niq I L Nandi
nir I L Nimboran
nis I L Nimi
nit I L Southeastern Kolami
niu niu niu I L Niuean
niv I L Gilyak
niw I L Nimo
nix I L Hema
niy I L Ngiti
niz I L Ningil
nja I L Nzanyi
njb I L Nocte Naga
njd I L Ndonde Hamba
njh I L Lotha Naga
nji I L Gudanji
njj I L Njen
njl I L Njalgulgule
njm I L Angami Naga
njn I L Liangmai Naga
njo I L Ao Naga
njr I L Njerep
njs I L Nisa
njt I L Ndyuka-Trio Pidgin
nju I L Ngadjunmaya
njx I L Kunyi
njy I L Njyem
njz I L Nyishi
nka I L Nkoya
nkb I L Khoibu Naga
nkc I L Nkongho
nkd I L Koireng
nke I L Duke
nkf I L Inpui Naga
nkg I L Nekgini
nkh I L Khezha Naga
nki I L Thangal Naga
nkj I L Nakai
nkk I L Nokuku
nkm I L Namat
nkn I L Nkangala
nko I L Nkonya
nkp I E Niuatoputapu
nkq I L Nkami
nkr I L Nukuoro
nks I L North Asmat
nkt I L Nyika (Tanzania)
nku I L Bouna Kulango
nkv I L Nyika (Malawi and Zambia)
nkw I L Nkutu
nkx I L Nkoroo
nkz I L Nkari
nla I L Ngombale
nlc I L Nalca
nld dut nld nl I L Dutch
nle I L East Nyala
nlg I L Gela
nli I L Grangali
nlj I L Nyali
nlk I L Ninia Yali
nll I L Nihali
nlo I L Ngul
nlr I L Ngarla
nlu I L Nchumbulu
nlv I L Orizaba Nahuatl
nlx I L Nahali
nly I L Nyamal
nlz I L Nalφgo
nma I L Maram Naga
nmb I L Big Nambas
nmc I L Ngam
nmd I L Ndumu
nme I L Mzieme Naga
nmf I L Tangkhul Naga (India)
nmg I L Kwasio
nmh I L Monsang Naga
nmi I L Nyam
nmj I L Ngombe (Central African Republic)
nmk I L Namakura
nml I L Ndemli
nmm I L Manangba
nmn I L !Xσυ
nmo I L Moyon Naga
nmp I E Nimanbur
nmq I L Nambya
nmr I E Nimbari
nms I L Letemboi
nmt I L Namonuito
nmu I L Northeast Maidu
nmv I E Ngamini
nmw I L Nimoa
nmx I L Nama (Papua New Guinea)
nmy I L Namuyi
nmz I L Nawdm
nna I L Nyangumarta
nnb I L Nande
nnc I L Nancere
nnd I L West Ambae
nne I L Ngandyera
nnf I L Ngaing
nng I L Maring Naga
nnh I L Ngiemboon
nni I L North Nuaulu
nnj I L Nyangatom
nnk I L Nankina
nnl I L Northern Rengma Naga
nnm I L Namia
nnn I L Ngete
nno nno nno nn I L Norwegian Nynorsk
nnp I L Wancho Naga
nnq I L Ngindo
nnr I E Narungga
nns I L Ningye
nnt I E Nanticoke
nnu I L Dwang
nnv I E Nugunu (Australia)
nnw I L Southern Nuni
nnx I L Ngong
nny I E Nyangga
nnz I L Nda'nda'
noa I L Woun Meu
nob nob nob nb I L Norwegian Bokmεl
noc I L Nuk
nod I L Northern Thai
noe I L Nimadi
nof I L Nomane
nog nog nog I L Nogai
noh I L Nomu
noi I L Noiri
noj I L Nonuya
nok I E Nooksack
nom I E Nocamαn
non non non I H Old Norse
nop I L Numanggang
noq I L Ngongo
nor nor nor no M L Norwegian
nos I L Eastern Nisu
not I L Nomatsiguenga
nou I L Ewage-Notu
nov I C Novial
now I L Nyambo
noy I L Noy
noz I L Nayi
npa I L Nar Phu
npb I L Nupbikha
npg I L Ponyo-Gongwang Naga
nph I L Phom Naga
npi I L Nepali (individual language)
npl I L Southeastern Puebla Nahuatl
npn I L Mondropolon
npo I L Pochuri Naga
nps I L Nipsan
npu I L Puimei Naga
npy I L Napu
nqg I L Southern Nago
nqk I L Kura Ede Nago
nqm I L Ndom
nqn I L Nen
nqo nqo nqo I L N'Ko
nqy I L Akyaung Ari Naga
nra I L Ngom
nrb I L Nara
nrc I A Noric
nre I L Southern Rengma Naga
nrg I L Narango
nri I L Chokri Naga
nrl I L Ngarluma
nrm I L Narom
nrn I E Norn
nrp I A North Picene
nrr I L Norra
nrt I E Northern Kalapuya
nru I L Narua
nrx I E Ngurmbur
nrz I L Lala
nsa I L Sangtam Naga
nsc I L Nshi
nsd I L Southern Nisu
nse I L Nsenga
nsf I L Northwestern Nisu
nsg I L Ngasa
nsh I L Ngoshie
nsi I L Nigerian Sign Language
nsk I L Naskapi
nsl I L Norwegian Sign Language
nsm I L Sumi Naga
nsn I L Nehan
nso nso nso I L Pedi
nsp I L Nepalese Sign Language
nsq I L Northern Sierra Miwok
nsr I L Maritime Sign Language
nss I L Nali
nst I L Tase Naga
nsu I L Sierra Negra Nahuatl
nsv I L Southwestern Nisu
nsw I L Navut
nsx I L Nsongo
nsy I L Nasal
nsz I L Nisenan
nte I L Nathembo
nti I L Natioro
ntj I L Ngaanyatjarra
ntk I L Ikoma-Nata-Isenye
ntm I L Nateni
nto I L Ntomba
ntp I L Northern Tepehuan
ntr I L Delo
nts I E Natagaimas
ntu I L Natόgu
ntw I E Nottoway
ntx I L Tangkhul Naga (Myanmar)
nty I L Mantsi
ntz I L Natanzi
nua I L Yuaga
nuc I E Nukuini
nud I L Ngala
nue I L Ngundu
nuf I L Nusu
nug I E Nungali
nuh I L Ndunda
nui I L Ngumbi
nuj I L Nyole
nuk I L Nuu-chah-nulth
nul I L Nusa Laut
num I L Niuafo'ou
nun I L Anong
nuo I L Nguτn
nup I L Nupe-Nupe-Tako
nuq I L Nukumanu
nur I L Nukuria
nus I L Nuer
nut I L Nung (Viet Nam)
nuu I L Ngbundu
nuv I L Northern Nuni
nuw I L Nguluwan
nux I L Mehek
nuy I L Nunggubuyu
nuz I L Tlamacazapa Nahuatl
nvh I L Nasarian
nvm I L Namiae
nvo I L Nyokon
nwa I E Nawathinehena
nwb I L Nyabwa
nwc nwc nwc I H Classical Newari
nwe I L Ngwe
nwg I E Ngayawung
nwi I L Southwest Tanna
nwm I L Nyamusa-Molo
nwo I E Nauo
nwr I L Nawaru
nwx I H Middle Newar
nwy I E Nottoway-Meherrin
nxa I L Nauete
nxd I L Ngando (Democratic Republic of Congo)
nxe I L Nage
nxg I L Ngad'a
nxi I L Nindi
nxk I L Koki Naga
nxl I L South Nuaulu
nxm I A Numidian
nxn I E Ngawun
nxq I L Naxi
nxr I L Ninggerum
nxu I E Narau
nxx I L Nafri
nya nya nya ny I L Nyanja
nyb I L Nyangbo
nyc I L Nyanga-li
nyd I L Nyore
nye I L Nyengo
nyf I L Giryama
nyg I L Nyindu
nyh I L Nyigina
nyi I L Ama (Sudan)
nyj I L Nyanga
nyk I L Nyaneka
nyl I L Nyeu
nym nym nym I L Nyamwezi
nyn nyn nyn I L Nyankole
nyo nyo nyo I L Nyoro
nyp I E Nyang'i
nyq I L Nayini
nyr I L Nyiha (Malawi)
nys I L Nyunga
nyt I E Nyawaygi
nyu I L Nyungwe
nyv I E Nyulnyul
nyw I L Nyaw
nyx I E Nganyaywana
nyy I L Nyakyusa-Ngonde
nza I L Tigon Mbembe
nzb I L Njebi
nzi nzi nzi I L Nzima
nzk I L Nzakara
nzm I L Zeme Naga
nzs I L New Zealand Sign Language
nzu I L Teke-Nzikou
nzy I L Nzakambay
nzz I L Nanga Dama Dogon
oaa I L Orok
oac I L Oroch
oar I A Old Aramaic (up to 700 BCE)
oav I H Old Avar
obi I E Obispeρo
obk I L Southern Bontok
obl I L Oblo
obm I A Moabite
obo I L Obo Manobo
obr I H Old Burmese
obt I H Old Breton
obu I L Obulom
oca I L Ocaina
och I A Old Chinese
oci oci oci oc I L Occitan (post 1500)
oco I H Old Cornish
ocu I L Atzingo Matlatzinca
oda I L Odut
odk I L Od
odt I H Old Dutch
odu I L Odual
ofo I E Ofo
ofs I H Old Frisian
ofu I L Efutop
ogb I L Ogbia
ogc I L Ogbah
oge I H Old Georgian
ogg I L Ogbogolo
ogo I L Khana
ogu I L Ogbronuagum
oht I A Old Hittite
ohu I H Old Hungarian
oia I L Oirata
oin I L Inebu One
ojb I L Northwestern Ojibwa
ojc I L Central Ojibwa
ojg I L Eastern Ojibwa
oji oji oji oj M L Ojibwa
ojp I H Old Japanese
ojs I L Severn Ojibwa
ojv I L Ontong Java
ojw I L Western Ojibwa
oka I L Okanagan
okb I L Okobo
okd I L Okodia
oke I L Okpe (Southwestern Edo)
okg I E Koko Babangk
okh I L Koresh-e Rostam
oki I L Okiek
okj I E Oko-Juwoi
okk I L Kwamtim One
okl I E Old Kentish Sign Language
okm I H Middle Korean (10th-16th cent.)
okn I L Oki-No-Erabu
oko I H Old Korean (3rd-9th cent.)
okr I L Kirike
oks I L Oko-Eni-Osayen
oku I L Oku
okv I L Orokaiva
okx I L Okpe (Northwestern Edo)
ola I L Walungge
old I L Mochi
ole I L Olekha
olm I L Oloma
olo I L Livvi
olr I L Olrat
oma I L Omaha-Ponca
omb I L East Ambae
omc I E Mochica
ome I E Omejes
omg I L Omagua
omi I L Omi
omk I E Omok
oml I L Ombo
omn I A Minoan
omo I L Utarmbung
omp I H Old Manipuri
omr I H Old Marathi
omt I L Omotik
omu I E Omurano
omw I L South Tairora
omx I H Old Mon
ona I L Ona
onb I L Lingao
one I L Oneida
ong I L Olo
oni I L Onin
onj I L Onjob
onk I L Kabore One
onn I L Onobasulu
ono I L Onondaga
onp I L Sartang
onr I L Northern One
ons I L Ono
ont I L Ontenu
onu I L Unua
onw I H Old Nubian
onx I L Onin Based Pidgin
ood I L Tohono O'odham
oog I L Ong
oon I L Φnge
oor I L Oorlams
oos I A Old Ossetic
opa I L Okpamheri
opk I L Kopkaka
opm I L Oksapmin
opo I L Opao
opt I E Opata
opy I L Ofayι
ora I L Oroha
orc I L Orma
ore I L Orejσn
org I L Oring
orh I L Oroqen
ori ori ori or M L Oriya (macrolanguage)
orm orm orm om M L Oromo
orn I L Orang Kanaq
oro I L Orokolo
orr I L Oruma
ors I L Orang Seletar
ort I L Adivasi Oriya
oru I L Ormuri
orv I H Old Russian
orw I L Oro Win
orx I L Oro
ory I L Oriya (individual language)
orz I L Ormu
osa osa osa I L Osage
osc I A Oscan
osi I L Osing
oso I L Ososo
osp I H Old Spanish
oss oss oss os I L Ossetian
ost I L Osatu
osu I L Southern One
osx I H Old Saxon
ota ota ota I H Ottoman Turkish (1500-1928)
otb I H Old Tibetan
otd I L Ot Danum
ote I L Mezquital Otomi
oti I E Oti
otk I H Old Turkish
otl I L Tilapa Otomi
otm I L Eastern Highland Otomi
otn I L Tenango Otomi
otq I L Querιtaro Otomi
otr I L Otoro
ots I L Estado de Mιxico Otomi
ott I L Temoaya Otomi
otu I E Otuke
otw I L Ottawa
otx I L Texcatepec Otomi
oty I A Old Tamil
otz I L Ixtenco Otomi
oua I L Tagargrent
oub I L Glio-Oubi
oue I L Oune
oui I H Old Uighur
oum I E Ouma
oun I L !O!ung
owi I L Owiniga
owl I H Old Welsh
oyb I L Oy
oyd I L Oyda
oym I L Wayampi
oyy I L Oya'oya
ozm I L Koonzime
pab I L Parecνs
pac I L Pacoh
pad I L Paumarν
pae I L Pagibete
paf I E Paranawαt
pag pag pag I L Pangasinan
pah I L Tenharim
pai I L Pe
pak I L Parakanγ
pal pal pal I A Pahlavi
pam pam pam I L Pampanga
pan pan pan pa I L Panjabi
pao I L Northern Paiute
pap pap pap I L Papiamento
paq I L Parya
par I L Panamint
pas I L Papasena
pat I L Papitalai
pau pau pau I L Palauan
pav I L Pakaαsnovos
paw I L Pawnee
pax I E Pankararι
pay I L Pech
paz I E Pankararϊ
pbb I L Pαez
pbc I L Patamona
pbe I L Mezontla Popoloca
pbf I L Coyotepec Popoloca
pbg I E Paraujano
pbh I L E'ρapa Woromaipu
pbi I L Parkwa
pbl I L Mak (Nigeria)
pbn I L Kpasam
pbo I L Papel
pbp I L Badyara
pbr I L Pangwa
pbs I L Central Pame
pbt I L Southern Pashto
pbu I L Northern Pashto
pbv I L Pnar
pby I L Pyu
pca I L Santa Inιs Ahuatempan Popoloca
pcb I L Pear
pcc I L Bouyei
pcd I L Picard
pce I L Ruching Palaung
pcf I L Paliyan
pcg I L Paniya
pch I L Pardhan
pci I L Duruwa
pcj I L Parenga
pck I L Paite Chin
pcl I L Pardhi
pcm I L Nigerian Pidgin
pcn I L Piti
pcp I L Pacahuara
pcr I L Panang
pcw I L Pyapun
pda I L Anam
pdc I L Pennsylvania German
pdi I L Pa Di
pdn I L Podena
pdo I L Padoe
pdt I L Plautdietsch
pdu I L Kayan
pea I L Peranakan Indonesian
peb I E Eastern Pomo
ped I L Mala (Papua New Guinea)
pee I L Taje
pef I E Northeastern Pomo
peg I L Pengo
peh I L Bonan
pei I L Chichimeca-Jonaz
pej I E Northern Pomo
pek I L Penchal
pel I L Pekal
pem I L Phende
peo peo peo I H Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)
pep I L Kunja
peq I L Southern Pomo
pes I L Iranian Persian
pev I L Pιmono
pex I L Petats
pey I L Petjo
pez I L Eastern Penan
pfa I L Pααfang
pfe I L Peere
pfl I L Pfaelzisch
pga I L Sudanese Creole Arabic
pgg I L Pangwali
pgi I L Pagi
pgk I L Rerep
pgl I A Primitive Irish
pgn I A Paelignian
pgs I L Pangseng
pgu I L Pagu
pha I L Pa-Hng
phd I L Phudagi
phg I L Phuong
phh I L Phukha
phk I L Phake
p h l I L Phalura
phm I L Phimbi
phn phn phn I A Phoenician
pho I L Phunoi
phq I L Phana'
phr I L Pahari-Potwari
pht I L Phu Thai
phu I L Phuan
phv I L Pahlavani
phw I L Phangduwali
pia I L Pima Bajo
pib I L Yine
pic I L Pinji
pid I L Piaroa
pie I E Piro
pif I L Pingelapese
pig I L Pisabo
pih I L Pitcairn-Norfolk
pii I L Pini
pij I E Pijao
pil I L Yom
pim I E Powhatan
pin I L Piame
pio I L Piapoco
pip I L Pero
pir I L Piratapuyo
pis I L Pijin
pit I E Pitta Pitta
piu I L Pintupi-Luritja
piv I L Pileni
piw I L Pimbwe
pix I L Piu
piy I L Piya-Kwonci
piz I L Pije
pjt I L Pitjantjatjara
pka I H Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
pkb I L Pokomo
pkc I E Paekche
pkg I L Pak-Tong
pkh I L Pankhu
pkn I L Pakanha
pko I L Pφkoot
pkp I L Pukapuka
pkr I L Attapady Kurumba
pks I L Pakistan Sign Language
pkt I L Maleng
pku I L Paku
pla I L Miani
plb I L Polonombauk
plc I L Central Palawano
pld I L Polari
ple I L Palu'e
plg I L Pilagα
plh I L Paulohi
pli pli pli pi I A Pali
plj I L Polci
plk I L Kohistani Shina
pll I L Shwe Palaung
pln I L Palenquero
plo I L Oluta Popoluca
plp I L Palpa
plq I A Palaic
plr I L Palaka Senoufo
pls I L San Marcos Tlalcoyalco Popoloca
plt I L Plateau Malagasy
plu I L Palikϊr
plv I L Southwest Palawano
plw I L Brooke's Point Palawano
ply I L Bolyu
plz I L Paluan
pma I L Paama
pmb I L Pambia
pmc I E Palumata
pmd I E Pallanganmiddang
pme I L Pwaamei
pmf I L Pamona
pmh I H Maharastri Prakrit
pmi I L Northern Pumi
pmj I L Southern Pumi
pmk I E Pamlico
pml I E Lingua Franca
pmm I L Pomo
pmn I L Pam
pmo I L Pom
pmq I L Northern Pame
pmr I L Paynamar
pms I L Piemontese
pmt I L Tuamotuan
pmu I L Mirpur Panjabi
pmw I L Plains Miwok
pmx I L Poumei Naga
pmy I L Papuan Malay
pmz I E Southern Pame
pna I L Punan Bah-Biau
pnb I L Western Panjabi
pnc I L Pannei
pne I L Western Penan
png I L Pongu
pnh I L Penrhyn
pni I L Aoheng
pnk I L Paunaka
pnm I L Punan Batu 1
pnn I L Pinai-Hagahai
pno I E Panobo
pnp I L Pancana
pnq I L Pana (Burkina Faso)
pnr I L Panim
pns I L Ponosakan
pnt I L Pontic
pnu I L Jiongnai Bunu
pnv I L Pinigura
pnw I L Panytyima
pnx I L Phong-Kniang
pny I L Pinyin
pnz I L Pana (Central African Republic)
poc I L Poqomam
pod I E Ponares
poe I L San Juan Atzingo Popoloca
pof I L Poke
pog I E Potiguαra
poh I L Poqomchi'
poi I L Highland Popoluca
pok I L Pokangα
pol pol pol pl I L Polish
pom I L Southeastern Pomo
pon pon pon I L Pohnpeian
poo I L Central Pomo
pop I L Pwapwa
poq I L Texistepec Popoluca
por por por pt I L Portuguese
pos I L Sayula Popoluca
pot I L Potawatomi
pov I L Upper Guinea Crioulo
pow I L San Felipe Otlaltepec Popoloca
pox I E Polabian
poy I L Pogolo
ppa I L Pao
ppe I L Papi
ppi I L Paipai
ppk I L Uma
ppl I L Pipil
ppm I L Papuma
ppn I L Papapana
ppo I L Folopa
ppp I L Pelende
ppq I L Pei
ppr I L Piru
pps I L San Luνs Temalacayuca Popoloca
ppt I L Pare
ppu I E Papora
pqa I L Pa'a
pqm I L Malecite-Passamaquoddy
prb I L Lua'
prc I L Parachi
prd I L Parsi-Dari
pre I L Principense
prf I L Paranan
prg I L Prussian
prh I L Porohanon
pri I L Paicξ
prk I L Parauk
prl I L Peruvian Sign Language
prm I L Kibiri
prn I L Prasuni
pro pro pro I H Old Provenηal (to 1500)
prp I L Parsi
prq I L Ashιninka Perenι
prr I E Puri
prs I L Dari
prt I L Phai
pru I L Puragi
prw I L Parawen
prx I L Purik
pry I L Pray 3
prz I L Providencia Sign Language
psa I L Asue Awyu
psc I L Persian Sign Language
psd I L Plains Indian Sign Language
pse I L Central Malay
psg I L Penang Sign Language
psh I L Southwest Pashayi
psi I L Southeast Pashayi
psl I L Puerto Rican Sign Language
psm I E Pauserna
psn I L Panasuan
pso I L Polish Sign Language
psp I L Philippine Sign Language
psq I L Pasi
psr I L Portuguese Sign Language
pss I L Kaulong
pst I L Central Pashto
psu I H Sauraseni Prakrit
psw I L Port Sandwich
psy I E Piscataway
pta I L Pai Tavytera
pth I E Pataxσ Hγ-Ha-Hγe
pti I L Pintiini
ptn I L Patani
pto I L Zo'ι
ptp I L Patep
ptr I L Piamatsina
ptt I L Enrekang
ptu I L Bambam
ptv I L Port Vato
ptw I E Pentlatch
pty I L Pathiya
pua I L Western Highland Purepecha
pub I L Purum
puc I L Punan Merap
pud I L Punan Aput
pue I L Puelche
puf I L Punan Merah
pug I L Phuie
pui I L Puinave
puj I L Punan Tubu
puk I L Pu Ko
pum I L Puma
puo I L Puoc
pup I L Pulabu
puq I E Puquina
pur I L Puruborα
pus pus pus ps M L Pushto
put I L Putoh
puu I L Punu
puw I L Puluwatese
pux I L Puare
puy I E Purisimeρo
puz I L Purum Naga
pwa I L Pawaia
pwb I L Panawa
pwg I L Gapapaiwa
pwm I L Molbog
pwn I L Paiwan
pwo I L Pwo Western Karen
pwr I L Powari
pww I L Pwo Northern Karen
pxm I L Quetzaltepec Mixe
pye I L Pye Krumen
pym I L Fyam
pyn I L Poyanαwa
pys I L Paraguayan Sign Language
pyu I L Puyuma
pyx I A Pyu (Myanmar)
pyy I L Pyen
pzn I L Para Naga
qua I L Quapaw
qub I L Huallaga Huαnuco Quechua
quc I L K'iche'
qud I L Calderσn Highland Quichua
que que que qu M L Quechua
quf I L Lambayeque Quechua
qug I L Chimborazo Highland Quichua
quh I L South Bolivian Quechua
qui I L Quileute
quk I L Chachapoyas Quechua
qul I L North Bolivian Quechua
qum I L Sipacapense
qun I E Quinault
qup I L Southern Pastaza Quechua
quq I L Quinqui
qur I L Yanahuanca Pasco Quechua
qus I L Santiago del Estero Quichua
quv I L Sacapulteco
quw I L Tena Lowland Quichua
qux I L Yauyos Quechua
quy I L Ayacucho Quechua
quz I L Cusco Quechua
qva I L Ambo-Pasco Quechua
qvc I L Cajamarca Quechua
qve I L Eastern Apurνmac Quechua
qvh I L Huamalνes-Dos de Mayo Huαnuco Quechua
qvi I L Imbabura Highland Quichua
qvj I L Loja Highland Quichua
qvl I L Cajatambo North Lima Quechua
qvm I L Margos-Yarowilca-Lauricocha Quechua
qvn I L North Junνn Quechua
qvo I L Napo Lowland Quechua
qvp I L Pacaraos Quechua
qvs I L San Martνn Quechua
qvw I L Huaylla Wanca Quechua
qvy I L Queyu
qvz I L Northern Pastaza Quichua
qwa I L Corongo Ancash Quechua
qwc I H Classical Quechua
qwh I L Huaylas Ancash Quechua
qwm I E Kuman (Russia)
qws I L Sihuas Ancash Quechua
qwt I E Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai
qxa I L Chiquiαn Ancash Quechua
qxc I L Chincha Quechua
qxh I L Panao Huαnuco Quechua
qxl I L Salasaca Highland Quichua
qxn I L Northern Conchucos Ancash Quechua
qxo I L Southern Conchucos Ancash Quechua
qxp I L Puno Quechua
qxq I L Qashqa'i
qxr I L Caρar Highland Quichua
qxs I L Southern Qiang
qxt I L Santa Ana de Tusi Pasco Quechua
qxu I L Arequipa-La Uniσn Quechua
qxw I L Jauja Wanca Quechua
qya I C Quenya
qyp I E Quiripi
raa I L Dungmali
rab I L Camling
rac I L Rasawa
rad I L Rade
raf I L Western Meohang
rag I L Logooli
rah I L Rabha
rai I L Ramoaaina
raj raj raj M L Rajasthani
rak I L Tulu-Bohuai
ral I L Ralte
ram I L Canela
ran I L Riantana
rao I L Rao
rap rap rap I L Rapanui
raq I L Saam
rar rar rar I L Rarotongan
ras I L Tegali
rat I L Razajerdi
rau I L Raute
rav I L Sampang
raw I L Rawang
rax I L Rang
ray I L Rapa
raz I L Rahambuu
rbb I L Rumai Palaung
rbk I L Northern Bontok
rbl I L Miraya Bikol
rbp I E Barababaraba
rcf I L Rιunion Creole French
rdb I L Rudbari
rea I L Rerau
reb I L Rembong
ree I L Rejang Kayan
reg I L Kara (Tanzania)
rei I L Reli
rej I L Rejang
rel I L Rendille
rem I E Remo
ren I L Rengao
rer I E Rer Bare
res I L Reshe
ret I L Retta
rey I L Reyesano
rga I L Roria
rge I L Romano-Greek
rgk I E Rangkas
rgn I L Romagnol
rgr I L Resνgaro
rgs I L Southern Roglai
rgu I L Ringgou
rhg I L Rohingya
rhp I L Yahang
ria I L Riang (India)
rie I L Rien
rif I L Tarifit
ril I L Riang (Myanmar)
rim I L Nyaturu
rin I L Nungu
rir I L Ribun
rit I L Ritarungo
riu I L Riung
rjg I L Rajong
rji I L Raji
rjs I L Rajbanshi
rka I L Kraol
rkb I L Rikbaktsa
rkh I L Rakahanga-Manihiki
rki I L Rakhine
rkm I L Marka
rkt I L Rangpuri
rma I L Rama
rmb I L Rembarunga
rmc I L Carpathian Romani
rmd I E Traveller Danish
rme I L Angloromani
rmf I L Kalo Finnish Romani
rmg I L Traveller Norwegian
rmh I L Murkim
rmi I L Lomavren
rmk I L Romkun
rml I L Baltic Romani
rmm I L Roma
rmn I L Balkan Romani
rmo I L Sinte Romani
rmp I L Rempi
rmq I L Calσ
rms I L Romanian Sign Language
rmt I L Domari
rmu I L Tavringer Romani
rmv I C Romanova
rmw I L Welsh Romani
rmx I L Romam
rmy I L Vlax Romani
rmz I L Marma
rna I E Runa
rnd I L Ruund
rng I L Ronga
rnl I L Ranglong
rnn I L Roon
rnp I L Rongpo
rnr I E Nari Nari
rnw I L Rungwa
rob I L Tae'
roc I L Cacgia Roglai
rod I L Rogo
roe I L Ronji
rof I L Rombo
rog I L Northern Roglai
roh roh roh rm I L Romansh
rol I L Romblomanon
rom rom rom M L Romany
ron rum ron ro I L Romanian
roo I L Rotokas
rop I L Kriol
ror I L Rongga
rou I L Runga
row I L Dela-Oenale
rpn I L Repanbitip
rpt I L Rapting
rri I L Ririo
rro I L Waima
rrt I E Arritinngithigh
rsb I L Romano-Serbian
rsi I L Rennellese Sign Language
rsl I L Russian Sign Language
rtc I L Rungtu Chin
rth I L Ratahan
rtm I L Rotuman
rtw I L Rathawi
rub I L Gungu
ruc I L Ruuli
rue I L Rusyn
ruf I L Luguru
rug I L Roviana
ruh I L Ruga
rui I L Rufiji
ruk I L Che
run run run rn I L Rundi
ruo I L Istro Romanian
rup rup rup I L Macedo-Romanian
ruq I L Megleno Romanian
rus rus rus ru I L Russian
rut I L Rutul
ruu I L Lanas Lobu
ruy I L Mala (Nigeria)
ruz I L Ruma
rwa I L Rawo
rwk I L Rwa
rwm I L Amba (Uganda)
rwo I L Rawa
rwr I L Marwari (India)
ryn I L Northern Amami-Oshima
rys I L Yaeyama
ryu I L Central Okinawan
saa I L Saba
sab I L Buglere
sac I L Meskwaki
sad sad sad I L Sandawe
sae I L Sabanκ
saf I L Safaliba
sag sag sag sg I L Sango
sah sah sah I L Yakut
saj I L Sahu
sak I L Sake
sam sam sam I E Samaritan Aramaic
san san san sa I A Sanskrit
sao I L Sause
sap I L Sanapanα
saq I L Samburu
sar I E Saraveca
sas sas sas I L Sasak
sat sat sat I L Santali
sau I L Saleman
sav I L Saafi-Saafi
saw I L Sawi
sax I L Sa
say I L Saya
saz I L Saurashtra
sba I L Ngambay
sbb I L Simbo
sbc I L Kele (Papua New Guinea)
sbd I L Southern Samo
sbe I L Saliba
sbf I L Shabo
sbg I L Seget
sbh I L Sori-Harengan
sbi I L Seti
sbj I L Surbakhal
sbk I L Safwa
sbl I L Botolan Sambal
sbm I L Sagala
sbn I L Sindhi Bhil
sbo I L Sabόm
sbp I L Sangu (Tanzania)
sbq I L Sileibi
sbr I L Sembakung Murut
sbs I L Subiya
sbt I L Kimki
sbu I L Stod Bhoti
sbv I A Sabine
sbw I L Simba
sbx I L Seberuang
sby I L Soli
sbz I L Sara Kaba
scb I L Chut
sce I L Dongxiang
scf I L San Miguel Creole French
scg I L Sanggau
sch I L Sakachep
sci I L Sri Lankan Creole Malay
sck I L Sadri
scl I L Shina
scn scn scn I L Sicilian
sco sco sco I L Scots
scp I L Helambu Sherpa
scq I L Sa'och
scs I L North Slavey
scu I L Shumcho
scv I L Sheni
scw I L Sha
scx I A Sicel
sda I L Toraja-Sa'dan
sdb I L Shabak
sdc I L Sassarese Sardinian
sde I L Surubu
sdf I L Sarli
sdg I L Savi
sdh I L Southern Kurdish
sdj I L Suundi
sdk I L Sos Kundi
sdl I L Saudi Arabian Sign Language
sdm I L Semandang
sdn I L Gallurese Sardinian
sdo I L Bukar-Sadung Bidayuh
sdp I L Sherdukpen
sdr I L Oraon Sadri
sds I E Sened
sdt I E Shuadit
sdu I L Sarudu
sdx I L Sibu Melanau
sdz I L Sallands
sea I L Semai
seb I L Shempire Senoufo
sec I L Sechelt
sed I L Sedang
see I L Seneca
sef I L Cebaara Senoufo
seg I L Segeju
seh I L Sena
sei I L Seri
sej I L Sene
sek I L Sekani
sel sel sel I L Selkup
sen I L Nanerigι Sιnoufo
seo I L Suarmin
sep I L Sμcμtι Sιnoufo
seq I L Senara Sιnoufo
ser I L Serrano
ses I L Koyraboro Senni Songhai
set I L Sentani
seu I L Serui-Laut
sev I L Nyarafolo Senoufo
sew I L Sewa Bay
sey I L Secoya
sez I L Senthang Chin
sfb I L Langue des signes de Belgique Francophone
sfe I L Eastern Subanen
sfm I L Small Flowery Miao
sfs I L South African Sign Language
sfw I L Sehwi
sga sga sga I H Old Irish (to 900)
sgb I L Mag-antsi Ayta
sgc I L Kipsigis
sgd I L Surigaonon
sge I L Segai
sgg I L Swiss-German Sign Language
sgh I L Shughni
sgi I L Suga
sgj I L Surgujia
sgk I L Sangkong
sgm I E Singa
sgo I L Songa
sgp I L Singpho
sgr I L Sangisari
sgs I L Samogitian
sgt I L Brokpake
sgu I L Salas
sgw I L Sebat Bet Gurage
sgx I L Sierra Leone Sign Language
sgy I L Sanglechi
sgz I L Sursurunga
sha I L Shall-Zwall
shb I L Ninam
shc I L Sonde
shd I L Kundal Shahi
she I L Sheko
shg I L Shua
shh I L Shoshoni
shi I L Tachelhit
shj I L Shatt
shk I L Shilluk
shl I L Shendu
shm I L Shahrudi
shn shn shn I L Shan
sho I L Shanga
shp I L Shipibo-Conibo
shq I L Sala
shr I L Shi
shs I L Shuswap
sht I E Shasta
shu I L Chadian Arabic
shv I L Shehri
shw I L Shwai
shx I L She
shy I L Tachawit
shz I L Syenara Senoufo
sia I E Akkala Sami
sib I L Sebop
sid sid sid I L Sidamo
sie I L Simaa
sif I L Siamou
sig I L Paasaal
sih I L Zire
sii I L Shom Peng
sij I L Numbami
sik I L Sikiana
sil I L Tumulung Sisaala
sim I L Mende (Papua New Guinea)
sin sin sin si I L Sinhala
sip I L Sikkimese
siq I L Sonia
sir I L Siri
sis I E Siuslaw
siu I L Sinagen
siv I L Sumariup
siw I L Siwai
six I L Sumau
siy I L Sivandi
siz I L Siwi
sja I L Epena
sjb I L Sajau Basap
sjd I L Kildin Sami
sje I L Pite Sami
sjg I L Assangori
sjk I E Kemi Sami
sjl I L Sajalong
sjm I L Mapun
sjn I C Sindarin
sjo I L Xibe
sjp I L Surjapuri
sjr I L Siar-Lak
sjs I E Senhaja De Srair
sjt I L Ter Sami
sju I L Ume Sami
sjw I L Shawnee
ska I L Skagit
skb I L Saek
skc I L Ma Manda
skd I L Southern Sierra Miwok
ske I L Seke (Vanuatu)
skf I L Sakirabiα
skg I L Sakalava Malagasy
skh I L Sikule
ski I L Sika
skj I L Seke (Nepal)
skk I L Sok
skm I L Kutong
skn I L Kolibugan Subanon
sko I L Seko Tengah
skp I L Sekapan
skq I L Sininkere
skr I L Seraiki
sks I L Maia
skt I L Sakata
sku I L Sakao
skv I L Skou
skw I E Skepi Creole Dutch
skx I L Seko Padang
sky I L Sikaiana
skz I L Sekar
slc I L Sαliba
sld I L Sissala
sle I L Sholaga
slf I L Swiss-Italian Sign Language
slg I L Selungai Murut
slh I L Southern Puget Sound Salish
sli I L Lower Silesian
slj I L Salumα
slk slo slk sk I L Slovak
sll I L Salt-Yui
slm I L Pangutaran Sama
sln I E Salinan
slp I L Lamaholot
slq I L Salchuq
slr I L Salar
sls I L Singapore Sign Language
slt I L Sila
slu I L Selaru
slv slv slv sl I L Slovenian
slw I L Sialum
slx I L Salampasu
sly I L Selayar
slz I L Ma'ya
sma sma sma I L Southern Sami
smb I L Simbari
smc I E Som
smd I L Sama
sme sme sme se I L Northern Sami
smf I L Auwe
smg I L Simbali
smh I L Samei
smj smj smj I L Lule Sami
smk I L Bolinao
sml I L Central Sama
smm I L Musasa
smn smn smn I L Inari Sami
smo smo smo sm I L Samoan
smp I E Samaritan
smq I L Samo
smr I L Simeulue
sms sms sms I L Skolt Sami
smt I L Simte
smu I E Somray
smv I L Samvedi
smw I L Sumbawa
smx I L Samba
smy I L Semnani
smz I L Simeku
sna sna sna sn I L Shona
snb I L Sebuyau
snc I L Sinaugoro
snd snd snd sd I L Sindhi
sne I L Bau Bidayuh
snf I L Noon
sng I L Sanga (Democratic Republic of Congo)
snh I E Shinabo
sni I E Sensi
snj I L Riverain Sango
snk snk snk I L Soninke
snl I L Sangil
snm I L Southern Ma'di
snn I L Siona
sno I L Snohomish
snp I L Siane
snq I L Sangu (Gabon)
snr I L Sihan
sns I L South West Bay
snu I L Senggi
snv I L Sa'ban
snw I L Selee
snx I L Sam
sny I L Saniyo-Hiyewe
snz I L Sinsauru
soa I L Thai Song
sob I L Sobei
soc I L So (Democratic Republic of Congo)
sod I L Songoora
soe I L Songomeno
sog sog sog I A Sogdian
soh I L Aka
soi I L Sonha
soj I L Soi
sok I L Sokoro
sol I L Solos
som som som so I L Somali
soo I L Songo
sop I L Songe
soq I L Kanasi
sor I L Somrai
sos I L Seeku
sot sot sot st I L Southern Sotho
sou I L Southern Thai
sov I L Sonsorol
sow I L Sowanda
sox I L Swo
soy I L Miyobe
soz I L Temi
spa spa spa es I L Spanish
spb I L Sepa (Indonesia)
spc I L Sapι
spd I L Saep
spe I L Sepa (Papua New Guinea)
spg I L Sian
spi I L Saponi
spk I L Sengo
spl I L Selepet
spm I L Akukem
spo I L Spokane
spp I L Supyire Senoufo
spq I L Loreto-Ucayali Spanish
spr I L Saparua
sps I L Saposa
spt I L Spiti Bhoti
spu I L Sapuan
spv I L Sambalpuri
spx I A South Picene
spy I L Sabaot
sqa I L Shama-Sambuga
sqh I L Shau
sqi alb sqi sq M L Albanian
sqk I L Albanian Sign Language
sqm I L Suma
sqn I E Susquehannock
sqo I L Sorkhei
sqq I L Sou
sqr I H Siculo Arabic
sqs I L Sri Lankan Sign Language
sqt I L Soqotri
squ I L Squamish
sra I L Saruga
srb I L Sora
src I L Logudorese Sardinian
srd srd srd sc M L Sardinian
sre I L Sara
srf I L Nafi
srg I L Sulod
srh I L Sarikoli
sri I L Siriano
srk I L Serudung Murut
srl I L Isirawa
srm I L Saramaccan
srn srn srn I L Sranan Tongo
sro I L Campidanese Sardinian
srp srp srp sr I L Serbian
srq I L Sirionσ
srr srr srr I L Serer
srs I L Sarsi
srt I L Sauri
sru I L Suruν
srv I L Southern Sorsoganon
srw I L Serua
srx I L Sirmauri
sry I L Sera
srz I L Shahmirzadi
ssb I L Southern Sama
ssc I L Suba-Simbiti
ssd I L Siroi
sse I L Balangingi
ssf I L Thao
ssg I L Seimat
ssh I L Shihhi Arabic
ssi I L Sansi
ssj I L Sausi
ssk I L Sunam
ssl I L Western Sisaala
ssm I L Semnam
ssn I L Waata
sso I L Sissano
ssp I L Spanish Sign Language
ssq I L So'a
ssr I L Swiss-French Sign Language
sss I L Sτ
sst I L Sinasina
ssu I L Susuami
ssv I L Shark Bay
ssw ssw ssw ss I L Swati
ssx I L Samberigi
ssy I L Saho
ssz I L Sengseng
sta I L Settla
stb I L Northern Subanen
std I L Sentinel
ste I L Liana-Seti
stf I L Seta
stg I L Trieng
sth I L Shelta
sti I L Bulo Stieng
stj I L Matya Samo
stk I L Arammba
stl I L Stellingwerfs
stm I L Setaman
stn I L Owa
sto I L Stoney
stp I L Southeastern Tepehuan
stq I L Saterfriesisch
str I L Straits Salish
sts I L Shumashti
stt I L Budeh Stieng
stu I L Samtao
stv I L Silt'e
stw I L Satawalese
sua I L Sulka
sub I L Suku
suc I L Western Subanon
sue I L Suena
sug I L Suganga
sui I L Suki
suj I L Shubi
suk suk suk I L Sukuma
sun sun sun su I L Sundanese
suq I L Suri
sur I L Mwaghavul
sus sus sus I L Susu
sut I E Subtiaba
suv I L Puroik
suw I L Sumbwa
sux sux sux I A Sumerian
suy I L Suyα
suz I L Sunwar
sva I L Svan
svb I L Ulau-Suain
svc I L Vincentian Creole English
sve I L Serili
svk I L Slovakian Sign Language
svr I L Savara
svs I L Savosavo
svx I E Skalvian
swa swa swa sw M L Swahili (macrolanguage)
swb I L Maore Comorian
swc I L Congo Swahili
swe swe swe sv I L Swedish
swf I L Sere
swg I L Swabian
swh I L Swahili (individual language)
swi I L Sui
swj I L Sira
swk I L Malawi Sena
swl I L Swedish Sign Language
swm I L Samosa
swn I L Sawknah
swo I L Shanenawa
swp I L Suau
swq I L Sharwa
swr I L Saweru
sws I L Seluwasan
swt I L Sawila
swu I L Suwawa
swv I L Shekhawati
sww I E Sowa
swx I L Suruahα
swy I L Sarua
sxb I L Suba
sxc I A Sicanian
sxe I L Sighu
sxg I L Shixing
sxk I E Southern Kalapuya
sxl I E Selian
sxm I L Samre
sxn I L Sangir
sxo I A Sorothaptic
sxr I L Saaroa
sxs I L Sasaru
sxu I L Upper Saxon
sxw I L Saxwe Gbe
sya I L Siang
syb I L Central Subanen
syc syc syc I H Classical Syriac
syi I L Seki
syk I L Sukur
syl I L Sylheti
sym I L Maya Samo
syn I L Senaya
syo I L Suoy
syr syr syr M L Syriac
sys I L Sinyar
syw I L Kagate
syy I L Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language
sza I L Semelai
szb I L Ngalum
szc I L Semaq Beri
szd I E Seru
sze I L Seze
szg I L Sengele
szl I L Silesian
szn I L Sula
szp I L Suabo
szv I L Isu (Fako Division)
szw I L Sawai
taa I L Lower Tanana
tab I L Tabassaran
tac I L Lowland Tarahumara
tad I L Tause
tae I L Tariana
taf I L Tapirapι
tag I L Tagoi
tah tah tah ty I L Tahitian
taj I L Eastern Tamang
tak I L Tala
tal I L Tal
tam tam tam ta I L Tamil
tan I L Tangale
tao I L Yami
tap I L Taabwa
taq I L Tamasheq
tar I L Central Tarahumara
tas I E Tay Boi
tat tat tat tt I L Tatar
tau I L Upper Tanana
tav I L Tatuyo
taw I L Tai
tax I L Tamki
tay I L Atayal
taz I L Tocho
tba I L Aikanγ
tbb I E Tapeba
tbc I L Takia
tbd I L Kaki Ae
tbe I L Tanimbili
tbf I L Mandara
tbg I L North Tairora
tbh I E Thurawal
tbi I L Gaam
tbj I L Tiang
tbk I L Calamian Tagbanwa
tbl I L Tboli
tbm I L Tagbu
tbn I L Barro Negro Tunebo
tbo I L Tawala
tbp I L Taworta
tbr I L Tumtum
tbs I L Tanguat
tbt I L Tembo (Kitembo)
tbu I E Tubar
tbv I L Tobo
tbw I L Tagbanwa
tbx I L Kapin
tby I L Tabaru
tbz I L Ditammari
tca I L Ticuna
tcb I L Tanacross
tcc I L Datooga
tcd I L Tafi
tce I L Southern Tutchone
tcf I L Malinaltepec Me'phaa
tcg I L Tamagario
tch I L Turks And Caicos Creole English
tci I L Wαra
tck I L Tchitchege
tcl I E Taman (Myanmar)
tcm I L Tanahmerah
tcn I L Tichurong
tco I L Taungyo
tcp I L Tawr Chin
tcq I L Kaiy
tcs I L Torres Strait Creole
tct I L T'en
tcu I L Southeastern Tarahumara
tcw I L Tecpatlαn Totonac
tcx I L Toda
tcy I L Tulu
tcz I L Thado Chin
tda I L Tagdal
tdb I L Panchpargania
tdc I L Emberα-Tadσ
tdd I L Tai Nόa
tde I L Tiranige Diga Dogon
tdf I L Talieng
tdg I L Western Tamang
tdh I L Thulung
tdi I L Tomadino
tdj I L Tajio
tdk I L Tambas
tdl I L Sur
tdn I L Tondano
tdo I L Teme
tdq I L Tita
tdr I L Todrah
tds I L Doutai
tdt I L Tetun Dili
tdu I L Tempasuk Dusun
tdv I L Toro
tdx I L Tandroy-Mahafaly Malagasy
tdy I L Tadyawan
tea I L Temiar
teb I E Tetete
tec I L Terik
ted I L Tepo Krumen
tee I L Huehuetla Tepehua
tef I L Teressa
teg I L Teke-Tege
teh I L Tehuelche
tei I L Torricelli
tek I L Ibali Teke
tel tel tel te I L Telugu
tem tem tem I L Timne
ten I E Tama (Colombia)
teo I L Teso
tep I E Tepecano
teq I L Temein
ter ter ter I L Tereno
tes I L Tengger
tet tet tet I L Tetum
teu I L Soo
tev I L Teor
tew I L Tewa (USA)
tex I L Tennet
tey I L Tulishi
tfi I L Tofin Gbe
tfn I L Tanaina
tfo I L Tefaro
tfr I L Teribe
tft I L Ternate
tga I L Sagalla
tgb I L Tobilung
tgc I L Tigak
tgd I L Ciwogai
tge I L Eastern Gorkha Tamang
tgf I L Chalikha
tgg I L Tangga
tgh I L Tobagonian Creole English
tgi I L Lawunuia
tgj I L Tagin
tgk tgk tgk tg I L Tajik
tgl tgl tgl tl I L Tagalog
tgn I L Tandaganon
tgo I L Sudest
tgp I L Tangoa
tgq I L Tring
tgr I L Tareng
tgs I L Nume
tgt I L Central Tagbanwa
tgu I L Tanggu
tgv I E Tingui-Boto
tgw I L Tagwana Senoufo
tgx I L Tagish
tgy I E Togoyo
tgz I E Tagalaka
tha tha tha th I L Thai
thc I L Tai Hang Tong
thd I L Thayore
the I L Chitwania Tharu
thf I L Thangmi
thh I L Northern Tarahumara
thi I L Tai Long
thk I L Tharaka
thl I L Dangaura Tharu
thm I L Aheu
thn I L Thachanadan
thp I L Thompson
thq I L Kochila Tharu
thr I L Rana Tharu
ths I L Thakali
tht I L Tahltan
thu I L Thuri
thv I L Tahaggart Tamahaq
thw I L Thudam
thx I L The
thy I L Tha
thz I L Tayart Tamajeq
tia I L Tidikelt Tamazight
tic I L Tira
tid I L Tidong
tif I L Tifal
tig tig tig I L Tigre
tih I L Timugon Murut
tii I L Tiene
tij I L Tilung
tik I L Tikar
til I E Tillamook
tim I L Timbe
tin I L Tindi
tio I L Teop
tip I L Trimuris
tiq I L Tiιfo
tir tir tir ti I L Tigrinya
tis I L Masadiit Itneg
tit I L Tinigua
tiu I L Adasen
tiv tiv tiv I L Tiv
tiw I L Tiwi
tix I L Southern Tiwa
tiy I L Tiruray
tiz I L Tai Hongjin
tja I L Tajuasohn
tjg I L Tunjung
tji I L Northern Tujia
tjl I L Tai Laing
tjm I E Timucua
tjn I E Tonjon
tjo I L Temacine Tamazight
tjs I L Southern Tujia
tju I E Tjurruru
tka I E Trukα
tkb I L Buksa
tkd I L Tukudede
tke I L Takwane
tkf I E Tukumanfιd
tkg I L Tesaka Malagasy
tkl tkl tkl I L Tokelau
tkm I E Takelma
tkn I L Toku-No-Shima
tkp I L Tikopia
tkq I L Tee
tkr I L Tsakhur
tks I L Takestani
tkt I L Kathoriya Tharu
tku I L Upper Necaxa Totonac
tkw I L Teanu
tkx I L Tangko
tkz I L Takua
tla I L Southwestern Tepehuan
tlb I L Tobelo
tlc I L Yecuatla Totonac
tld I L Talaud
tlf I L Telefol
tlg I L Tofanma
tlh tlh tlh I C Klingon
tli tli tli I L Tlingit
tlj I L Talinga-Bwisi
tlk I L Taloki
tll I L Tetela
tlm I L Tolomako
tln I L Talondo'
tlo I L Talodi
tlp I L Filomena Mata-Coahuitlαn Totonac
tlq I L Tai Loi
tlr I L Talise
tls I L Tambotalo
tlt I L Teluti
tlu I L Tulehu
tlv I L Taliabu
tlx I L Khehek
tly I L Talysh
tma I L Tama (Chad)
tmb I L Katbol
tmc I L Tumak
tmd I L Haruai
tme I E Tremembι
tmf I L Toba-Maskoy
tmg I E Ternateρo
tmh tmh tmh M L Tamashek
tmi I L Tutuba
tmj I L Samarokena
tmk I L Northwestern Tamang
tml I L Tamnim Citak
tmm I L Tai Thanh
tmn I L Taman (Indonesia)
tmo I L Temoq
tmp I L Tai Mθne
tmq I L Tumleo
tmr I E Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)
tms I L Tima
tmt I L Tasmate
tmu I L Iau
tmv I L Tembo (Motembo)
tmw I L Temuan
tmy I L Tami
tmz I E Tamanaku
tna I L Tacana
tnb I L Western Tunebo
tnc I L Tanimuca-Retuarγ
tnd I L Angosturas Tunebo
tne I L Tinoc Kallahan
tng I L Tobanga
tnh I L Maiani
tni I L Tandia
tnk I L Kwamera
tnl I L Lenakel
tnm I L Tabla
tnn I L North Tanna
tno I L Toromono
tnp I L Whitesands
tnq I E Taino
tnr I L Bedik
tns I L Tenis
tnt I L Tontemboan
tnu I L Tay Khang
tnv I L Tangchangya
tnw I L Tonsawang
tnx I L Tanema
tny I L Tongwe
tnz I L Tonga (Thailand)
tob I L Toba
toc I L Coyutla Totonac
tod I L Toma
toe I E Tomedes
tof I L Gizrra
tog tog tog I L Tonga (Nyasa)
toh I L Gitonga
toi I L Tonga (Zambia)
toj I L Tojolabal
tol I L Tolowa
tom I L Tombulu
ton ton ton to I L Tonga (Tonga Islands)
too I L Xicotepec De Juαrez Totonac
top I L Papantla Totonac
toq I L Toposa
tor I L Togbo-Vara Banda
tos I L Highland Totonac
tou I L Tho
tov I L Upper Taromi
tow I L Jemez
tox I L Tobian
toy I L Topoiyo
toz I L To
tpa I L Taupota
tpc I L Azoyϊ Me'phaa
tpe I L Tippera
tpf I L Tarpia
tpg I L Kula
tpi tpi tpi I L Tok Pisin
tpj I L Tapietι
tpk I E Tupinikin
tpl I L Tlacoapa Me'phaa
tpm I L Tampulma
tpn I E Tupinambα
tpo I L Tai Pao
tpp I L Pisaflores Tepehua
tpq I L Tukpa
tpr I L Tuparν
tpt I L Tlachichilco Tepehua
tpu I L Tampuan
tpv I L Tanapag
tpw I E Tupν
tpx I L Acatepec Me'phaa
tpy I L Trumai
tpz I L Tinputz
tqb I L Tembι
tql I L Lehali
tqm I L Turumsa
tqn I L Tenino
tqo I L Toaripi
tqp I L Tomoip
tqq I L Tunni
tqr I E Torona
tqt I L Western Totonac
tqu I L Touo
tqw I E Tonkawa
tra I L Tirahi
trb I L Terebu
trc I L Copala Triqui
trd I L Turi
tre I L East Tarangan
trf I L Trinidadian Creole English
trg I L Lishαn Didαn
trh I L Turaka
tri I L Triσ
trj I L Toram
trl I L Traveller Scottish
trm I L Tregami
trn I L Trinitario
tro I L Tarao Naga
trp I L Kok Borok
trq I L San Martνn Itunyoso Triqui
trr I L Taushiro
trs I L Chicahuaxtla Triqui
trt I L Tunggare
tru I L Turoyo
trv I L Taroko
trw I L Torwali
trx I L Tringgus-Sembaan Bidayuh
try I E Turung
trz I E Torα
tsa I L Tsaangi
tsb I L Tsamai
tsc I L Tswa
tsd I L Tsakonian
tse I L Tunisian Sign Language
tsf I L Southwestern Tamang
tsg I L Tausug
tsh I L Tsuvan
tsi tsi tsi I L Tsimshian
tsj I L Tshangla
tsk I L Tseku
tsl I L Ts'όn-Lao
tsm I L Turkish Sign Language
tsn tsn tsn tn I L Tswana
tso tso tso ts I L Tsonga
tsp I L Northern Toussian
tsq I L Thai Sign Language
tsr I L Akei
tss I L Taiwan Sign Language
tst I L Tondi Songway Kiini
tsu I L Tsou
tsv I L Tsogo
tsw I L Tsishingini
tsx I L Mubami
tsy I L Tebul Sign Language
tsz I L Purepecha
tta I E Tutelo
ttb I L Gaa
ttc I L Tektiteko
ttd I L Tauade
tte I L Bwanabwana
ttf I L Tuotomb
ttg I L Tutong
tth I L Upper Ta'oih
tti I L Tobati
ttj I L Tooro
ttk I L Totoro
ttl I L Totela
ttm I L Northern Tutchone
ttn I L Towei
tto I L Lower Ta'oih
ttp I L Tombelala
ttq I L Tawallammat Tamajaq
ttr I L Tera
tts I L Northeastern Thai
ttt I L Muslim Tat
ttu I L Torau
ttv I L Titan
ttw I L Long Wat
tty I L Sikaritai
ttz I L Tsum
tua I L Wiarumus
tub I L Tόbatulabal
tuc I L Mutu
tud I E Tuxα
tue I L Tuyuca
tuf I L Central Tunebo
tug I L Tunia
tuh I L Taulil
tui I L Tupuri
tuj I L Tugutil
tuk tuk tuk tk I L Turkmen
tul I L Tula
tum tum tum I L Tumbuka
tun I E Tunica
tuo I L Tucano
tuq I L Tedaga
tur tur tur tr I L Turkish
tus I L Tuscarora
tuu I L Tututni
tuv I L Turkana
tux I E Tuxinαwa
tuy I L Tugen
tuz I L Turka
tva I L Vaghua
tvd I L Tsuvadi
tve I L Te'un
tvk I L Southeast Ambrym
tvl tvl tvl I L Tuvalu
tvm I L Tela-Masbuar
tvn I L Tavoyan
tvo I L Tidore
tvs I L Taveta
tvt I L Tutsa Naga
tvu I L Tunen
tvw I L Sedoa
tvy I E Timor Pidgin
twa I E Twana
twb I L Western Tawbuid
twc I E Teshenawa
twd I L Twents
twe I L Tewa (Indonesia)
twf I L Northern Tiwa
twg I L Tereweng
twh I L Tai Dσn
twi twi twi tw I L Twi
twl I L Tawara
twm I L Tawang Monpa
twn I L Twendi
two I L Tswapong
twp I L Ere
twq I L Tasawaq
twr I L Southwestern Tarahumara
twt I E Turiwαra
twu I L Termanu
tww I L Tuwari
twx I L Tewe
twy I L Tawoyan
txa I L Tombonuo
txb I A Tokharian B
txc I E Tsetsaut
txe I L Totoli
txg I A Tangut
txh I A Thracian
txi I L Ikpeng
txm I L Tomini
txn I L West Tarangan
txo I L Toto
txq I L Tii
txr I A Tartessian
txs I L Tonsea
txt I L Citak
txu I L Kayapσ
txx I L Tatana
txy I L Tanosy Malagasy
tya I L Tauya
tye I L Kyenga
tyh I L O'du
tyi I L Teke-Tsaayi
tyj I L Tai Do
tyl I L Thu Lao
tyn I L Kombai
typ I E Thaypan
tyr I L Tai Daeng
tys I L Tΰy Sa Pa
tyt I L Tΰy Tac
tyu I L Kua
tyv tyv tyv I L Tuvinian
tyx I L Teke-Tyee
tyz I L Tΰy
tza I L Tanzanian Sign Language
tzh I L Tzeltal
tzj I L Tz'utujil
tzm I L Central Atlas Tamazight
tzn I L Tugun
tzo I L Tzotzil
tzx I L Tabriak
uam I E Uamuι
uan I L Kuan
uar I L Tairuma
uba I L Ubang
ubi I L Ubi
ubl I L Buhi'non Bikol
ubr I L Ubir
ubu I L Umbu-Ungu
uby I E Ubykh
uda I L Uda
ude I L Udihe
udg I L Muduga
udi I L Udi
udj I L Ujir
udl I L Wuzlam
udm udm udm I L Udmurt
udu I L Uduk
ues I L Kioko
ufi I L Ufim
uga uga uga I A Ugaritic
ugb I E Kuku-Ugbanh
uge I L Ughele
ugn I L Ugandan Sign Language
ugo I L Ugong
ugy I L Uruguayan Sign Language
uha I L Uhami
uhn I L Damal
uig uig uig ug I L Uighur
uis I L Uisai
uiv I L Iyive
uji I L Tanjijili
uka I L Kaburi
ukg I L Ukuriguma
ukh I L Ukhwejo
ukl I L Ukrainian Sign Language
ukp I L Ukpe-Bayobiri
ukq I L Ukwa
ukr ukr ukr uk I L Ukrainian
uks I L Urubϊ-Kaapor Sign Language
uku I L Ukue
ukw I L Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni
uky I E Kuuk-Yak
ula I L Fungwa
ulb I L Ulukwumi
ulc I L Ulch
ulf I L Usku
uli I L Ulithian
ulk I L Meriam
ull I L Ullatan
ulm I L Ulumanda'
uln I L Unserdeutsch
ulu I L Uma' Lung
ulw I L Ulwa
uma I L Umatilla
umb umb umb I L Umbundu
umc I A Marrucinian
umd I E Umbindhamu
umg I E Umbuygamu
umi I L Ukit
umm I L Umon
umn I L Makyan Naga
umo I E Umotνna
ump I L Umpila
umr I E Umbugarla
ums I L Pendau
umu I L Munsee
una I L North Watut
und und und S S Undetermined
une I L Uneme
ung I L Ngarinyin
unk I L Enawenι-Nawι
unm I E Unami
unr I L Mundari
unx I L Munda
unz I L Unde Kaili
uok I L Uokha
upi I L Umeda
upv I L Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin
ura I L Urarina
urb I L Urubϊ-Kaapor
urc I E Urningangg
urd urd urd ur I L Urdu
ure I L Uru
urf I E Uradhi
urg I L Urigina
urh I L Urhobo
uri I L Urim
urk I L Urak Lawoi'
url I L Urali
urm I L Urapmin
urn I L Uruangnirin
uro I L Ura (Papua New Guinea)
urp I L Uru-Pa-In
urr I L Lehalurup
urt I L Urat
uru I E Urumi
urv I E Uruava
urw I L Sop
urx I L Urimo
ury I L Orya
urz I L Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau
usa I L Usarufa
ush I L Ushojo
usi I L Usui
usk I L Usaghade
usp I L Uspanteco
usu I L Uya
uta I L Otank
ute I L Ute-Southern Paiute
utp I L Amba (Solomon Islands)
utr I L Etulo
utu I L Utu
uum I L Urum
uun I L Kulon-Pazeh
uur I L Ura (Vanuatu)
uuu I L U
uve I L West Uvean
uvh I L Uri
uvl I L Lote
uwa I L Kuku-Uwanh
uya I L Doko-Uyanga
uzb uzb uzb uz M L Uzbek
uzn I L Northern Uzbek
uzs I L Southern Uzbek
vaa I L Vaagri Booli
vae I L Vale
vaf I L Vafsi
vag I L Vagla
vah I L Varhadi-Nagpuri
vai vai vai I L Vai
vaj I L Vasekela Bushman
val I L Vehes
vam I L Vanimo
van I L Valman
vao I L Vao
vap I L Vaiphei
var I L Huarijio
vas I L Vasavi
vau I L Vanuma
vav I L Varli
vay I L Wayu
vbb I L Southeast Babar
vbk I L Southwestern Bontok
vec I L Venetian
ved I L Veddah
vel I L Veluws
vem I L Vemgo-Mabas
ven ven ven ve I L Venda
veo I E Ventureρo
vep I L Veps
ver I L Mom Jango
vgr I L Vaghri
vgt I L Vlaamse Gebarentaal
vic I L Virgin Islands Creole English
vid I L Vidunda
vie vie vie vi I L Vietnamese
vif I L Vili
vig I L Viemo
vil I L Vilela
vin I L Vinza
vis I L Vishavan
vit I L Viti
viv I L Iduna
vka I E Kariyarra
vki I L Ija-Zuba
vkj I L Kujarge
vkk I L Kaur
vkl I L Kulisusu
vkm I E Kamakan
vko I L Kodeoha
vkp I L Korlai Creole Portuguese
vkt I L Tenggarong Kutai Malay
vku I L Kurrama
vlp I L Valpei
vls I L Vlaams
vma I L Martuyhunira
vmb I E Mbabaram
vmc I L Juxtlahuaca Mixtec
vmd I L Mudu Koraga
vme I L East Masela
vmf I L Mainfrδnkisch
vmg I L Minigir
vmh I L Maraghei
vmi I E Miwa
vmj I L Ixtayutla Mixtec
vmk I L Makhuwa-Shirima
vml I E Malgana
vmm I L Mitlatongo Mixtec
vmp I L Soyaltepec Mazatec
vmq I L Soyaltepec Mixtec
vmr I L Marenje
vms I E Moksela
vmu I E Muluridyi
vmv I E Valley Maidu
vmw I L Makhuwa
vmx I L Tamazola Mixtec
vmy I L Ayautla Mazatec
vmz I L Mazatlαn Mazatec
vnk I L Vano
vnm I L Vinmavis
vnp I L Vunapu
vol vol vol vo I C Volapόk
vor I L Voro
vot vot vot I L Votic
vra I L Vera'a
vro I L Vυro
vrs I L Varisi
vrt I L Burmbar
vsi I L Moldova Sign Language
vsl I L Venezuelan Sign Language
vsv I L Valencian Sign Language
vto I L Vitou
vum I L Vumbu
vun I L Vunjo
vut I L Vute
vwa I L Awa (China)
waa I L Walla Walla
wab I L Wab
wac I L Wasco-Wishram
wad I L Wandamen
wae I L Walser
waf I E Wakonα
wag I L Wa'ema
wah I L Watubela
wai I L Wares
waj I L Waffa
wal wal wal I L Wolaytta
wam I E Wampanoag
wan I L Wan
wao I E Wappo
wap I L Wapishana
waq I L Wageman
war war war I L Waray (Philippines)
was was was I L Washo
wat I L Kaninuwa
wau I L Waurα
wav I L Waka
waw I L Waiwai
wax I L Watam
way I L Wayana
waz I L Wampur
wba I L Warao
wbb I L Wabo
wbe I L Waritai
wbf I L Wara
wbh I L Wanda
wbi I L Vwanji
wbj I L Alagwa
wbk I L Waigali
wbl I L Wakhi
wbm I L Wa
wbp I L Warlpiri
wbq I L Waddar
wbr I L Wagdi
wbt I L Wanman
wbv I L Wajarri
wbw I L Woi
wca I L Yanomαmi
wci I L Waci Gbe
wdd I L Wandji
wdg I L Wadaginam
wdj I L Wadjiginy
wdu I E Wadjigu
wea I E Wewaw
wec I L Wθ Western
wed I L Wedau
weh I L Weh
wei I L Kiunum
wem I L Weme Gbe
weo I L Wemale
wep I L Westphalien
wer I L Weri
wes I L Cameroon Pidgin
wet I L Perai
weu I L Rawngtu Chin
wew I L Wejewa
wfg I L Yafi
wga I E Wagaya
wgb I L Wagawaga
wgg I E Wangganguru
wgi I L Wahgi
wgo I L Waigeo
wgu I E Wirangu
wgy I L Warrgamay
wha I L Manusela
whg I L North Wahgi
whk I L Wahau Kenyah
whu I L Wahau Kayan
wib I L Southern Toussian
wic I L Wichita
wie I E Wik-Epa
wif I E Wik-Keyangan
wig I L Wik-Ngathana
wih I L Wik-Me'anha
wii I L Minidien
wij I L Wik-Iiyanh
wik I L Wikalkan
wil I E Wilawila
wim I L Wik-Mungkan
win I L Ho-Chunk
wir I E Wirafιd
wit I L Wintu
wiu I L Wiru
wiv I L Vitu
wiy I E Wiyot
wja I L Waja
wji I L Warji
wka I E Kw'adza
wkb I L Kumbaran
wkd I L Wakde
wkl I L Kalanadi
wku I L Kunduvadi
wkw I E Wakawaka
wla I L Walio
w l c I L Mwali Comorian
w l e I L Wolane
wlg I L Kunbarlang
wli I L Waioli
wlk I E Wailaki
w l l I L Wali (Sudan)
wlm I H Middle Welsh
w l n w l n w l n wa I L Walloon
wlo I L Wolio
wlr I L Wailapa
w l s I L Wallisian
wlu I E Wuliwuli
wlv I L Wichν Lhamtιs Vejoz
wlw I L Walak
wlx I L Wali (Ghana)
wly I E Waling
wma I E Mawa (Nigeria)
wmb I L Wambaya
wmc I L Wamas
wmd I L Mamaindι
wme I L Wambule
wmh I L Waima'a
wmi I E Wamin
wmm I L Maiwa (Indonesia)
wmn I E Waamwang
wmo I L Wom (Papua New Guinea)
wms I L Wambon
wmt I L Walmajarri
wmw I L Mwani
wmx I L Womo
wnb I L Wanambre
wnc I L Wantoat
wnd I E Wandarang
wne I L Waneci
wng I L Wanggom
wni I L Ndzwani Comorian
wnk I L Wanukaka
wnm I E Wanggamala
wno I L Wano
wnp I L Wanap
wnu I L Usan
wny I L Wanyi
woa I L Tyaraity
wob I L Wθ Northern
woc I L Wogeo
wod I L Wolani
woe I L Woleaian
wof I L Gambian Wolof
wog I L Wogamusin
woi I L Kamang
wok I L Longto
wol wol wol wo I L Wolof
wom I L Wom (Nigeria)
won I L Wongo
woo I L Manombai
wor I L Woria
wos I L Hanga Hundi
wow I L Wawonii
woy I E Weyto
wpc I L Maco
wra I L Warapu
wrb I E Warluwara
wrd I L Warduji
wrg I E Warungu
wrh I E Wiradhuri
wri I E Wariyangga
wrk I L Garrwa
wrl I L Warlmanpa
wrm I L Warumungu
wrn I L Warnang
wro I E Worrorra
wrp I L Waropen
wrr I L Wardaman
wrs I L Waris
wru I L Waru
wrv I L Waruna
wrw I E Gugu Warra
wrx I L Wae Rana
wry I L Merwari
wrz I E Waray (Australia)
wsa I L Warembori
wsi I L Wusi
wsk I L Waskia
wsr I L Owenia
wss I L Wasa
wsu I E Wasu
wsv I E Wotapuri-Katarqalai
wtf I L Watiwa
wti I L Berta
wtk I L Watakataui
wtm I L Mewati
wtw I L Wotu
wua I L Wikngenchera
wub I L Wunambal
wud I L Wudu
wuh I L Wutunhua
wul I L Silimo
wum I L Wumbvu
wun I L Bungu
wur I E Wurrugu
wut I L Wutung
wuu I L Wu Chinese
wuv I L Wuvulu-Aua
wux I L Wulna
wuy I L Wauyai
wwa I L Waama
wwb I E Wakabunga
wwo I L Wetamut
wwr I E Warrwa
www I L Wawa
wxa I L Waxianghua
wya I L Wyandot
wyb I L Wangaaybuwan-Ngiyambaa
wym I L Wymysorys
wyr I L Wayorσ
wyy I L Western Fijian
xaa I H Andalusian Arabic
xab I L Sambe
xac I L Kachari
xad I E Adai
xae I A Aequian
xag I E Aghwan
xai I E Kaimbι
xal xal xal I L Kalmyk
xam I E /Xam
xan I L Xamtanga
xao I L Khao
xap I E Apalachee
xaq I A Aquitanian
xar I E Karami
xas I E Kamas
xat I L Katawixi
xau I L Kauwera
xav I L Xavαnte
xaw I L Kawaiisu
xay I L Kayan Mahakam
xba I E Kamba (Brazil)
xbb I E Lower Burdekin
xbc I A Bactrian
xbi I L Kombio
xbm I H Middle Breton
xbn I E Kenaboi
xbo I E Bolgarian
xbr I L Kambera
xbw I E Kambiwα
xbx I E Kabixν
xcb I E Cumbric
xcc I A Camunic
xce I A Celtiberian
xcg I A Cisalpine Gaulish
xch I E Chemakum
xcl I H Classical Armenian
xcm I E Comecrudo
xcn I E Cotoname
xco I A Chorasmian
xcr I A Carian
xct I H Classical Tibetan
xcu I E Curonian
xcv I E Chuvantsy
xcw I E Coahuilteco
xcy I E Cayuse
xdc I A Dacian
xdm I A Edomite
xdy I L Malayic Dayak
xeb I A Eblan
xed I L Hdi
xeg I E //Xegwi
xel I L Kelo
xem I L Kembayan
xep I A Epi-Olmec
xer I L Xerιnte
xes I L Kesawai
xet I L Xetα
xeu I L Keoru-Ahia
xfa I A Faliscan
xga I A Galatian
xgb I E Gbin
xgf I E Gabrielino-Fernandeρo
xgl I E Galindan
xgr I E Garza
xgu I L Unggumi
xha I A Harami
xhc I E Hunnic
xhd I A Hadrami
xhe I L Khetrani
xho xho xho xh I L Xhosa
xhr I A Hernican
xht I A Hattic
xhu I A Hurrian
xhv I L Khua
xia I L Xiandao
xib I A Iberian
xii I L Xiri
xil I A Illyrian
xin I E Xinca
xip I E Xipinαwa
xir I E Xiriβna
xiv I A Indus Valley Language
xiy I L Xipaya
xka I L Kalkoti
xkb I L Northern Nago
xkc I L Kho'ini
xkd I L Mendalam Kayan
xke I L Kereho
xkf I L Khengkha
xkg I L Kagoro
xkh I L Karahawyana
xki I L Kenyan Sign Language
xkj I L Kajali
xkk I L Kaco'
xkl I L Mainstream Kenyah
xkn I L Kayan River Kayan
xko I L Kiorr
xkp I L Kabatei
xkq I L Koroni
xkr I E Xakriabα
xks I L Kumbewaha
xkt I L Kantosi
xku I L Kaamba
xkv I L Kgalagadi
xkw I L Kembra
xkx I L Karore
xky I L Uma' Lasan
xkz I L Kurtokha
xla I L Kamula
xlb I E Loup B
xlc I A Lycian
xld I A Lydian
xle I A Lemnian
xlg I A Ligurian (Ancient)
xli I A Liburnian
xln I A Alanic
xlo I E Loup A
xlp I A Lepontic
xls I A Lusitanian
xlu I A Cuneiform Luwian
xly I A Elymian
xma I L Mushungulu
xmb I L Mbonga
xmc I L Makhuwa-Marrevone
xmd I L Mbudum
xme I A Median
xmf I L Mingrelian
xmg I L Mengaka
xmh I L Kuku-Muminh
xmj I L Majera
xmk I A Ancient Macedonian
xml I L Malaysian Sign Language
xmm I L Manado Malay
xmn I H Manichaean Middle Persian
xmo I L Morerebi
xmp I E Kuku-Mu'inh
xmq I E Kuku-Mangk
xmr I A Meroitic
xms I L Moroccan Sign Language
xmt I L Matbat
xmu I E Kamu
xmv I L Antankarana Malagasy
xmw I L Tsimihety Malagasy
xmx I L Maden
xmy I L Mayaguduna
xmz I L Mori Bawah
xna I A Ancient North Arabian
xnb I L Kanakanabu
xng I H Middle Mongolian
xnh I L Kuanhua
xnn I L Northern Kankanay
xno I H Anglo-Norman
xnr I L Kangri
xns I L Kanashi
xnt I E Narragansett
xnz I L Kenzi
xoc I E O'chi'chi'
xod I L Kokoda
xog I L Soga
xoi I L Kominimung
xok I L Xokleng
xom I L Komo (Sudan)
xon I L Konkomba
xoo I E Xukurϊ
xop I L Kopar
xor I L Korubo
xow I L Kowaki
xpc I E Pecheneg
xpe I L Liberia Kpelle
xpg I A Phrygian
xpi I E Pictish
xpj I E Mpalitjanh
xpk I L Kulina Pano
xpm I E Pumpokol
xpn I E Kapinawα
xpo I E Pochutec
xpp I E Puyo-Paekche
xpq I E Mohegan-Pequot
xpr I A Parthian
xps I E Pisidian
xpu I A Punic
xpy I E Puyo
xqa I H Karakhanid
xqt I A Qatabanian
xra I L Krahτ
xrb I L Eastern Karaboro
xre I L Kreye
xri I L Krikati-Timbira
xrm I E Armazic
xrn I E Arin
xrr I A Raetic
xrt I E Aranama-Tamique
xru I L Marriammu
xrw I L Karawa
xsa I A Sabaean
xsb I L Sambal
xsc I A Scythian
xsd I A Sidetic
xse I L Sempan
xsh I L Shamang
xsi I L Sio
xsj I L Subi
xsl I L South Slavey
xsm I L Kasem
xsn I L Sanga (Nigeria)
xso I E Solano
xsp I L Silopi
xsq I L Makhuwa-Saka
xsr I L Sherpa
xss I E Assan
xsu I L Sanumα
xsv I E Sudovian
xsy I L Saisiyat
xta I L Alcozauca Mixtec
xtb I L Chazumba Mixtec
xtc I L Katcha-Kadugli-Miri
xtd I L Diuxi-Tilantongo Mixtec
xte I L Ketengban
xtg I A Transalpine Gaulish
xti I L Sinicahua Mixtec
xtj I L San Juan Teita Mixtec
xtl I L Tijaltepec Mixtec
xtm I L Magdalena Peρasco Mixtec
xtn I L Northern Tlaxiaco Mixtec
xto I A Tokharian A
xtp I L San Miguel Piedras Mixtec
xtq I H Tumshuqese
xtr I A Early Tripuri
xts I L Sindihui Mixtec
xtt I L Tacahua Mixtec
xtu I L Cuyamecalco Mixtec
xtw I L Tawandκ
xty I L Yoloxochitl Mixtec
xtz I E Tasmanian
xua I L Alu Kurumba
xub I L Betta Kurumba
xud I E Umiida
xug I L Kunigami
xuj I L Jennu Kurumba
xum I A Umbrian
xun I E Unggarranggu
xuo I L Kuo
xup I E Upper Umpqua
xur I A Urartian
xut I E Kuthant
xuu I L Kxoe
xve I A Venetic
xvi I L Kamviri
xvn I A Vandalic
xvo I A Volscian
xvs I A Vestinian
xwa I L Kwaza
xwc I E Woccon
xwe I L Xwela Gbe
xwg I L Kwegu
xwl I L Western Xwla Gbe
xwo I E Written Oirat
xwr I L Kwerba Mamberamo
xxb I E Boro (Ghana)
xxk I L Ke'o
xxr I E Koropσ
xxt I E Tambora
xyl I E Yalakalore
xyy I L Yorta Yorta
xzh I A Zhang-Zhung
xzm I E Zemgalian
xzp I H Ancient Zapotec
yaa I L Yaminahua
yab I L Yuhup
yac I L Pass Valley Yali
yad I L Yagua
yae I L Pumι
yaf I L Yaka (Democratic Republic of Congo)
yag I L Yαmana
yah I L Yazgulyam
yai I L Yagnobi
yaj I L Banda-Yangere
yak I L Yakama
yal I L Yalunka
yam I L Yamba
yan I L Mayangna
yao yao yao I L Yao
yap yap yap I L Yapese
yaq I L Yaqui
yar I L Yabarana
yas I L Nugunu (Cameroon)
yat I L Yambeta
yau I L Yuwana
yav I L Yangben
yaw I L Yawalapitν
yax I L Yauma
yay I L Agwagwune
yaz I L Lokaa
yba I L Yala
ybb I L Yemba
ybe I L West Yugur
ybh I L Yakha
ybi I L Yamphu
ybj I L Hasha
ybk I L Bokha
ybl I L Yukuben
ybm I L Yaben
ybn I E Yabaβna
ybo I L Yabong
ybx I L Yawiyo
yby I L Yaweyuha
ych I L Chesu
ycl I L Lolopo
ycn I L Yucuna
ycp I L Chepya
ydd I L Eastern Yiddish
yde I L Yangum Dey
ydg I L Yidgha
ydk I L Yoidik
yds I L Yiddish Sign Language
yea I L Ravula
yec I L Yeniche
yee I L Yimas
yei I E Yeni
yej I L Yevanic
yel I L Yela
yer I L Tarok
yes I L Nyankpa
yet I L Yetfa
yeu I L Yerukula
yev I L Yapunda
yey I L Yeyi
yga I E Malyangapa
ygl I L Yangum Gel
ygm I L Yagomi
ygp I L Gepo
ygr I L Yagaria
ygw I L Yagwoia
yha I L Baha Buyang
yhd I L Judeo-Iraqi Arabic
yhl I L Hlepho Phowa
yia I L Yinggarda
yid yid yid yi M L Yiddish
yif I L Ache
yig I L Wusa Nasu
yih I L Western Yiddish
yii I L Yidiny
yij I L Yindjibarndi
yik I L Dongshanba Lalo
yil I E Yindjilandji
yim I L Yimchungru Naga
yin I L Yinchia
yip I L Pholo
yiq I L Miqie
yir I L North Awyu
yis I L Yis
yit I L Eastern Lalu
yiu I L Awu
yiv I L Northern Nisu
yix I L Axi Yi
yiy I L Yir Yoront
yiz I L Azhe
yka I L Yakan
ykg I L Northern Yukaghir
yki I L Yoke
ykk I L Yakaikeke
ykl I L Khlula
ykm I L Kap
ykn I L Kua-nsi
yko I L Yasa
ykr I L Yekora
ykt I L Kathu
yku I L Kuamasi
yky I L Yakoma
yla I L Yaul
ylb I L Yaleba
yle I L Yele
ylg I L Yelogu
yli I L Angguruk Yali
yll I L Yil
ylm I L Limi
yln I L Langnian Buyang
ylo I L Naluo Yi
ylr I E Yalarnnga
ylu I L Aribwaung
yly I L Nyβlayu
ymb I L Yambes
ymc I L Southern Muji
ymd I L Muda
yme I E Yameo
ymg I L Yamongeri
ymh I L Mili
ymi I L Moji
ymk I L Makwe
yml I L Iamalele
ymm I L Maay
ymn I L Yamna
ymo I L Yangum Mon
ymp I L Yamap
ymq I L Qila Muji
ymr I L Malasar
yms I A Mysian
ymt I E Mator-Taygi-Karagas
ymx I L Northern Muji
ymz I L Muzi
yna I L Aluo
ynd I E Yandruwandha
yne I L Lang'e
yng I L Yango
ynh I L Yangho
ynk I L Naukan Yupik
ynl I L Yangulam
ynn I E Yana
yno I L Yong
ynq I L Yendang
yns I L Yansi
ynu I E Yahuna
yob I E Yoba
yog I L Yogad
yoi I L Yonaguni
yok I L Yokuts
yol I E Yola
yom I L Yombe
yon I L Yongkom
yor yor yor yo I L Yoruba
yos I L Yos
yot I L Yotti
yox I L Yoron
yoy I L Yoy
ypa I L Phala
ypb I L Labo Phowa
ypg I L Phola
yph I L Phupha
ypm I L Phuma
ypn I L Ani Phowa
ypo I L Alo Phola
ypp I L Phupa
ypz I L Phuza
yra I L Yerakai
yrb I L Yareba
yre I L Yaourι
yri I L Yarν
yrk I L Nenets
yrl I L Nhengatu
yrn I L Yerong
yrs I L Yarsun
yrw I L Yarawata
ysc I E Yassic
ysd I L Samatao
ysg I L Sonaga
ysl I L Yugoslavian Sign Language
ysn I L Sani
yso I L Nisi (China)
ysp I L Southern Lolopo
ysr I E Sirenik Yupik
yss I L Yessan-Mayo
ysy I L Sanie
yta I L Talu
ytl I L Tanglang
ytp I L Thopho
ytw I L Yout Wam
yua I L Yucateco
yub I E Yugambal
yuc I L Yuchi
yud I L Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic
yue I L Yue Chinese
yuf I L Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai
yug I E Yug
yui I L Yurutν
yuj I L Karkar-Yuri
yuk I E Yuki
yul I L Yulu
yum I L Quechan
yun I L Bena (Nigeria)
yup I L Yukpa
yuq I L Yuqui
yur I L Yurok
yut I L Yopno
yuu I L Yugh
yuw I L Yau (Morobe Province)
yux I L Southern Yukaghir
yuy I L East Yugur
yuz I L Yuracare
yva I L Yawa
yvt I E Yavitero
ywa I L Kalou
ywl I L Western Lalu
ywn I L Yawanawa
ywq I L Wuding-Luquan Yi
ywr I L Yawuru
ywt I L Xishanba Lalo
ywu I L Wumeng Nasu
yww I E Yawarawarga
yxg I E Yagara
yxy I E Yabula Yabula
yyu I L Yau (Sandaun Province)
yyz I L Ayizi
yzg I L E'ma Buyang
yzk I L Zokhuo
zaa I L Sierra de Juαrez Zapotec
zab I L San Juan Guelavνa Zapotec
zac I L Ocotlαn Zapotec
zad I L Cajonos Zapotec
zae I L Yareni Zapotec
zaf I L Ayoquesco Zapotec
zag I L Zaghawa
zah I L Zangwal
zai I L Isthmus Zapotec
zaj I L Zaramo
zak I L Zanaki
zal I L Zauzou
zam I L Miahuatlαn Zapotec
zao I L Ozolotepec Zapotec
zap zap zap M L Zapotec
zaq I L Aloαpam Zapotec
zar I L Rincσn Zapotec
zas I L Santo Domingo Albarradas Zapotec
zat I L Tabaa Zapotec
zau I L Zangskari
zav I L Yatzachi Zapotec
zaw I L Mitla Zapotec
zax I L Xadani Zapotec
zay I L Zayse-Zergulla
zaz I L Zari
zbc I L Central Berawan
zbe I L East Berawan
zbl zbl zbl I C Blissymbols
zbt I L Batui
zbw I L West Berawan
zca I L Coatecas Altas Zapotec
zch I L Central Hongshuihe Zhuang
zdj I L Ngazidja Comorian
zea I L Zeeuws
zeg I L Zenag
zeh I L Eastern Hongshuihe Zhuang
zen zen zen I L Zenaga
zga I L Kinga
zgb I L Guibei Zhuang
zgm I L Minz Zhuang
zgn I L Guibian Zhuang
zgr I L Magori
zha zha zha za M L Zhuang
zhb I L Zhaba
zhd I L Dai Zhuang
zhi I L Zhire
zhn I L Nong Zhuang
zho chi zho zh M L Chinese
zhw I L Zhoa
zia I L Zia
zib I L Zimbabwe Sign Language
zik I L Zimakani
zil I L Zialo
zim I L Mesme
zin I L Zinza
zir I E Ziriya
ziw I L Zigula
ziz I L Zizilivakan
zka I L Kaimbulawa
zkb I E Koibal
zkd I L Kadu
zkg I E Koguryo
zkh I E Khorezmian
zkk I E Karankawa
zkn I L Kanan
zko I E Kott
zkp I E Sγo Paulo Kaingαng
zkr I L Zakhring
zkt I E Kitan
zku I E Kaurna
zkv I E Krevinian
zkz I E Khazar
zlj I L Liujiang Zhuang
zlm I L Malay (individual language)
zln I L Lianshan Zhuang
zlq I L Liuqian Zhuang
zma I L Manda (Australia)
zmb I L Zimba
zmc I E Margany
zmd I L Maridan
zme I E Mangerr
zmf I L Mfinu
zmg I L Marti Ke
zmh I E Makolkol
zmi I L Negeri Sembilan Malay
zmj I L Maridjabin
zmk I E Mandandanyi
zml I L Madngele
zmm I L Marimanindji
zmn I L Mbangwe
zmo I L Molo
zmp I L Mpuono
zmq I L Mituku
zmr I L Maranunggu
zms I L Mbesa
zmt I L Maringarr
zmu I E Muruwari
zmv I E Mbariman-Gudhinma
zmw I L Mbo (Democratic Republic of Congo)
zmx I L Bomitaba
zmy I L Mariyedi
zmz I L Mbandja
zna I L Zan Gula
zne I L Zande (individual language)
zng I L Mang
znk I E Manangkari
zns I L Mangas
zoc I L Copainalα Zoque
zoh I L Chimalapa Zoque
zom I L Zou
zoo I L Asunciσn Mixtepec Zapotec
zoq I L Tabasco Zoque
zor I L Rayσn Zoque
zos I L Francisco Leσn Zoque
zpa I L Lachiguiri Zapotec
zpb I L Yautepec Zapotec
zpc I L Choapan Zapotec
zpd I L Southeastern Ixtlαn Zapotec
zpe I L Petapa Zapotec
zpf I L San Pedro Quiatoni Zapotec
zpg I L Guevea De Humboldt Zapotec
zph I L Totomachapan Zapotec
zpi I L Santa Marνa Quiegolani Zapotec
zpj I L Quiavicuzas Zapotec
zpk I L Tlacolulita Zapotec
zpl I L Lachixνo Zapotec
zpm I L Mixtepec Zapotec
zpn I L Santa Inιs Yatzechi Zapotec
zpo I L Amatlαn Zapotec
zpp I L El Alto Zapotec
zpq I L Zoogocho Zapotec
zpr I L Santiago Xanica Zapotec
zps I L Coatlαn Zapotec
zpt I L San Vicente Coatlαn Zapotec
zpu I L Yalαlag Zapotec
zpv I L Chichicapan Zapotec
zpw I L Zaniza Zapotec
zpx I L San Baltazar Loxicha Zapotec
zpy I L Mazaltepec Zapotec
zpz I L Texmelucan Zapotec
zqe I L Qiubei Zhuang
zra I E Kara (Korea)
zrg I L Mirgan
zrn I L Zerenkel
zro I L Zαparo
zrp I E Zarphatic
zrs I L Mairasi
zsa I L Sarasira
zsk I A Kaskean
zsl I L Zambian Sign Language
zsm I L Standard Malay
zsr I L Southern Rincon Zapotec
zsu I L Sukurum
zte I L Elotepec Zapotec
ztg I L Xanaguνa Zapotec
ztl I L Lapaguνa-Guivini Zapotec
ztm I L San Agustνn Mixtepec Zapotec
ztn I L Santa Catarina Albarradas Zapotec
ztp I L Loxicha Zapotec
ztq I L Quioquitani-Quierν Zapotec
zts I L Tilquiapan Zapotec
ztt I L Tejalapan Zapotec
ztu I L Gόilα Zapotec
ztx I L Zaachila Zapotec
zty I L Yatee Zapotec
zua I L Zeem
zuh I L Tokano
zul zul zul zu I L Zulu
zum I L Kumzari
zun zun zun I L Zuni
zuy I L Zumaya
zwa I L Zay
zxx zxx zxx S S No linguistic content
zyb I L Yongbei Zhuang
zyg I L Yang Zhuang
zyj I L Youjiang Zhuang
zyn I L Yongnan Zhuang
zyp I L Zyphe
zza zza zza M L Zaza
zzj I L Zuojiang Zhuang
[http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/iso-639-3_Latin1_20120816.tab]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.3LETTER.ISO.639-5 (generic; 2008),
ISO 639-5:2008 "Codes for the representation of names of languages—Part 5: Alpha-3 code for language families and groups" is an international standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It was developed by ISO Technical Committee 37, Subcommittee 2, and first published on May 15, 2008. It is part of the ISO 639 series of standards.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639-5]
Codes for the Representation of Names of Languages
Part 5: Alpha-3 code for language families and groups
ISO 639-5 codes ordered by Identifier
Identifier
Indicatif English name
Nom anglais French name
Nom franηais 639-2 Hierarchy
Hiιrarchie Notes
Notes
aav Austro-Asiatic languages austro-asiatiques, langues
aav
afa Afro-Asiatic languages afro-asiatiques, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes afa
alg Algonquian languages algonquines, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : aql : alg
alv Atlantic-Congo languages atlantique-congo, langues
nic : alv
apa Apache languages apaches, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : xnd : ath : apa
aqa Alacalufan languages alacalufanes, langues
sai : aqa
aql Algic languages algiques, langues
nai : aql
art Artificial languages artificielles, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes art
ath Athapascan languages athapascanes, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : xnd : ath
auf Arauan languages arauanes, langues
sai : awd : auf
aus Australian languages australiennes, langues language group
groupe de langues aus
awd Arawakan languages arawak, langues
sai : awd
azc Uto-Aztecan languages uto-aztθques, langues
nai : azc
bad Banda languages banda, langues language group
groupe de langues nic : alv : bad
bai Bamileke languages bamilιkι, langues language group
groupe de langues nic : alv : bai
bat Baltic languages baltes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : bat
ber Berber languages berbθres, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes afa : ber
bnt Bantu languages bantou, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes nic : alv : bnt
btk Batak languages batak, langues language group
groupe de langues map : poz : pqw : btk
cai Central American Indian languages amιrindiennes de l'Amιrique centrale, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes cai
cau Caucasian languages caucasiennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes cau d
cba Chibchan languages chibcha, langues
sai : cba
ccn North Caucasian languages caucasiennes du Nord, langues
cau : ccn g
ccs South Caucasian languages caucasiennes du Sud, langues
cau : ccs i
cdc Chadic languages tchadiques, langues
afa : cdc
cdd Caddoan languages caddoanes, langues
nai : cdd
cel Celtic languages celtiques, langues; celtes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : cel
cmc Chamic languages chames, langues language group
groupe de langues map : poz : pqw : cmc
cpe Creoles and pidgins, English-based crιoles et pidgins basιs sur l'anglais remainder group
groupe de langues restantes crp : cpe
cpf Creoles and pidgins, French-based crιoles et pidgins basιs sur le franηais remainder group
groupe de langues restantes crp : cpf
cpp Creoles and pidgins, Portuguese-based crιoles et pidgins basιs sur le portugais remainder group
groupe de langues restantes crp : cpp
crp Creoles and pidgins crιoles et pidgins remainder group
groupe de langues restantes crp
csu Central Sudanic languages soudaniques centrales, langues
ssa : csu
cus Cushitic languages couchitiques, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes afa : cus
day Land Dayak languages dayak, langues language group
groupe de langues day
dmn Mande languages mandι, langues
nic : dmn
dra Dravidian languages dravidiennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes dra
egx Egyptian languages ιgyptiennes, langues
afa : egx
esx Eskimo-Aleut languages esquimaudes-alιoutiennes, langues
esx
euq Basque (family) basque (famille)
euq c
fiu Finno-Ugrian languages finno-ougriennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes urj : fiu
fox Formosan languages formosanes, langues
map : fox
gem Germanic languages germaniques, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : gem
gme East Germanic languages germaniques orientales, langues
ine : gem : gme
gmq North Germanic languages germaniques septentrionales, langues
ine : gem : gmq
gmw West Germanic languages germaniques occidentales, langues
ine : gem : gmw
grk Greek languages grecques, langues
ine : grk
hmx Hmong-Mien languages hmong-mien, langues
hmx
hok Hokan languages hoka, langues
nai : hok
hyx Armenian (family) armιnien (famille)
ine : hyx b
iir Indo-Iranian languages indo-iraniennes, langues
ine : iir
ijo Ijo languages ijo, langues language group
groupe de langues nic : alv : ijo
inc Indic languages indo-aryennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : iir : inc
ine Indo-European languages indo-europιennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine
ira Iranian languages iraniennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : iir : ira
iro Iroquoian languages iroquoises, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : iro
itc Italic languages italiques, langues
ine : itc
jpx Japanese (family) japonais (famille)
jpx f
kar Karen languages karen, langues language group
groupe de langues sit : tbq : kar
kdo Kordofanian languages kordofaniennes, langues
nic : kdo
khi Khoisan languages khoοsan, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes khi
kro Kru languages krou, langues language group
groupe de langues nic : alv : kro
map Austronesian languages austronιsiennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes map
mkh Mon-Khmer languages mτn-khmer, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes aav : mkh
mno Manobo languages manobo, langues language group
groupe de langues map : poz : pqw : phi : mno
mun Munda languages mounda, langues language group
groupe de langues aav : mun
myn Mayan languages maya, langues language group
groupe de langues cai : myn
nah Nahuatl languages nahuatl, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : azc : nah
nai North American Indian languages nord-amιrindiennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes nai
ngf Trans-New Guinea languages trans-nouvelle-guinιe, langues
paa : ngf
nic Niger-Kordofanian languages nigιro-kordofaniennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes nic
nub Nubian languages nubiennes, langues language group
groupe de langues ssa : sdv : nub
omq Oto-Manguean languages otomangue, langues
cai : omq
omv Omotic languages omotiques, langues
afa : omv
oto Otomian languages otomi, langues language group
groupe de langues cai : omq : oto
paa Papuan languages papoues, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes paa
phi Philippine languages philippines, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes map : poz : pqw : phi
plf Central Malayo-Polynesian languages malayo-polynιsiennes centrales, langues
map : poz : plf
poz Malayo-Polynesian languages malayo-polynιsiennes, langues
map : poz
pqe Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages malayo-polynιsiennes orientales, langues
map : poz : pqe
pqw Western Malayo-Polynesian languages malayo-polynιsiennes occidentales, langues
map : poz : pqw
pra Prakrit languages prβkrit, langues language group
groupe de langues ine : iir : inc : pra
qwe Quechuan (family) quechua (famille)
sai : qwe h
roa Romance languages romanes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : itc : roa
sai South American Indian languages sud-amιrindiennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes sai
sal Salishan languages salishennes, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : sal
sdv Eastern Sudanic languages soudaniques orientales, langues
ssa : sdv
sem Semitic languages sιmitiques, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes afa : sem
sgn sign languages langues des signes language group
groupe de langues sgn
sio Siouan languages sioux, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : sio
sit Sino-Tibetan languages sino-tibιtaines, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes sit
sla Slavic languages slaves, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ine : sla
smi Sami languages sames, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes urj : fiu : smi
son Songhai languages songhai, langues language group
groupe de langues ssa : son
sqj Albanian languages albanaises, langues
ine : sqj a
ssa Nilo-Saharan languages nilo-sahariennes, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes ssa
syd Samoyedic languages samoyθdes, langues
urj : syd
tai Tai languages tai, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes tai
tbq Tibeto-Burman languages tibιto-birmanes, langues
sit : tbq
trk Turkic languages turques, langues
tut : trk
tup Tupi languages tupi, langues language group
groupe de langues sai : tup
tut Altaic languages altaοques, langues remainder group
groupe de langues restantes tut
tuw Tungus languages toungouses, langues
tut : tuw
urj Uralic languages ouraliennes, langues
urj
wak Wakashan languages wakashanes, langues language group
groupe de langues nai : wak
wen Sorbian languages sorabes, langues language group
groupe de langues ine : sla : zlw : wen
xgn Mongolian languages mongoles, langues
tut : xgn
xnd Na-Dene languages na-dιnι, langues
nai : xnd
ypk Yupik languages yupik, langues language group
groupe de langues esx : ypk
zhx Chinese (family) chinois (famille)
sit : zhx e
zle East Slavic languages slaves orientales, langues
ine : sla : zle
zls South Slavic languages slaves mιridionales, langues
ine : sla : zls
zlw West Slavic languages slaves occidentales, langues
ine : sla : zlw
znd Zande languages zandι, langues language group
groupe de langues nic : alv : znd
Albanian is included in ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 as an individual language (sq / sqi / alb).
L'albanais est inclus dans l'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 comme langue individuelle (sq / sqi / alb).
Armenian is included in ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 as an individual language (hy / hye / arm).
L'armιnien est inclus dans l'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 comme langue individuelle (hy / hye / arm).
Basque is included in ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 as an individual language (eu / eus / baq).
Le basque est inclus dans l'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 comme langue individuelle (eu / eus / baq).
In many classifications, Caucasian (encompassing North Caucasian and South Caucasian) is not considered to be a language family; rather, North Caucasian and South Caucasian are considered to be separate, unrelated language families.
Dans de nombreuses classifications, les langues caucasiennes (comprenant les langues caucasiennes du Nord et les langues caucasiennes du Sud) ne sont pas considιrιes comme une famille de langues; les langues caucasiennes du Nord et les langues caucasiennes du Sud sont traitιes comme des familles de langues distinctes.
ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 have “Chinese” as an individual language (zh / zho / chi).
L'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 considθrent le «chinois» comme une langue individuelle (zh / zho / chi).
Japanese is included in ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 as an individual language (ja / jpn).
Le japonais est inclus dans l'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 comme langue individuelle (ja / jpn).
See note d relating to Caucasian.
Voir la note d relative aux langues caucasiennes.
ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 have the item “Quechua” (qu / que) as an individual language.
L'ISO 639 1 et l'ISO 639 2 considθrent l'objet «quechua» (qu / que) comme une langue individuelle.
See note d relating to Caucasian.
Voir la note d relative aux langues caucasiennes.
[http://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-5/id.php]
_SPECIFIC:
* mother tongue|native language,
* foreign language,
_SPECIFIC:
* lagHmn.haptic
* lagHmn.spoken#cptCore629#
* lagHmn.written#cptCore93.66#
* lagHmn.sign#cptCore986#
_SPECIFIC:
* VERBAL-LANGUAGE
* NONVERBAL-LANGUAGE#ql:lnghmn.verbalno#
_SPECIFIC:
* lagHmn.OV#cptCore93.53#
* lagHmn.SOV#cptCore93.51#
* lagHmn.SVO##
* lagHmn.V_initial##
* lagHmn.VO#cptCore93.19#
* lagHmn.VSO#cptCore93.52#
ΟΙ ΓΛΩΣΕΣ ΤΟΥ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ ΣΗΜΕΡΑ ΥΠΟΛΟΓΙΖΟΝΤΑΙ ΣΕ 3 ΜΕ 5 ΧΙΛΙΑΔΕΣ.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 90#cptResource191#]
Ο ΑΡΙΘΜΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΓΝΩΣΤΩΝ ΣΗΜΕΡΑ ΓΛΩΣΣΩΝ ΥΠΕΡΒΑΙΝΕΙ ΤΙΣ 3.500.
[ΣΑΚΕΛΛΑΡΙΑΔΗΣ, 1979, 11#cptResource314#]
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore711,
* McsEngl.epo,
* McsEngl.ep, cptCore711
* McsEngl.esperanto,
* McsEngl.lngEpo@cptCore711, {2012-08-17} (ISO 639-2, 693-3)
====== lagoCHINESE:
* shi4jie4yu3 world language; Esperanto (language)
* shi4jie4 world
* yu3 dialect; language; speech
Esperanto is a language designed to facilitate communication between people of different lands and cultures. It was first published in 1887 by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof (1859-1917) under the pseudonym "Dr. Esperanto", meaning "one who hopes", and this is the name that stuck as the name of the language itself.
Esperanto is considerably easier to learn than national languages, since its design is far simpler and more regular. Also, unlike national languages, Esperanto allows communication on an equal footing between people, with neither having the usual cultural advantage favouring a native speaker.
Esperanto's purpose is not to replace any other language, but to supplement them: Esperanto would be used as a neutral language when speaking with someone who doesn't know one's own language. The use of Esperanto would also protect minority languages, which would have a better chance of survival than in a world dominated by a few powerful languages.
[soc.culture.esperanto faq 1999-06-23]
ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ γλώσσα για εύκολη συνεννόηση όλων των λαών, που τη δημιούργησε το 1887 ο Πολωνός γιατρός Ζάμενχωφ.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 1257#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'DICTIONARY,
3. WHERE DOES ESPERANTO'S VOCABULARY COME FROM?
About 75 % of Esperanto's vocabulary comes from Latin and Romance languages (especially French), about 20 % comes from Germanic languages (German and English), and the rest comes mainly from Slavic languages (Russian and Polish) and Greek (mostly scientific terms).
The words derived from Romance languages were chosen to be as recognizable as possible throughout the world. For example, the word "radio", although technically Romance, is now used internationally. Someone knowing only Russian and looking at a text in Esperanto would immediately recognize perhaps 40 % of the words, without even having studied the language.
Esperanto is phonetic: every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelled. There are no "silent" letters or exceptions.
[soc.culture.esperanto faq 1999-06-23]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'LETERO,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'LETEPRO,
Vowels
Esperanto has the five vowels of Spanish and Swahili. No distinctions of length are made and there are no nasalized vowels.
Front Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_language]
Consonants
Bilabial Labio-dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Nasal [m] [n]
Tap [638]r
Fricative [f] [v] [s] [z] [643]sx [658]jx [x]h [h]hx
Affricate [678]c [679]cx [676]gx
Lateral approximant l
Approximant j
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'LETETRO,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.lagEspo'letetro@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'diktetro@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'alphabet@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'letter@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.esperanto'letter@lagoSngo,
I write the letters of esperanto that are not in the ASCII by adding next to them the english letter "x" that esperanto doesnot uses.
LETTER SOUND:
* lagEspo'A α
* lagEspo'E ε
* lagEspo'I ι
* lagEspo'O ο
* lagEspo'U ου
* lagEspo'B μπ
* lagEspo'C τσ
* lagEspo'CX (c-circumflex ^) ΤΣ (τσι), (unicode: 265, \u0109)
* lagEspo'D ντ
* lagEspo'F φ
* lagEspo'G γκ
* lagEspo'GX (g ^) τζ, (uc: 285, \u011d)
* lagEspo'H χ μπροστά (here)
* lagEspo'HX (h ^) χ πίσω όπως το "έχω" (uc: 293, \u0125)
* lagEspo'J ι ημίφωνο, μια συλλαβή με άλλο φωνήεν
* lagEspo'JX (j ^) Ζ παχύ (uc: 309, \u0135)
* lagEspo'K κ
* lagEspo'L λ
* lagEspo'M μ
* lagEspo'N ν
* lagEspo'P π
* lagEspo'R ρ
* lagEspo'S σ
* lagEspo'SX (s^) Σ παχύ (uc: 349, \u015d)
* lagEspo'T τ
* lagEspo'UX (u-breve U shape) ου ημίφωνο, μια συλλαβή με άλλο φωνήεν (u: 365, \u016d)
* lagEspo'V β
* lagEspo'Z ζ
- circumflex accent (^)
- breve accent (similar to the lower half of a small circle).
The names of the letters are: α, ε, ι, ο, ου, μπο, τσο, ΤΣΟ, ντο, φο, ...
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'VOWEL,
kell2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows:
- a as in fur.
- e as in fianace, like a in fate.*
- i as in machine.
- o as in toll, for.
- u as in rude, rural.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 1]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'CONSONANT,
Το αλφάβητο της Εσπεράντο έχει είκοσι οκτώ (28) γράμματα:
a b c c(u265) d e f g g(u285) h h(u293) i j j(u309) k l m n o p r s s(u349) t u u(u365) v z
kell3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, z, are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as follows:
- c like ts in hats, tsetse.
- cx like ch in chin, much.
- g like g in go, big.
- gx like g in gem, j in jar. (τζ)
- hx is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open.?
- j like y in yes, beyond
- j like z in azure, s in visual.
- r is slightly trilled or rolled.
- s like s in see, basis.
- sx like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine.
- ux like w or consonantal u.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 1]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'NAME'OF'LETTER,
kell4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in 2. The names of the consonants are bo, co, cxo, do, fo, go, gxo, ho, hxo, jo, jxo, ko, lo, mo, no, po, ro, so, sxo, to, tie, vo, zo. These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as ko to po for k. t. p, ( = etc.), and in spelling words, as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 2]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'DIPHTHONG,
kell5. Diphthongs are combjnations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in naiva, like English Rake, etc.), they are written with j and ti instead. Their pronunciation is as follows:
- aj like ai in aisle.
- ej like ei in vein, ey in they.
- oj like oi in coin, oy in boy.
- uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey.
- eux like ayw in wayward, or like e’(h)oo pronounced together.
- aux like ou in out, ow in owl.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 2]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'EVOLUTION,
1887:
It was first published in 1887 by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof (1859-1917) under the pseudonym "Dr. Esperanto", meaning "one who hopes", and this is the name that stuck as the name of the language itself.
[soc.culture.esperanto faq 1999-06-23]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SENTENSERO,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'OBJECT,
kell23. The person or thing acted upon is called the direct object of a transitive verb, and is given the ending -n. This is called the accusative ending, and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the accusative case:*
- La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair.
- La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.
* The ending -n follows the ending -j, if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.
kell24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending -N* This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words:
- La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower.
- Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers.
- La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair.
- Rugan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 10]
kell29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a complementary infinitive. If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb: it may itself have a direct object:
- La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to mn.
- Birdoj Satas kanti, birds like to sing.
- La knabo volas havi eevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse.
- Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SUBJECT'COMPLEMENT,
kell25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 10]
kell45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as “the book is mine,” or may modify some word or words not expressed, as “mine are large.” Instead of having special forms, like English mine, yours, hers, etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article :
La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine.,
La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are beautiful, Ili havas la Sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his.
La iliaj gajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 25]
PREDICATE-ADJECTIVES:
kell19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be" "to seen"” etc., it is called a predicate adjective:
La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful.
La knabo gajnas bona, the boy seems good.
La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 7]
PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.
kell210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found: *
Li faris la mondon felicxa, he made the world happy (made-happy the world).
Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed).
Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.
* Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use:
Dio faris la mondon felicxan, God made the happy world.
Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy.
Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 157]
PREDICATE-NOUNS:
kell211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20) : +
SXi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that one representative.
Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror.
Mi trovis lin Btelisto, I found him a thief.
+ Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13):
SXi nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 158]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'VERBAN,
lagEspo'verban.DIRECTION:
kell46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions al, lo, toward, gxis, as far as, tra, through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three):
- Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden (“ gardenward “).
- La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston (“ Bostonward “).*
- Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and ran into the house.
- GXi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.
- Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
- Mi iris tra la domo en mian eambron, I went through the house into my room.
* English “ he went home,” ” he went homeward,” etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 27]
lagEspo'verban.INSTRUMENT (MANNER):
kell64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition per:
Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle.
La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings.
Li amuras sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pictures.
Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 42]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SUBSENTENCE,
lagEspo'SUBFRASI.INDIRECT:
kell53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause * dependent upon a verb meaning ‘i say,” “think,” “ know,” “believe,” or a similar expression, as in “I know that he came,” “I hear that he is good, ” is called an indirect statement. (The direct statement is “he came?” “he is good.“) An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction ke, that:
Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good.
Johano diras ke vi venis hierati, John says that you came yesterday.
SXi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she thinlcs that there is money in the bag.
Ni vidas ke negas, we see that it is snowing.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 34]
kell58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question* remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and am, is, are, have, will become was, were, had, would, etc.):
Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good.
" diris " " " ", I said that he was good.
" diros " " " " I shall say that he is good.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 38]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'FRASI.TIME'OF'DAY,
kell185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with horo expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the cardinals. In questions the adjective kioma (from kiom, how much) is used:
Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o’clock, what time) is it?
Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o’clock) will you come?
Estas la dua horo, it is two o’clock (it is the second hour).
Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three.
Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six.
Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 139]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'frasi.LETTER,
kell278.
a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following:
Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.
Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.
Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912.
b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business letters) : Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre estimata Fratiino, et,c.; (to friends and relatives) Kara Fratilino, Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia,* etc.; (to persons whose opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) Estimata (Kara) Samideano (follower of the
c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in business letters): Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun plej alta estimo, etc., (to friends): Kun amika saluto, Kun e&j bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via, etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 221]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'GRAMAR (gramology),
4. WHAT ABOUT ESPERANTO'S GRAMMAR AND WORD-ORDER?
Even more than its vocabulary, it is Esperanto's grammar and rules which makes it exceptionally easy. Unnecessary complications have been eliminated: there is no grammatical gender, the word order is relatively free, etc. The rules have also been simplified as much as possible: there is only one verb conjugation, all plurals are formed the same way, a prefix can be added to any word to change it to its opposite (good/bad, rich/poor, right/wrong), and so on. Thus, after perhaps 30 minutes' study, one can conjugate any verb in any tense. This is a tremendous simplification compared to national languages.
Esperanto's flexible word-order allows speakers from different language families to use the structures with which they are most familiar and still speak perfectly intelligible and grammatically correct Esperanto. This also makes Esperanto an excellent translator of such different languages as Chinese, Japanese, Latin, English and French.
[soc.culture.esperanto faq 1999-06-23]
Το αλφάβητο έχει 28 γράμματα. Πολύ απλή γραμματική και ρίζες λέξεων παρμένες από γλώσσες που μιλά ο περισσότερος ο κόσμος.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 1257#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'Knower,
Quantity:
Native: 200 to 2000 (1996, est.); Fluent speakers: est. 100,000 to 2 million [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto] 2008-04-17
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'KONSEPTERO,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'NOUNERO,
kell10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is o:
knabo, boy. porno, apple.
cxevalo, horse. tablo, table.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 4]
lagEspo'noun.PREDICATE:
kell20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a predicate noun:
_stxEspo: Violoj _sxtVrb:{estas} floroj, ==> violets are flowers.
_stxEspo: La kolombo estas birdo, ==> the dove is a bird.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 8]
kell21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate-relation:
_stxEspo: Rozoj _sxtVrb:{estas} beiaj, ==> roses are beautiful.
_stxEspo: La knabo kaj la viro _sxtVrb:{gajnas} fortaj, ==> the boy and the man seem strong.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 8]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ARTICLE,
kell11. The definite article is la, the, as
la knabo, the boy, la eevalo, the horse, la tablo, the table, la porno, the apple. In English there is an indefinite article “a, an,” for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore knabo may mean boy, or a boy, porno may mean apple or an apple.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 4]
kell18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as la viro, the man, la viroj, the men. The verb is also invariable in form:
La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking.
_stxEspo: La suno kaj la luno _sxtVrb:{brilas}, ==> the sun and the moon are shining.
La viro estas, the man is.
La viroj estas, the men are.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 7]
THE GENERIC ARTICLE:
kell201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is called the generic article: *
_stxEspo: La pacienco estas laudinda, ==> patience is praiseworthy.
_stxEspo: La vivo surtera estas nyr parto de la vivo Eiama, ==> life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal.
_stxEspo: La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, ===> man is stronger than woman.
* Cf. French La patience est ame're, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet.
German Das Leben ist kurtz, life is short,
Italian La speranza e', il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man’s bread,
Spanish Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune, etc.
In English the generic article (as in “ the life eternal ” above) may often be replaced by omission of both ”a” and “the.”
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 150]
The main difference between the use of the definite article in Esperanto and in English is that in Esperanto the article, with a singular noun, may be used to indicate an entire class.
[Harlow, Don. The Sixteen Rules of Esperanto Grammar. 1995-09-11]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'noun'ACCUSATIVE,
kell92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:
- Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday.
- Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday.
- Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 67]
kell91. Duration of time and a date or point in time maybe expressed not only by use of the prepositions dum, during, and je, at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:
- Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 66]
THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.
kell139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:
Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles.
La parko estas larka tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is three miles wide and four miles long.
La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 99]
FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. +
kell263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from roots expressing motion:
Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was sudden.
La irado tien estos plezuro, (the) going thither will be a pleasure.
&a falado teren timigis min, its falling earthward terrified me.
kell264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb:
Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life.
SXi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance.
Ili ploris maldoleajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears.
b. Verbs of motion (iri, veni, pasi, marsxi, veturi, etc.) compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, also compounds of such verbs as esti and stari with prepositions expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated:
La viro preterpasis la domon, the man passed (by) the house.
Lin antaiivenis du sklavoj, there preceded (came before) him two slaves.
Ni supreniru la Ituparon, let us go up the stairs.
Mi Ceestis la feston, I attended (was present at) the entertainment.
Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, I oppose (withstand) your opinion.
c. The slight change in meaning given by pri used as a prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive.* The same is true of el prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion (see also p. 118, ftn.) :
SXi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird.
Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter.
Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over.
Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly.
kell265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct:
Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him.++
Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him.
Gi placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me.
Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us.
SXi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear.
kell266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally followed by a prepositional phrase:
Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that.
Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the ezception of that.
Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair.
Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other.
Konforme la legon (konforme al la leto), in conformity to the law.
+ Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).
* In this use pri resembles the English and German inseparable prefix be-, as in English bemoan, bewail, bethink, bespeak, German beklagen, besprechen, bedenken sich, etc.
++ When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say pardonu nin, but must say pardonu al ni niajn pekojn.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 209]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'noun'NUMBER,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'PLURAL,
kell16. The plural number of nouns, that, is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding -j * to the noun, as viroj, men, from viro, man; tabloj, tubles, from tablo, table.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 7]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'noun.POLYLECTIC,
kell48. English often uses the preposition “of” between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as “the city of Boston.” Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition:
_stxEspo: La urbo Bostono _sxtVrb:{estas} granda, ==> the city (of) Boston is large.
Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall.
cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 28]
kell49. The preposition de is used to express possession or connection:
_stxEspo: La muroj de la domo, ==> the walls of the house.
La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers.
La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy’s book).
Branco de la arbo, a brunch of the tree.
La gardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men’s garden).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 30]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'VERB,
_DEFINITION:
kell14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present, time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is -as:
kuras, runs, is running. brilas, shines, is shining.
flugas, flies, is flying. dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 5]
_GENERIC:
* VERBER#cptCore551#
kell51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as “there,” “it.” In Esperanto no such particles are needed:
_stxEspo: _sxtVrb:{Estas} floroj sur la tablo, ==> there are flowers on the table.
_stxEspo: Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gardeno, ==> it was John, not Alfred, in the garden.
_stxEspo: Estas domo en la kampo, ==> there is a house in the field.
Estis mi, it was I.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 32]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero'NAMERO,
vindi,
vindas, vindis, vindos,
vidanta, vidinta, vidonta,
vidata, vidita, vidota,
vindu, vindus,
lagEspo'verbero'EMPASIS:
EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF JA.
kell215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by “ do, “ did,” as in ‘I I do study,” ” I did find it,” “ Do tell me,” and by adverbs such as ” certainly,” ‘I indeed,” etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb ja, indeed, before the verb:
Vi ja mirigas min ! You do astonish me!
Li ja estas justa jugisto, he is indeed an upright judge.
Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 162]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero'TENSE,
COMPOUND TENSES. [lagEspo'verbero'tense.compund]:
kell109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of esti, as Mi estas demandanta, I am asking, La viro estas acxetanta, the man is buing. Such combinations are called compound tenses, in contrast to the simple or aoristic* tenses. Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound tense, as La birdoj lugas, the birds are flying. When used to form a compound tense, the verb esti is called the auxiliary verb. No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in English, which uses be have, do, will, shall, would, etc.).
[lagEspo'verbero'tense.aoristic]
*An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in -as, -os, etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 78]
THE PRESENT TENSE.
kell14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present, time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is -as:
kuras, runs, is running. brilas, shines, is shining.
flugas, flies, is flying. dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 5]
THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.
kell110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the present tense of esti is called the progressive present tense. It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
- mi estas vidanta, I am seeing.
- vi estas vidanta, you are seeing.
- li (cxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing.
- ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing.
- vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing.
- ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 79]
THE IMPERFECT TENSE.
kell113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the imperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidanta, I was seeing.
vi estis vidanta, you were seeing.
Ii (cxi, gxi) estis vidanta, he (she, it) was seeing.
ni estis vidantaj, we were seeing.
vi estis vidantaj, you were seeing.
ili estis vidantaj, they were seeing.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 82]
THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.
kell114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the future tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progress or a condition as existing continuously at a future time, and is called the progressive future tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidanta, I shall be seeing.
vi estos vidanta, you will be seeing.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 82]
THE PERFECT TENSE.
kell124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of esti is called the perfect tense. It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of vidi in the perfect tense is as follows:
mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen).
vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are hawing-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen).
ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen).
vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen).
ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 90]
THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.
kell135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the pluperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen).
vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).
ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen).
vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen).
ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 98]
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
kell148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb esti represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the future perfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).
ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen).
ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 106]
THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.
kell153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:
Present Periphraatic Future.
mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj,
Z am about to (going to) see. we are about to (going to) see.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj,
Z was about to (going to) see. we were about to (going to) see.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj,
Z shall be about to (going to) see. we shall be about to (going to) see.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 111]
THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.
kell168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb, and is called the present passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen.
vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen.
li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen.
ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen.
vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen.
ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 126]
THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
kell178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb at some time in the past. It is called the imperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen.
vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen.
li (cxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen.
ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen.
vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen.
ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 134]
THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.
kell183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the future tense of esti indicates that an act or condition will be undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the future passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidata, I shall be seen.
vi estos vidata, you will be seen.
li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen.
ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen.
vi estos vidataj, you will be seen.
ili estos vidataj, they will be seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 138]
THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
kell190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which has been undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the perfect passive tense. The conjugation of the verb vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estas vidita, I have been Seen (I am having-been-seen).
vi estas vidita, you have been seen.
il (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen.
ni estas viditaj, we have been seen.
vi estas viditaj, you have been seen.
ili estas viditaj, they have been seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 142]
THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
kell195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which had been u-ndeyone by the subject of the verb at some point in past time. It is called the pluperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen).
vi estis vidita, you had been seen.
li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen.
ni estis viditaj, we had been seen.
vi estis viditaj, you had been seen.
ili estis viditaj, they had been seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 145]
THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
kell196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which will have been undergone by the subject of the verb at some point in future time. It is called the future perfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen).
vi estos vidita, you will have been seen.
li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen.
ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen.
vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen.
ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 145]
THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.
kell200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or condition as about to be undergone in the present, past, or future, respectively. These are called passive periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular of these tenses is as follows:
Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidota, Z urn about to be (going to be) seen.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidota, Z was about to be (going to be) seen.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidota, Z shall be about to be (going to be) seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 150
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero'PARTICIPLE,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'participle,
THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell108. A participle is a verbal adjective, as in ” a crying child.” It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what the word modified is doing, ends in -anta, as vidanta, seeing, iranta, going:
- La ploranta infano volas dormi, the crying child wishes to sleep.
- Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves.
- Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs?
- Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon, I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 78]
THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) expressing what the word modified did or has done, ends in -inta, as vidinta, having seen, irinta, gone, having gone:
- La falintaj folioj estas brunaj, the fallen leaves are brown.
- Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us?
- Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn, one forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 86]
THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell152. The future active participle (for the characteristics of a participle see 108, expressing what, the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in -onta as vidonta, about to see, ironta, about to go:
- La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant.
- La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you is very affable.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 110]
THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), expressing that which is undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -ata, as vidata, being seen: *
La Iaudata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy.
Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book.
La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are beautiful.
* Theverb iri, to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transilive verbs (22) only.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 122]
THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as having been undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified. This participle ends in -ita, as vidita, having been seen:
La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too great.
La punita infano ploras, the (having-been) punished child is crying.
Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, I shall buy well-made gloves.
Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 142]
THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
kell199. The future passive participle, expressing that which will be or is about to be undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -eta, as vidota, about to be seen:
La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, the child about to be punished whimpers softly.
La formovota tablo estas peza, the table about to be moved away is heavy.
La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be built by him will be beautiiul.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 149]
THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.
kell222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or determining the substantive modified, as in la parolanta viro, the man who-is-talking, la sendota knabo, the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to an adverbial clause.* Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbiall participle is given the ending -e : +
GXojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed.
Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, being about to depart, we made him farewell.
Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep.
Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold.
Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped by you, I shall succeed.
Silentigite de Ii, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain.
Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry.
Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking (not having spoken), he left.
Li venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not-having-been) called.
* An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in dum vi atendis, Ii foriris, while you wayted, he went away; Car mi gxojis, mi ridis, because I was happy, I laughed.
+ The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English “nominative absolute” construction of a participial clause referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be used: The youth being young, everyone watched him, Ear la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; the work being finished, he went away, kiam la lahoro estis tinita, Ii foriris.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 168]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero'INFINITIVE,
kell28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is -i, as kuri, to run, esti, to be, havi, to have.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 13]
THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.
kell130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.* Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun si:
_stxEspo: Promeni _sxtVrb:{estas} granda plezuro, ==> to go walking is a great pleasure.
Promeni _sxtVrb:{estas} agrable, to go walking is pleasant.
CXu _sxtVrb:{estas} facile rigardi la plafonon? ==> Is it easy to look at the ceiling?
_sxtVrb:{Estas} bone sin helpi, it is well to help onesef.
Paroli al si _sxtVrb:{estas} malsage, to talk to oneself is silly.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 94]
NOTE:
* Esperanto's infinitive as subject, it is the NOUN of the same concept. The ending should was -o.
[hmnSngo.2006-01-13_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero'MOOD,
lagEspo'IMPERATIVE'MOOD:
kell254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there is an imperative mood, as in English. The ending of the imperative mood is -u. Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood estu of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows:
Aoristic-Tense#ql:esp'verb'tense.aoristic#.
mi vidu! let me see! ni vidu ! let us see!
(vi) vidu! (you) see! (vi) vidu! (you) see!
Ii (cxi, gxi) vidu! let him (her, it) see! ili vidu! let them see!
Compound Tenses.
Active. Passive.
Present: mi estu vidanta, Present: mi estu vidata,
Past : mi estu vidinta, Past : mi estu vidita,
Future: mi estu vidonta. Future: mi estu vidota.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 200]
RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.
kell255. The first person singular of the imperative mood is used to express the speaker’s resolve concerning his own action, or an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The first person plural is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed: *
Mi pensu pri tio ! Let me think about that!
Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that!
Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him!
Ni ne sidigxu tie ! Let us not sit down there!
Ni estu grize vestitaj ! Let us be dressed in gray!
* This force is usually expressed in English by “ let ” with m accusative and infinitive construction.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 200
COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.
kell256. The second and third persons of the imperative are used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions.
a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it:
Estu trankvila ! Be caZm! (One person is addressed.)
Estu pretaj por akompaui min ! Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.)
Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood!
Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door!
Ne estu vidata tie ! Do not be seen there!
b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in translation (as let, must, are to, is to, etc.):
Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful) !
SXi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)!
CXio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven!
Oni lasu min trankvila ! People are to let me alone!
Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return!
La kulpuloj estu punataj ! Let the culprits be punished!
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 201]
LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.
kell257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory expressions, such as request, wish, advice, etc., and in questions of deliberation or perplexity, or requests for instruction:
Request:
CXesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg!
Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that!
Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins!
Wish:
Ili estu felicxaj ! May they be happy !
Dio vin benu ! God bless you !
Vivu la regxo ! (Long) live the king !
Advice:
Pensu antau ol agi ! Think before acting !
Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! Go away, if you are not satisfied !
Consent:
Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! Well, talk, but Z shall not listen !
Iru tuj, se vi volas, go at once, if you like.
Question:
CXu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not?
CXu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books?
CXu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned?
CXu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shull they) come here?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 201]
THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
kell259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing command, exhortation, resolve, consent, wish, etc., or after any word or general expression of command, intention, necessity, expedience, etc.* Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:
Command and Prohibition.
Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go.
SXi skribis al Ii ke li venu, she wrote him to come.
Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain.
Ni ordonos ke Ii estu punata, we shall order that he be punished.
Request and Wish.
Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me.
Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm.
Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved.
Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that.
Advice, Consent, Permission.
Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go.
Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain.
Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbariuns escape).
Questions.
Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away.
Oni demandis cxu lia molto eniru, they asked whether his honor was to enter.
Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that.
Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.
Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped.
Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, his proposal is, that we receive the half.
Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come.
Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more.
Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we have a good emperor.
Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, it was necessary for everyone to rise.
Placxos al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go.
* In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be expressed by the infinitive, as “ I wish you to go,” but in Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of ” I wish that you go.” The infinitive may not he used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in such general statements as “ it is necessary to go.”
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 204]
269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of permesi, lasi, or the imperative mood:
CXu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me lo) stay?
Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay).
Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there.
Lasu lin veni, let him come.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 215]
lagEspo'CONDITIONAL'MOOD:
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
kell241. That indication of the speaker’s frame of mind which is given by the form of the verb is called the mood of the verb. All verbs given so far have been in the indicative mood, which represents an act or state as a reality or fact, or in the infinitive mood, which expresses the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. The conditional mood does not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker’s idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is -us. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:
mi vidus, I should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
li (cxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, i) would see.
ni vidus, we should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
ili vidus, they would see.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 188]
kell242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the participles with the aoristic tense of esti in the conditional mood. A synopsis of vidi in these compound tenses is as follows:
Active Voice.
Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing.
Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen.
Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see.
Passive Voice.
Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen.
Past : mi estus vidita, I should have been seen.
Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 189]
INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
kell244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or question in which it is used:
Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you.
CXu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me?
Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air?
Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own.
La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 189]
kell270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some such adverb as eble, kredeble, vergajne, etc. :
Eble Ii obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you.
Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed.
Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right.
Eble oni lin savus, ==> they might (possibly they would) save him.
Ili nepre ne batis lin, ==> they could not have (surely did not) beat him.
Tio estas neebla! ==> That can not be (that is impossible)!
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 215
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'verbero.SPECIFIC,
INDICATIVE:
Aoristic PresentPerf PastPerf FuturePerf
Pr mi skribas mi estas skribanta mi estas skribinta mi estas skribonta Active
mi estas skribata mi estas skribita mi estas skribota Passive
Pa mi skribis mi estis skribanta mi estis skribinta mi estis skribonta Active
mi estis skribata mi estis skribita mi estis skribota Passive
Fu mi skribos mi estos skribanta mi estos skribinta mi estos skribonta Active
mi estos skribata mi estos skribita mi estos skribota Passive
IMPERATIVE: skribu
lagEspo'verbero.INTRANSITIVE:
SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
kell275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related.+ In Esperanto the suffix -ig- (214) must be used when the transitive meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table:
Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use.
Boli . . . . La akvo bolas (The water boils) Li boligas la akvon (He boils the water)
Bruli . . . La fajro brulas The fire burns Li bruligis la paperon He burned the paper
Cesi . . . . La bruo cesas The noise stops Li cesigas la bruon He stops the noise
Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras The noise continues Li dauxrigas la bruon He continues the noise
Degeli . . . La glacio degelas The ice thaws Li gxin degeligas per fajro He thaws it with fire
Droni . . . La knabino dronis The girl drowned La viro sxin dronigis The man drowned her
Eksplodi. . hulvo eksplodas Gunpowder explodes Li gin eksplodigos He will explode it
Halti . . . Li haltis timigite He halted in alarm Li haltigis la soldatojn He halted the soldiers
Lumi . . . La suno lumas The sun shines Li lumigis la lampon He lighted the lamp
Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Time passes Tie1 li pasigis la tagon Thus he passed the day
Pendi . . . & pendas de bra&o It hangs on a branch Li kin pendigis de branEo He hung it on a branch
Soni. . . . La saluta pafo sonis The salute sounded Oni sonigis la salutan pafon They sounded the salute
Sonori . . La sonorilo sonoris The bell rang Oni sonorigis la sonorilon They rang the bell
+ A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the English intransitive verb “learn” for the transitive verb “teach,” as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 219]
lagEspo'verbero.TRANSITIVE:
kell22. The verbs so far given have been intransitive verbs, expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as la knabo kuras, the boy runs. On the other hand a transitive verb expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, la knabo trovas - - , the boy finds - - .
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 9]
SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.
kell279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the intransitive English verbs to which they are related (conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix -igx- (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of them:
balanci, to balance. fini, tc end, to finish.
etendi, to extend, to expand. fermi, to close, to shut.
fieksi, to bend, to flex. ruli, to roll, (a wheel, ball, etc.).
hejti, to heat. skui, to shake.
klini, to incline, to bend. streei, to stretch.
kolekti, to gather;to collect. svingi, to swing.
komenci, to begin, to commence. sameli, to cause to vacillate.
mezuri, to measure. Sanki, to change.
montri, to show. SXiri, to tear.
movi, to moue. turni, to turn.
pasxti, to padture, to feed. veki, to wake.
renversi, to upset, to overturn. verai, to pour.
rompi, to break. volvi, to roll (around something).
La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end.
La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent.
La folioj disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop).
CXiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change.
La vintro jam komencigxas, the winter is already beginning.
Mi vekigxos je la sesa, Z shall awake at six (o’clock).
La montrilo sanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated).
Vasta ebenajo etendigxis antaux li, a vast plain extended before him.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 224]
lagEspo'verbero.IMPERSONAL:
kell50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as “it rains,” “it is snowing,” are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word “it” serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:
Pluvas, it rains, it is raining.
Negxis hieraii, it snowed yesterday.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 31]
MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.
kell141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in “ it is cold,” “ it seems too early “), must necessarily be adverbial:
- Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house.
- Estos malvarme morgaii, it will be cold tomorrow.
- Estas bone ke Ii venis, it is well that he came.
- Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him.
- Ke vi venis estis tre sage, that you came was very wise: Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 102]
COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.
kell179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending -e, like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141):
Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago.
Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal.
Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 135]
lagEspo'verbero.DEVI (lagEspo'DEVI):
kell247. The verb devi (cf. devo, duty) is equivalent to the verb must (which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to to have to, to be obliged to, etc., carrying the idea of must into all tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense (of nboral obligation), and carries the idea of ought:
Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall.
Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws.
Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go.
SXi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that.
Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go.
Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go).
Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking.
Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come.
Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 193]
lagEspo'verbero.POVI (lagEspo'POVI):
kell72. The verb povi, to be able, is used to translate English can, which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have:
Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk.
Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk.
Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, -.
Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ---.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 49]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ADJECTIVE,
_DEFINITION:
kell12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is a :
bela, beautiful. granda, large.
dava, yellow. forta, strong.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 5]
kell17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j.* An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form:
bonaj viroj, good men.
grandaj eevaloj, large horses.
belaj birdo kaj floro (for bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 7]
lagEspo'ADJECTIVE.PREDICATE:
kell19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be" "to seen"” etc., it is called a predicate adjective:
La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful.
La knabo gajnas bona, the boy seems good.
La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 7]
PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.
kell210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found: *
_stxEspo: Li _sxtVrb:{faris} la mondon felicxa, ==> he made the world happy (made-happy the world).
Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed).
Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.
* Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use:
Dio faris la mondon felicxan, God made the happy world.
Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy.
Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 157]
lagEspo'ADJECTIVE.ATTRIBUTIVE:
kell13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it, is called an attributive adjective:
la granda Eevalo, the large horse. floro flava, a yellow flower.
bela birdo, a beautiful bird. forta knabo, a strong boy.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 5]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'adnouner'COMPARISON,
kell74. An adjective may have three degrees, positive, comparative and superlative. English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes -er, -at, the adverbs more, most, and irregular methods as in good, better, best, etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs pli, more, and plej, most :
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
bela, beautiful, pli bela, more beautiful, plej bela, most beautiful.
bona, good, pli bona, better, plej bona, best.
malbona, bud, pli malbona, worse, plej malbona, worst.
sagxa, wise, pli sagxa, wiser, plej sagxa, wisest.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 52]
kell80. The opposites (67) of pli and plej are malpli, less, and malplej, least. Their use is similar to that of pli and plej.
(These adverbs may also modify verbs) :
Li estas malpli kuraga, he is less courageous.
Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp.
La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly.
Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully.
Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less.
Vi malplej bezonos.helpon, you will need help least.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 56]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ADVERB,
kell66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as “now,” “almost,” or derived, as “gladly, ” “sweet-ly,”
The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows:
(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time) :
baldaux, soon.
morgaux, tomorrow.
hieraux, yesterday.
nun, now.
hodiaux, today.
tuj, immediately.
(b) Adverbs of Degree.
almenaii, at least.
preskafi, almost.
nur, merely.
tre, very, much.
(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.
addition: ankaii, also. emphasis: et, even.
interrogation: i?u, (30, p. 38, ftn.). affirmation: jes, yes.
proximity: Ei, (60). negation: ne, not, no, (27).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 45]
ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.
kell121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending -n when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):
- CXu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)?
- Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back.
- La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and underneath.
- Li estis marlanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).*
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 87]
lagEspo'adverb'CREATION:
kell79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending -e, as felicxe, happily, kolere, angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
sake, wisely, pli sake, more wisely, plej sage, most wisely.
bone, well, pli bone, better, plej bone, best.
malbone, badly, pli malbone, worse, plej malbone, worst.
ruze, slyly, pli ruze, more slyly, plej ruze, most slyly.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 56]
120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by use of the adverb ending -e :
Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry.
Paste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German.
Li marcxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind.
Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout.
Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat n,ear by.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 87]
lagEspo'TIAM:
kell73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiam [then, at that time]:
Tiam li rajdos al la urbo [then he will ride to the city].
Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj [now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish].
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 52]
lagEspo'TIE:
kell68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns tiu and cxi tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and cxi tie, here, in (at) this place :
La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).
La libroj kulas ei tie, tha books lie here (in this place).
Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here.
Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 48]
lagEspo'TIEN:
kell69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by tie or cxi tie, the ending -n is added to the adverb (46), formirig tien, thither, there, and cxi tien, hither, here :
Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither).
Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, we were there and came here (hither).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 48]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'PRONOMERO,
* McsEngl.pron.esperanto@cptCore711i,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.lagEspo'specialero@lagoSngo,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'CORRELATIVES,
kell235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other as corresponding demonstrabives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called correlatives. In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete than in any other language, and may he summarized as follows:
Demonstrative Interrogative and Relative Distributive Indefinite Negative
tiu (56#ql:kell56#) kiu (146#ql:kell146#) cxiu (173#ql:kell173#) iu (233#ql:kell233#) neniu (220) [entity-iu]
that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(genitivero)
ties (62#ql:kell62#) Kies (147#ql:kell147#) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies (221) [owner-ies]
that one’s whose every one’s any one’s no one's
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tio (233#ql:kell233#) kio (233) cxio (233#ql:kell233#) io (233#ql:kell233#) nenio (233) [nonhuman-io]
that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(adnounero)
tia (65#ql:kell65#) kia (150#ql:kell150#) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224)
that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tie (68#ql:kell68#) kie (151#ql:kell151#) cxie (182#ql:kell182#) ie (209) nenie (225) [place-ie]
there where everywhere anywhere nowhere,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) [time-iam]
then when always any time never,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) [cause-ial]
therefore, wherefore, for every reson for any reason for no reason
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tiel(88),(156) kieI (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) [manner-iel]
thus, so, how, as, every way, any way, in no way,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tiom (104) kiom (164#ql:kell164#) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) [quantity-iom]
that much, how much, all, some, none,
so much, as, the whole of, any amount, no quantity.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 180]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.PERSONAL,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'mi,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'vi,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'li,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'cxi,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'gxi,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ni,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ili,
kell32. The personal pronouns are:
Singular. Plural.
First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us).
Second person: vi, you.* vi, you.
Third person: Ii, he (him).
cxi, she (her). ili, they (them).
gxi, it.
* There is another pronoun ci, thou, for the second person singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German du, French tu, e t c .
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 15]
kell37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending -n (23):
_stxEspo: La viro {vidis} /vin kaj min/, ==> the man saw you and me.
_stxEspo: Li vidis ilin kaj nin, ==> he saw them and us.
_stxEspo: Mi _sxtVrb:{vidis} nek lin nek sxin, ==> I saw neither him nor her.
_stxEspo: Ni volas havi gxin, ==> we wish to have it.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 18]
kell42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, Ii, cxi, gxi, ili, when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:
_stxEspo: La knabo _sxtVrb:{lauxdas} lin, ==> he boy praises him (another person).
_stxEspo: sxi _sxtVrb:{donas} pomojn al sxi, ==> she gives apples to her (to another person).
_stxEspo: La birdo _sxtVrb:{vidis} gxin, ==> the bird saw it (something else than the bird).
_stxEspo: La knaboj _sxtVrb:{kasxis} ilin, ==> the boys hid them (other persons or things).
_stxEspo: Ili _sxtVrb:{trovis} ilin apud si, ==> they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves).
_stxEspo: La birdoj _sxtVrb:{flugis} al ili, ==> the birds flew to them.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 24]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.POSSESIVE,
kell43. Words like “my,” .his,” “your,” which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called possessive adjectives.* Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending -a, as mia, my, via, your (cia, thy), lia, his, cxia, her, gxia, its, nia, via, your (plural), ilia, their. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns (42) is also true of the adjectives derived from them:
_stxEspo: Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj _sxtVrb:{estas} grandaj, ==> my house and my gardens are large.
_stxEspo: Johano {sidas} sur via segxo, ==> John is sitting in your chair.
_stxEspo: Li {havas} lian cxevalon, ==> he has his (another person’s) horse.
_stxEspo: CXu vi {legis} sxiajn librojn? ==> Did you read her books?
* Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 24]
kell45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as “the book is mine,” or may modify some word or words not expressed, as “mine are large.” Instead of having special forms, like English mine, yours, hers, etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article :
_stxEspo: La granda libro estas la mia, ==> the large book is mine.,
- La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are beautiful, Ili havas la Sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his.
- La iliaj gajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 25]
kell47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in “I wash my face,” “he shakes his head,” but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in “Brother gave it to me,” etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:
- Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face.
- Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head.
- La patro estas alta, Father is tall.
- Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father.
- [Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 28]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.REFLEXIVE,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'si,
kell38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used reflexively, or to be a reflexive pronoun.
kell39. The first and second personal pronouns, mi, ni, and vi, (ci) are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as “me, myself, us, ourselves,!’ can refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as “ you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself),” can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed:
- Mi vidas min, I see myself.
_stxEspo: Mi diris al mi, ==> I said to myself.
- Ni havas tapigon sub ni, we have a carpet uruler us.
- Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves.
- (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.)
- Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves).
- Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 20]
kell40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, “He sees a bird near him,” may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun si (accusative sin), which means him(self), her (sey), it(self), them(selves), according to the gender ‘and number of the verb: *
- Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself.
- Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self).
- SXi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self).
- Mario trovis sin sur blua tapibo, Mary found herself on a blue carpet.
- La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet bus various colors in it(self).
- La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves.
- Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves.
kell42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, Ii, sxi, gxi, ili, when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 21]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.DEMONSTRATIVE,
lagEspo'TIU (that):
kell56. The demonstrative pronoun tiu, that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is tiuj, those:
- Tiu {estas} la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 37]
kell57. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a pronominal adjective, in agreement with a noun:
- Tiu vento {estos} varma, that wind will be warm.
- Mi {vidas} tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock.
- Tiuj infanoj {estas} junaj, those children are young.
- Mi {trovos} tiujn librojn, I shall find those books.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 39]
lagEspo'CXI'TIU (this):
kell60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning “this” is formed by using with tiu (56) the word cxi, which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of cxi tiu is that one nearby, that one here.) The word cxi may either precede or follow the pronoun:
- CXi tiu {estas} la mia, this is mine.
- Mi {vidis} cxi tiun, I saw this one.
- CXu vi {volas} tiujn cxin? Do you wish these ?
- CXi tiu knabino {estas} mia fratino, this girl is my sister.
- Mi {vidis} cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats.
- CXi tiuj amikoj {promenos}, these friends will take a walk.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 41]
lagEspo'TIES, lagEspo'CXI'TIES:
62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns tiu and cxi tiu have the special possessive or genitive forms ties, that one’s, and cxi ties, this one’s. The use of ties and cxi ties to mean “the former” and “the latter” is similar to the use of tiu and cxi tiu shown in 61:
- Mi {iris} al ties domo, I went to that one’s house.
- CXi ties filoj {estas} junaj, this person’s (this one’s) sons are young.
- Mi {sxatas} ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, I like that one’s color, but prefer this flower.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 41]
lagEspo'TIA:
kell65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu (56) is tia, that kind of, that sort of, such:
- Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful.
- Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 44]
lagEspo'TIE:
kell68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns tiu and cxi tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and - cxi tie, here, in (at) this place :
- La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).
- La libroj kulas cxi tie, tha books lie here (in this place).
kell69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by tie or cxi tie, the ending -n is added to the adverb (46), formirig tien, thither, there, and Zi tien, hither, here :
- Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
- Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither).
- Ni estis tie, kaj venis 6 tien, we were there and came here (hither).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 48]
lagEspo'TIAM:
kell73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiam, then, at that time:
- Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city.
- Nun ili estas sagaj, sed tiam ili estis malsataj, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 52]
lagEspo'TIAL:
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
kell78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tial, therefore, for that reason, so:
- Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away.
- Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him.
- Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 55]
lagEspo'TIEL:
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tiel, in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English “thus,” “so,” tiel may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree:
- cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way?
- Mi &in skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way).
- La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful.
- Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke.
- Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower.
- Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 63]
lagEspo'TIOM:
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiom, that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:
- Mi {donis} tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you.
- Mi {acxetis} tiom da viando, I bought that much meat.
- Tiom de la libroj mi {legis}, that many of the books I read.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 75]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.INDEFINITE,
lagEspo'ONI:
kell54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions “one knows,” “they say,” “people say,” “you can see,” etc., the indefinite personal pronoun oni is used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as “it is said,” “I am told,” etc.:
- Oni {diras} ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich.
- Oni {vidas} ke ili e&as amikoj, one sees that they are friends.
- Mi {opinias} ke oni latas lin, I think that people like him (that he is liked).
- Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, Z was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert.
- Oni opinias ke li estas felica, it is thought (one thinks) that she is haps.
- CXu oni vidis nin en la kardeno? Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden?
- Oni {hatas} agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 35]
lagEspo'IU:
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.
kell203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) iu, any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without definitely characterizing it:
- Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one whom you know.
- Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, I visited some of your friends.
- Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, Z have several apples, but certain ones are not good.
- Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made.
kell204. The indefinite pronoun iu has a possessive or genitive form ies, somebody's, someone’s, a certain one’s:
- Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone’s arm.
- CXu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? Is anybody’s overcoat Iying on the table?
- Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone’s playthings are broken.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 153]
lagEspo'IA:
THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.
kell208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ia, of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing:
- Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
- Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some kind of bones on the ground.
- Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of humun being in that tent.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 157]
lagEspo'IE:
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.
kell209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ie, anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by ie, the ending -n is added (121) :
- Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion.
- Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
- La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).
- Mi iros ien, sed mi ankorati ne scias kien, I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 157]
lagEspo'IAM:
THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
kell212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iam, sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time:
- Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair.
- Regxo iam logxs tie, a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.
- CXu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li ? Did you ever go to law against him?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 160]
lagEspo'IAL:
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IAL.
kell213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ial, for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:
- Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent.
- CXu vi opinias ke ial Ii maljuste suferas? Do you think that for any reason, he is suffering unjustly?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 161]
lagEspo'IEL:
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IEL.
kell216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iel, somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:
- Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, I tried somehow to guide you thither.
- Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce the decision in some way.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 164]
lagEspo'IOM:
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IOM.
kell217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iom, some, any quantity, a certain amount:
- cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time?
- sxi {varmigos} iom da akvo, she will heat some water.
- Tiu metodo {estas} iomete dangxera, that way is a little dangerous (198).
- La sxnuro {estas} iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 164]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.INTEROGATIVE,
lagEspo'kiu:
kell106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is kiu, who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb cxu (30):
- Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you?
- Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call?
- Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us?
- Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help?
- Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 77]
lagEspo'kies:
kell107. The interrogative pronoun kiu has a possessive or genitive form kies, whose:
- En kies domo vi logas? In whose house do you reside?
- Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 77]
lagEspo'KIA:
THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.
kell112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kia, which kind of, what sort of:
- Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear?
- Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer?
- Mi miras kia persono li estas, I wonder what sort of a person he is.
- Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it?
- Kia plezuro ! What a pleasure!
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 82]
lagEspo'KIE:
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
kell118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kie, where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by kie, the ending -n is added, forming kien, whither (where):
- Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)?
- Li miros kie lia nepo estas, he will wonder where his grandson is.
- Mi ne scias kien li kuris, I do not know where (whither) he ran.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 86]
lagEspo'KIEL:
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
kell134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiel, how, in what wajy, to what degree:
- Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air?
- Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is !
- Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened.
- Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 98]
lagEspo'KIAM:
THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB
kell123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiam, when, at what time ?
- Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me?
- Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come).
- Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall ?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 90]
lagEspo'KIAL:
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
kell129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kial, why, wherefore, for what reason:
- Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up?
- Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gin, I will ask why he noticed it.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 94]
lagEspo'KIOM:
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
kell140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kiom, how much, how many:
- Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest?
- Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?
- Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will have.
- Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 102]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.NEGATIVE,
lagEspo'NENIU:
THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.
kell220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is neniu, no one, nobody, no (formed of ne and iu, with a medial n inserted for the sake of euphony):
- Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me.
- Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go.
- Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant.
kell221. The negative pronoun neniu has a possessive or genitive form, nenies, nobody’s, no one’s:
- &es afero estas nenies afero, everybody’s affair is nobody’s affair.
- Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, he will praise no one’s ideas.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 168]
THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.
kell224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenia, no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing:
- Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror.
- Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of problem is too difficult for him.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 172]
THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
kell225. The negative adverb of place is nenie, nowhere. The ending -n may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction:
- Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine.
- Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 172]
THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
kell226. The negative adverb of time is neniam, never, at no time:
- Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous philosopher.
- Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxtrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 172]
THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS NENIAL, NENIEL, NENIOM.
kell229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenial, for no reason:
- Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason.
- Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.
kell230. The negative adverb of manner is neniel, in no way.
- Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, I can in no way arrange a competition.
- Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, That act is in no way regular.
kell231. The negative adverb of quantity is neniom, no amount of, not any, none, no:
- Tiu pentrajo postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no skill.
- Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, there is no wine in his glass.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 176]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.RELATIVE,
lagEspo'KIU:
kell146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a relative pronoun. The person or thing to which it refers is called its antecedent. The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106#ql:kell106#), as in English, is kiu, which, who.* The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause) :
- La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable.
- La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.
- Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.
- Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that matter about which you speak.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 106]
lagEspo'KIES:
kell147. Like English “ whose ” the genitive form kies of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent:
- Li estas la biro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you found.
- Mi konas la infanoj, kies patro estas amiko via, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 106]
lagEspo'KIA:
KIA AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.
kell150. The interrogative adjective kia (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to tia, or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as sama, etc. In this use it may often be translated ” as,” or “ which”:
- Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 109]
lagEspo'KIE:
KIE AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
kell151. The interrogative adverb kie, kien (118#ql:kell118#) is also used as a relative adverb of place with tie, tien, or some other expression of place for its antecedent.* Kien is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, kie may refer to tie or to tien:
Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are.
Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) where you will go.
Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went).
Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li lo&as, I found him in the city where he lives.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 110]
lagEspo'KIAM:
KIAM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB OF TIME
kell155. The interrogative temporal adverb kiam (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with tiam or an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English I‘ at the time he came “):
Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam Ii venis, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came).
Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then, when he was attacked.
Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come).
Post kiam li tie1 Iauxte kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 114]
lagEspo'KIEL:
KIEL AS A RELATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER.
kell156. The interrogative adverb kiel (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with tiel, or same, or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated “ as:”
Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself.
Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is).
Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did).
Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you.
Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas feliea, As I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed).
Li parolis tiel mallatite kiel antaiie, he’ spoke as softly as before.
SXi estas tiel bona kiel 5i e&as bela, she is as good as she is fair.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 114]
lagEspo'KIOM
KIOM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
kell164. The interrogative adverb kiom (140) is used as a relative adverb of quantity, with tiom or some equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated ” as”:
- La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink.
- Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time as I shall need.
- Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 122]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.DISTRIBUTIVE,
lagEspo'CXIU:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.
kell173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is cxiu, each(one), every(one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English any, as in “ Any one who studies can learn,” etc. The plural is cxiuj, every, all.* The article is never interposed between cxiuj and the noun modified (as in English “all the men“), and is used only if cxiuj is pronominal and followed by el:
cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn.
Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, I saw each of them, and talked to every boy.
Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you).
Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented.
CXiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived.
lagEspo'CXIES:
kell174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form cxies, every-one’s, every-body’s:
Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one’s name.
Cies opinio estis diversa, every-body’s opinion was different.
Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? CXies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.
*The use of cxiu and Euj must be distinguished from that of the adjective tuta, which means “all” in the sense of “entire.“:
CXiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, all men work all (the whole) day.
Mi vidis cxiun vizagon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro, I saw every face, but I did not see all the face of each man.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 130]
lagEspo'CXIA:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.
kell177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun cxiu, giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or thing, is cxia, every kind of, everyy sort of:
- Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there.
- Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, there are all sorts of persons in the world.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 134]
lagEspo'CXIE:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
kell182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive pronoun cxiu, is cxie, everywhere, The ending -n may be added to cxie to show direction of motion (121):
Oni {trovas} tiajn virojn cxie, such men are found everywhere.
Li iris cxeien, kie mi estis estinta, he went everywhere where I had been.
Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, I see him everywhere I go.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 138]
lagEspo'CXIAM:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
kell187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun cxiu, is cxiam, always, at all times:
- Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much.
- Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 141]
lagEspo'CXIAL:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
kell188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun cxiu, is cxial, for every reason, for all reasons.
- CXial Ii estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today.
- La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 141]
lagEspo'CXIEL:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF MANNER.
kell193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun cxiu, is cxiel, in every way, in every manner:
Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner.
Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 145]
lagEspo'CXIOM:
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
kell194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive pronoun cxiu, is cxiom, every quantity, the whole, all:
Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it.
Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 145]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.INTENSIVE,
lagEspo'MEM:
kell219. The invariable pronoun mem, self, selves, is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of mem with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39#ql:kell39#,40) :
Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you.
La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way.
Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself.
La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves.
GXi pendas snr la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
SXi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you.
Mi ekvidis la Steliston mem, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 165]
THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.
kell274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: *
Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him.
Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that.
Vi dews ion mangxi, you ought to eat something.
CXu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it?
Se li min vidus, li min saws, if he should see me, he would save me.
* Cf. in other languages, as in German ich mo'hte ihn sehen, French je veux le voir, Latin se alun:, me dej’encli, etc. That such pronouns are unemphatic can be seen from English let her come (= let’er come), make him stop (= make’im stop), etc., in which the unemphatic forms er, im, replace him, her, in pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns μου, μοι, με, σου, σοι, σε, ου, οι, ε, the Sanskrit enclitic forms ma, me, hi, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, endm, also sim, and the Avestan i , im). The same phenomenon is indicated in prithee (= pray thee), and in the spellings gimme (= give me), lemme (= let me), in dialect stories.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 218]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.ATTENSION,
lagEspo'JEN:
THE ADVERB JEN.
kell228. The adverb jen, behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something:
Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem?
Jen la filozofo ! Behold the philosopher !
Jen Hi ludas, jen li studas, now she plays, now she studies.
Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows.
Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way.
Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 173]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.O,
THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN -O.
kell233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in -u (tiu, kiu, eiu, iu, neniu), a similar series ending in -o refers to an object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like English what, anything, something, nothing, etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives:
Demonstrative: tio, that (thing, fact or action). CXi tio, this (thing, fact or action).
Interrogative and Relative: kio, what.
Distributive: cxio, everything. cxio cxi, all this.
Indefinite: io, anything, something.
Negative: nenio, nothing.
kell234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in -o must itself be of the same series:
Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say?
SXi vidis tion, kio jus okazis, she saw that which just occurred.
CXio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything’ here (all this), which you see, was done by them.
Li havas ion par vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but nothing for me.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 180]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'pronoun.AMBAUX,
THE PRONOUN AMBAUX.
kell238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) ambaux, both, indicates two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form: *
Ili ambaux venis al la templo, they both came to the temple.
Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, both made offerings to the gods.
Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambau, seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both.
* This pronoun must not be confused with the use of kaj, translated both in the combination kaj . . . kaj . . , the . . and . . (26).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 182]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'CONJUNCTION,
* McsEngl.deinero-of-esperanto@cptCore711i,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'korelatero@cptCore711i,
kell87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits:
_stxEspo: La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat rccn out-from under the table.
_stxEspo: Li venos el tie, he will come out of there.
_stxEspo: De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful.
_stxEspo: Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road.
_stxEspo: Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 61]
_POLYSEMANTICITY:
kell89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds.* As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing place may also express timerelations. Such prepositions are antaux, cxirkaux, de, en, gxis, inter, post, and je (whose use in other than timerelations will be explained later) :
_stxEspo: Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, ==> I shall depurt about June.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 63]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'measure,
CARDINAL NUMERALS.
kell136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:
unu, one. uno
du, two. duo
tri, three. trio
kvar, four. foro
kvin, five. fivo
ses, six. seso
sep, seven. sepo
ok, eight. oko
nati, nine. nano
dek, ten. deko
dek unu, eleven.
dek du, twelve.
kell137. With the exception of unu; none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending -j or the accusative ending -n. That is, they are invariable in form. Unuj may be used to mean some in contrast fo aliaj, others :
Unuj marsxis, allaj kuris, some walked, others ran.
Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took borne and left the others.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 99]
FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.
kell142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing du, tri, kvar, etc., to dek/ten, cent/hundred, and mil/thousand, respectively.
Tens:
dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty.
tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy.
kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty.
kvindek, fifty. naiidek, ninety.
Hundreds:
ducent, two hundred.
kvincent, five hundred.
sepcent, seven hundred, etc.
Thousands:
trimil three thousand.
kvarmil, four thousand.
sesmil, six thousand, etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 102]
kell143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing unu, du, tri, etc., after dek, dudek, tridek, etc. (Cf. dek unu, eleven, dek du, twelve, 136) :
dek kvar, fourteen. tridek kvin, thirty-five.
dek naii, nineteen, sepdek ok, seventy-eight.
dudek tri, twenty-three. naiidek ses, ninety-six, etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 103]
kell144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in English:
cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five.
kvarcent naiidek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven.
sescent du, six hundred and two.
mil okdek, one thousand and eighty.
mil naiicent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 103]
ORDINAL NUMERALS.
kell149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as “ first,” .third,” etc. They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix -a to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending -a is attached:
unua, first. dudek-sepa, twenty-seventh.
dua, second. kvardek-sesa, forty-sixth.
tria, third. cent-okdek-kvina, hundred and eighty-fifth.
oka, eighth. mil-okcent-kvara, one thousand and eightydek- unua, eleventh. fourth.
dek-naiia, nineteenth. sesmil-sepa, six thousand and seventh.*
* Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: 1a, 1st, 2a, 2nd, 3a, 3rd, 4a, 7th, 1912a, 1912th, 233a, 233d, etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as 1an, 2an, 3an, 1912an, etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 107]
NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.
kell157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending -o. After such nouns the preposition da or de is used: *
dekduo, a dozen. milo, a thousand.
dudeko, a score. unuo, a unit.
deko, a ten, half a score. kvaro, a four, a quartette.
cento, a hundred. trio, a three, a trio.
kell158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending -e:
unue, firstly, at first. deke, tenthly.
due, secondly, in the second place. sesdeke, sixtiethly.
kvine, fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare, eighty-fourthly.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 115]
FRACTIONS.
kell166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suflix -on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings -a or -e :
La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three.
Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive.
La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two.
Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths.
Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 122]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SEMANTIC'WORD.POLYLECTIC,
* McsEngl.lagEspo'polylectic'semantic'word,
DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.
kell167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a descriptive compound. The final -a or -e of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.
a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective:
multekosta, expensive.
duonkolere, half angrily.
nevidebla, invisible.
nevole, involuntarily.
rugflava (rugeflava), reddish yellow.
survoje, on the way, en route.
antauhieraux, day before yesterday.
postmorgau, day after tomorrow.
b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an adverb or adjective derived from a noun-root:
samtempa, contemporaneous.
unufoje, once, one time.
trifoje, thrice, three times.
unutaga, one day’s, of one day.
unuataga, the first day's.
frutempe, at an early time.
c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective uncombined: *
bonveno, a welcome (not bona veno, a good coming).
fibertempo, a vacation, leisure (not libera tempo, free time).
superjaro, leap-year (not super jaro, above a year).
bondeziroj, good wishes, /elicitations (not bonaj deziroj, good desires).
plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).
*In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such change in meaning, as bla'ckberry (not black berry), bluxebird (not blue bird), suree'theart (not sweet heart), German juxingfrau, virgin (not jung frau, young woman), etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 123]
DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.
kell176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a dependent compound. (If the two words were not united into one, the first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be, in the accusative case.) The ending -o may be omitted from the first element of a dependent compound: *
jarcento, century (cento da jaroj).
mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj).
noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto).
paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). .
sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno).
tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago).
vespermanko, supper (mango je la vespero).
ventoflago, weathercoclc (flago por la vento).
*A personal pronoun serving as the first element, of a dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction:
sinlauxdo, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination.
sindefendo, self-defence. sinkontrauxdira, self-contradictory.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 131]
POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.
kell184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives have the meaning “ possessed of ” that which is indicat,ed in the compound. (Similar adject,ives are formed in English, with -ed as the final syllable):
belbrova, beautiful-browed. longnaza, long-nosed.
bonintenca, good-intentioned. kvarpieda, four-footed.
dumana, two-handed. rughara, red-haired.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 138]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'YORDERO-MAPEALNOERO,
lagEspo'ajn:
THE USE OF AJN.
kell236. The word ajn may he placed after any interrogative- relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, ajn is never attached to the correlative which it follows:
kio ajn, whatever. kiam ajn, whenever.
kies ajn, whosesoever. kiom ajn, however much.
kie ajn, wherever. ia ajn, any kind whatever.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 181]
lagEspo'cxu:
kell30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as “ who,” “ when, ” “ why,” etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word cxu. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English (‘do” or “does,” to introduce the verb :
cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good?
cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers?
cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing ?)
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 13]
lagEspo'mosxto:
kell258. The word mosxto may be used alone, or after a title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective:
Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge.
SXia regxina mosxto, her majesty. Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor.
CXu via mosxto lin auxdis? Did your honor (ezcellenqr, etc.) heur him?
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 202]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'interjection,
kell273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention.* Among the more common interjections, are:
Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Ho! Oh! Ho! Nu! Well!
Fi ! Fie! + Hura! Hurrah! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!).
* Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as interjections, as Atentu! Look out! Auxskultu! Hark! Bonvenu! Welcome! Antaiien! Fomwd! Bone! Good! For! Away ! Ja! Indeed! Jen! There ! Behold!
+ The interjection fi is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, like -acx- (272), as fibirdo, ugly bird, ficxevalo, a sorry nag.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 216]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'Resource,
Kellerman, Ivy. A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO The International Language, NEW YORK: D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY, 1910.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
I . Alphabet.-Vowels.-Consonants.-Names of the Letters.-Diphthongs.-Combinations of Consonants.- Syllables.-Accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. Nouns.-The Article.-Adjectives.-Attributive Adjectives.- Present Tense of the Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
III. The Plural Number.-Predicate Adjective and Noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
IV. Transitive Verbs.-The Accusative Case.-The Conjunction Kaj.-The Negative Ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
V. The Complementary Infinitive.-Interrogation.-The Conjunction Nek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
VI. Personal Pronouns.-Agreement with Pronouns.- Conjugation of the Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
VII. The Past Tense.-Prepositions.-Accusative Case of Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.-Reflexive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.-Possessive Adjectives.-Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.-La Kato kaj la Pasero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
X. The Accusative of Direction.-The Article for the Possessive Adjective.-Apposition.-La Arabo kaj la Kamelo . 27
XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.-Impersonal Verbs.-Verbs Preceding their Subjects.-Coordinating Conjunctions.- La Arabo en la Dezerto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
XII. Indirect Statements.-The Indefinite Personal Pronoun Oni.-The Future Tense.-La Ventoflago . . . . . . . . . . . 34
XIII. The Demonstrative Pronoun Tiu.-Tenses in Indirect Quotations.-Formation of Feminine Nouns.-En la Parko . . 37
XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun & tin--Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.-The Suffix -II-.- The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.-La Mango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.-Adverbs Defined and Classified.-Formation of Opposites.-La Ruza Juna Viro . . 44
XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.-Accompanimerit.- The Adverb For.-The Meaning of Povi.- Malamikoj en la Dezerto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.-Comparison of Adjectives.-Manner and Characteristic.-Diri, Paroli and Rakonti.-Frederiko Granda kaj la Juna Servisto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.- Derivation of Adverbs.-Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-Comparisons Containing Ol.-Causal Clauses.-Pri la Sezonoj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
XIX. Ju and Des in Comparisons.-The Preposition Inter. -The Preposition Pro. - Prepositions with Adverbs and Other Prepositions. -La Aatuno kaj la Vintro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.- Prepositions Expressing Time - Relations. -En Septembro 63
XXI. The Accusative of Time.-Adverbs and the Accusative of Time.-The Preposition Par.-La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo . 66
XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.-Clauses Expressing Anticipation. - The Infinitive with Anstataii, Por, Antati 01. - The Expression of a Part of the Whole. - Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole. - The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity. - Result Clauses.-En la Butiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.-The Present Active Participle.-Compound Tenses.-The Progressive Present Tense.-The S&ix -Ej-.-En Nia Domo . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.-The Imperfect Tense. -Salutations and Exclamations.-Word Formation.- Koni and Scii.-La Nepo Vi&as la Avinon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.-The Past Active Participle.-Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.- Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.- The Suffix -Eg-.-La Pluvego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.-The Perfect Tense.-The Preposition &-The Suffix -Ar-.- Tempo and Fojo.-The Orthography of Proper Names.-Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
XXVlII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.- The Infinitive as Subject.-Present Action with Past Inception.-The Suffix -Ul-.-Lo&i and Vivi.-Pri la Avo kaj la Avino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.- The Pluperfect Tense.-Cardinal Numbers.- The Accusative of Measure.-Nia Familio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.-Modifiers of Impersonally Used Verbs.-Formation of Cardinal Numerals.-The Suffix -An-.-Leciono Pri Aritmetiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.-The Future Perfect Tense. -Ordinal Numerals.-Alfred0 Granda kaj la Libro . . 105
XXXII. Kia as a Relative Adjective.-Kie as a Relative Adverb.-The Future Active Participle.-The Periphrastic Future Tenses.-The Suffix -Ind-.--Alfred0 Granda kaj la Kukoj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
XXXIII. Kiam as a Relative Adverb. - Kiel as a Relative Adverb. - Numeral Nouns and Adverbs. - Word Derivation from Prepositions.-La Invito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.-The Suffix -Ebl-.-Expression of the Highest Degree Possible.- Titles and Terms of Address.-ce la Festo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
XXXV. Kiom as a Relative Adverb.-The Present Passive Participle.-Fractions.-Descriptive Compounds.- La &noj 122
XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.-The Use of De to Express Agency.-The General Meaning of De.-Word Derivation from Primary Adverbs.- The Suffix -I&-.-Antikva Respubliko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.-The Preposition PO.- Dependent Compounds.-La capelo sur la Stango . . . . 130
XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.-The Imperfect Passive Tense.-Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.-Reciprocal Expressions.-The Suffix -Uj-.-Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Porno . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
XxX1X. The Distributive Adverb of Place.-The Future Passive Tense.-Possessive Compounds.-The Time of Day.-The S&ix -Obl-.-En la Stacidomo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.-The Distributive Adverb &al.-The Past Passive Participle.- The Perfect Passive Tense.-The Preposition Laid.-The SufYix -Em-.--La Perdita Infano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 141
XLI. The Distributive Adverb &el.-The Distributive Adverb &om.-The Pluperfect Passive Tense. -The Future Perfect Passive Tense.-The Expression of Material.-The Suflix -Et-.-La Donaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 145
XLII. The Future Passive Participle.-The Passive Periphrastic Future Tenses.-The Generic Article. -The Suffix -Ec-.-Sur la Vaporlipo . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.-Participial Nouns.-The Prefix Ek-.-The S&ix -Id-.-La Nesto sur la Tendo. . . . . . 153
XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.-The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-Predicate Nominatives.-La Cevalo kaj la Sonorilo . 157
XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.-The Indefinite Adverb Ial.-Causative Verbs.-Emphasis by Means of Ja.-ce la Malnova Ponto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb Iel.-The Indefinite Adverb Iom.-The Suffix -Ad-.-The Use of Mem.- . . . . . . . . . 164
XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.-The Adverbial Participie.- The Prefix Re-.-La Filozofo Ar&imedo . 168
XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.-The Negative Adverb of Place.-The Negative Temporal Adverb.- The Suffix -Aj-.-The Adverb Jen.-Du Artkonkursoj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
XLIX. The Negative Adverbs Nenial, Neniel, Neniom.- The Suffix -I&.-La Krepusko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
L. The Pronouns ending in -O.-Correlative Words. -The Use of Ajn.-The S&ix -Ing-.-La Gordia Ligajo . . . . . . 180
LI. The Pronoun AmbaG.-Formations with -Ig- and -I&.-Factual Conditions.-La Monahoj kaj la Azeno . . . . . . . . . 184
LII. The Conditional Mood.-Compound Tenses of the Conditional Mood.-Less Vivid Conditions.- Independent Use of the Conditional Mood.- The Prefix Dis-.-Pri la Gravitado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.-The Verb Devi.- The Preposition Sen.-La Fi;azofo Sokrato . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
LIV. Summary of Conditions.-Clauses of Imaginative Comparison.-The Use of Al to Express Reference.- The SufEx -E&r-.-La Ostracismo de Aristejdo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
LV. The Imperative Mood.-Resolve and Exhortation. -Commands and Prohibitions.-Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.-The Use of Mo&o.-La Glavo de Damoklo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses. -The Preposition Je.-The Suffix -Op-.-La Ma&ado de la Dekmil Grekoj 204
LVII. CIauses Expressing Purpose.-Further Uses of the Accusative.-Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.-The S&x -Urn-.-La Reirado de la Dekmilo. . . . . . e . . ~ . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
LVIII. Permission and Possibility.-The Prefix Ge-.- The Suffix -A&.-Interjections.-Aleksandro Granda a . 0 . . . . 215
LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.-Some Intransitive Verbs.-The Suffix -Er-.-The Prefixes Bo- and Duon-.-Correspondence.- Kelkaj Leteroj . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
LX. Some Transitive Verbs.-Elision.-The Prefix Eks-.-The Prefix Pra-,-The Suffixes -ejand -Nj-.-Weights and Measures-The International Money System.-Abbreviations.- Pri La Kamero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
name::
* McsEngl.internet'source.ESPERANTO,
http.esperanto.SOUND:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_phonology:
http.ESPERANTO.LESSON:
* http://en.lernu.net/index.php:
http.ESPERANTO.GRAMMAR:
* http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/grammar/:
http.ESPERANTO.LINKS:
* http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/esperanto-info.htm:
* http://donh.best.vwh.net/esperanto.php: Don Harlow's invaluable collection of links and original contributions: cultural, linguistic and scientific.
the Esperanto League for North America: http://www.esperanto-usa.org/
In English:
Free Esperanto Course http://www.iki.fi/pacujo/esperanto/course/ Marko Rauhamaa <marko.rauhamaa@iki.fi>
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'YORDERO'CREATING,
lagEspo'namepo_creation,
lagEspo'termineruino,
lagEspo'word_creation,
lagEspo'word_formation,
worder-endings:
- o noun.
- j plural of noun, adjective.
- n accusative.
- i infinitive of verb.
- as present of verb.
- is past of verb.
- os future of verb
- us conditional mood
- a adjective.
- e adverb.
WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.
kell159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also:
anstatauxi, to replace, to take the place of.
anstatauxulo, a substitute.
antauxa, previous, preceding.
apuda, near, contiguous, adjacent.
cxirkauxi, to surround, to encircle.
cxirkauxo, a circuit, a circumference.
kontrauxa, adverse, opposite, contrary.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 115]
WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.
kell171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159):
La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now).
Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, I made farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273).
Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange.
CXu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer?
Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, instead of denying, he answered afirmatively.
La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, tomorrow’s (the morrow’s) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday.
La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, the persons o/-that-time were his contemporaries.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 127]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'PREFIX (x-),
lagEspo'prefix.BO, lagEspo'prefix.DUON:
kell277. The prefix bo- indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, duon- (166) is used:
bopatro, father-in-law. duonpatro, stepfather.
bofratino, sister-in-law. duonfrato, hall-brother.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 220]
lagEspo'prefix.DIS, lagEspo'DIS:
kell245. The prefix dis- indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once: *
disdoni, to distribute. disigxi, to separate (intrans.).
dispeli, to dispel. disigxo, separation, schism.
disigi, to separate (trans.). dissendi, to send around.
* Cf. the English prefix dis- in disperse, disseminate, distribute, etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 190]
lagEspo'prefix.EK:
kell206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, is indicated by the prefix ek-:
ekdormi, to fall asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into a laugh ekrigardi, to glance at.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 154]
lagEspo'prefix.EKS:
kell281. The prefix eks- is used to form words expressing a previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such position:
eksprezidanto, ex-president.
eksreko, ex-king.
eksigi, to put out of ofice, to discharge.
eksiki, to withdraw from one’s ofice, to resign.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 226]
lagEspo'prefix.FOR, lagEspo'FOR:
kell71. The adverb for., away, may be used independently, as Li iris for de mi, he went awall from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefixt to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal:
foriri, to go away, to depart.
forkuri, to run away, to escape.
forlasi, to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.
formagxi, to eat away, to eat up.
forpreni, to take away, to remove.
fortrinki, to drink away, to drink up.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 49]
lagEspo'prefix.GE:
kell271. Words formed with the prefix ge- indicate the two sexes together:
gepatroj, parents. gefiloj, son(s) and daughter(s).
geavoj, grandparents. gefratoj, brother(s) and sister(s).
genepoj, grandchildren. geedzoj, husband(s) and wife (wives).
gesinjoroj, Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).
lagEspo'prefix.PRA:
kell282. The prefix pra- is used to form words expressing precedence in the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time:
praavo, great grandfather. prapatroj, forefathers, ancestors.
pranepo, great grandson. pratempa, primeval.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 226]
lagEspo'prefix.PREPOSITION:
PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.
kell160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be formed from these (116):
alveni, to arrive. dependi, to hang from, to depend.
aldoni, to add. demeti, to lay aside.
antaiidiri, to predict. depreni, to subtract.
Eirkaiipreni, to embrace. enhavi, to contain.
Eeesti, to be present. eliri, to go out.*
*Like English “ out ” the preposition el often develops in composition a secondary sense of “ thoroughly ” or ” completely ” (cf. “ I am tired out I’):
eltrovi, to find out, to discover.
elpensi, to think out, to invent.
eIIabori, to work out, to elaborate.
ellerni, to learn thoroughly, to master.
eluzi, to use completely, to wear out (transitive).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 118]
lagEspo'prefix.RE:
223. The prefix re- indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the return of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix re-, meaning either “ again ” or ” back.“)
rekapti, to recapture. rebrili, to shine back, to reflect.
renovigi, to renew. reteni, to hold back, to retain.
rekoni, to recognize. reveni, to come back, to return.
gxis la revido, au revoir. reiri, to go back, to return.
ree, again, anew. rejeti, to throw back, to reject.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 169]
lagEspo'prefix.SEN:
kell248. The preposition sen, without, indicates the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement.* It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix -less) :
Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error.
La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing.
Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, that is not only useless but even harmful.
Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless.
Li sentime alproksimigxi al gxi, he fearlessly approached it.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 193]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SUFIX (-x),
_VOWELS:
-A: adnouners: bel-a,
participle: -anta, -inta, -onta, -ata, -ita, -ota
-E: adverbers: bon-e,
-I: verbers: skrib-i
-O: nouners: libr-o,
-U: korelateros:
_CONSONANTS:
-J: plurals: libr-oj, bel-aj,
-N: accusativer: libr-on, libr-ojn,
-S:
-AS: verber-present
-IS: verber-past
-OS: verber-future.
lagEspo'sufix.ACX, lagEspo'acx:
kell272. The suffix -acx has a disparaging significance:
domacxo, a hovel. pentracxi, to daub.
hundacxo, a cur. popolacxo, rabble, mob.
obstinacxa, obstinate. ridacxi, to guffaw.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 216]
lagEspo'sufix.AD, lagEspo'ad:
kell218. The suffix -ad- is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated.
lagEspo'verbero.frequentative:
a. Verbs formed with the suffix -ad- are called frequentative verbs, and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by ” keep (on),” ” used to,” etc.:
frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.
rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.
b. Nouns formed with the suffix -ad- are often equivalent to English verbal nouns ending in -ing, and (with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29):
kriado, crying, shouting (krio, cry, shout).
movado, motion, movement in general (movo, a movement).
pafado, shooting, fusillade (pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, Z prefer the reading of (to read) such books.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 165]
lagEspo'sufix.AJX, lagEspo'ajx:
kell227. The suffix -aj- is used to form concrete words. It is thus in contrast t)o the abstract-forming suffix -ec- (202#ql:kell202#).
a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix -aj- expresses a concrete example of a thing which undergoes (or, in the case of intransitives, results from) the action indicated in the root:
konstruajo, a building. kreskajo, a plant, a growth.
sendajo, consignment, thing sent. rebrilajo, a reflection.
mangxajxo, food. restajo, remainder.
b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the suffix -aj- indicates a thing characterized by or possessing the quality expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached:
belajo, a thing of beauty. mirindajo, a marvel.
maljustajo, an injustice. okazintajo, an occurrence.
c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the sufix -aj- indicates a thing made or derived from that which is expressed in the root:
sukerajo, a sweet, confection. orajo, a gold object.
ovajo, an omelet. araneajo, a spider-web.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 172]
lagEspo'sufix.AN, lagEspo'an:
kell145. The suffix -an- is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the’party, organization, etc., denoted by the root: * The suffix -an- may itself be used as a root, forming ano, member, etc.
bostonano, Bostonian. domano, inmate of a house.
kamparano, countryman, peasant. vilagano, villager.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 103]
lagEspo'sufix.AR, lagEspo'ar:
kell126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as forest (collection of trees), army (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix -ar-. This suffix may itself be used as a root to form aro, group, .flock, etc., are, in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix -ar- are called collectives:
arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).
cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse).
kamparo, country (from kampo, field).
libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book).
amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 91]
lagEspo'sufix.CXJ, lagEspo'sufix.NJ, lagEspo'cxj, lagEspo'nj:
kell283. The suffix -cxj- is used to form affectionate diminutives, from the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. The suffix -nj- forms similar feminine diminutives :
Jocxjo, Johnnie, Joe. Manjo, May, Mamie.
Pacxjo, Papa. Panjo, Mamma.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 226]
lagEspo'sufix.EBL, lagEspo'ebl:
kell161. The suffix -ebl- is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc.,expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root.* It may be used as a root, to form ebla, possible, etc.
eltrovebla, discoverable. rompebla, breakable.
legebla, legible. videbla, visible.
mangebla, edible. travidebla, transparent.
* The suffix -ebI- is often equivalent to the English suflixes -able, -ible, but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in “ readable,” worth (leginda), “ lovable,” deserving of love (aminda), etc.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 119]
lagEspo'sufix.EC, lagEspo'ec:
kell202. The suffix -ec- is used to form words indicating the abstract quality of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which it is attached:
amikeco, friendship. fleksebleco, flexibility.
ofteco, frequency. patreco, fatherhood.
indeco, worthiness. patrineco, motherhood.
dankemeco, thankfulness. maltrankvileco, uneasiness.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 150]
lagEspo'sufix.EG, lagEspo'eg:
kell122. The suffix -eg- may be added to a root to augment or intensify its meaning, thus forming an augmentative of the root:
- barelego, hogshead (from barelo, barrel).
- bonega, excellent (from bona, good).
- malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from malbone, badly, poorly).
- domego, mansion (from domo, house).
- ploregi, to sob, to wail (from plori, to weep).
- treege, exceedingly (from tre, very).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 87]
lagEspo'sufix.EJ, lagEspo'ej:
kell111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix -ej- before the noun-ending:*
cxevalejo, stable (from Eevalo, horse).
dormejo, dormitory (from dormi, to sleep).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 79]
lagEspo'sufix.EM, lagEspo'em:
kell192. The suffix -em- indicates a tendency or inclination toward that which is expressed in the root:
agema, active. pacema, peaceful, pacific.
mallaborema, lazy. pensema, pensive, thoughtful.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 143]
lagEspo'sufix.ER, lagEspo'er:
kell276. The suffix -er- is used to form words expressing units or component parts of that which is indicated in the root:
fajrero, spark (of fire). nekero, snowflake.
monero, coin. sablero, grain of sand.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 220]
lagEspo'sufix.ESTR, lagEspo'estr:
kell253. The suffix -estr-- is used to indicate the chief, head, or one in control of that which is expressed in the root:
lernejestro, (school) principal. urbestro, mayor.
monahxestro, abbot. estraro, governing body.
policestro, chief of police. lipestro, ship-captain.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 197]
lagEspo'sufix.ET, lagEspo'et:
kell198. The suffix -et- indicates diminution of degree in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix -eg- (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given:
beleta, pretty. libreto, booklet.
dormeti, to doze. monteto, hill.
floreto, floweret, floret. rideti, to smile.
lageto, pond, small lake. vojeto, path.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 147]
lagEspo'sufix.ID, lagEspo'id:
kell207. Words indicating the young of, the child of, the descendant of, are formed by use of the suffix -id-:
CXevalido, colt (from cxevalo, horse).
hundido, puppy (from hundo, dog).
katido, kitten (from kato, cat).
leouido, a Zion’s whelp (from leono, Zion).
regxino, a king’s daughter, a princess (from reggo, king).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 154]
lagEspo'sufix.IG, lagEspo'ig:
CAUSATIVE VERBS. (lagEspo'verbero.causative)
kell214. The suffix -ig- is used to form verbs indicating the causing, rendering or bringing about of that which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix -ig- are called causative verbs and are always transitive (22).
a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or condition, expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb: *
dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from dolcxa, sweet).
moligi, to soften (from mola, soft).
plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from pli longa, longer).
faciligi, to facilitate (from facila, easy).
beligi, to beautify (from bela, beautiful).
* The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as:
Li faris la mondon goja, he made the world glad.
Li gxojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.
b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed in the root is made to take place:
dormigi, to put to sleep (dormi, to sleep).
konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know).
mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder).
mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).
c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits :
amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile).
kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with).
forigi, to do away with (from for, away).
ebligi, to render possible (from -ebl-, 161).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 161]
FORMATIONS WITH -IG- AND -IGX:
kell239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the suffix -ig- and the suffix -igx. Thus from one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with -ig-, being transitive, may also be used in the passive:
sidi, to sit, to be sitting.
sidigxi, to become sitting, to take a seat.
sidigi, to cause to sit, to seat.
esti sidigata, to be caused to sit.
silenti, to be silent.
silentigx, to become silent.
silentigi, to cause to be silent, to silence.
esti silentigita, to be silenced.
kusxi, to lie, to be lying.
kusxigxi, to lie down, to go to bed.
kusigi, to cause to lie, to lay.
esti kusigita, to be laid.
stari, to stand, to be standing.
starigxi, to rise, to stand up, to become erect.
starigi, to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect.
esti starigita, to be raised, to be erected.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 185]
lagEspo'sufix.IGX, lagEspo'igx:
kell232. The suffix -igx- is used to form intransitive verbs of an inchoative nature.
a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of intransitive verbs indicate the beginning or coming into existence of the act or condition expressed in the root:
sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.
starigxi, to become standing, to stand up.
b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of transitive verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately due to the subject’s acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169) : *
_stxEspo: La pordo fermigxas, ==> the door closes (goes shut).
La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves.
La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks.
Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered.
* Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:
_stxEspo: Ni _sxtVrb:{fermas} la rordon, ==> we close the door.
- La rordo estas fermita, the door is (has been) closed.
- Oni movas la veturilon, they move the vehicle.
- La veturilo estas movata, the vehicle is being moved.
- Mi romras la brancxon, I break the branch.
- La brancxon estas romrita, ==> the branch is (has been) broken.
- Li kolektis florojn, he gathered flowers.
- Floroj estas kolektitaj, flowers have been gathered.
c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from adjectival roots, and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in the root:
lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired.
varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm.
maljunigxi, to become old, to age.
d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:
amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined.
forigi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 176]
lagEspo'sufix.INO, lagEspo'ino:
kell59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as frato, knabo, viro, may be formed from these by insertingthe suffix -in- just before the noun-ending -o:
fratino, sister (from frato, brother).
patrino, mother (from patro, father).
knabino, girl (from knabo, boy).
virino, woman (from viro, man).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 38]
lagEspo'sufix.IND, lagEspo'ind:
kell154. The suffix -ind- is used to form words expressing worthy of, deserving of, that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a root, to form inda, worthy, malinda, unworthy, indo, worth, merit, etc.:
dezirinda, desirable. rimarkinda, noteworthy, remarkable.
laiidinda, praiseworthy. ridinde, ridiculously, laughably.
mallaiidinda, blameworthy. tradukinda, worth translating.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 111]
lagEspo'sufix.INGO, lagEspo'ingo:
kell237. The suffix -ing- is used to form words indicating that which holds one specimen of what is expressed in the root:
glavingo, scabbard.
lumingo, torch-holder.
plumingo, pen-holder.
ingo, sheath, case, socket.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 182]
lagEspo'sufix.ISTO, lagEspo'isto:
kell172. The suffix -ist- is added to roots to express the profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root:
floristo, florist.
komercisto, trader, merchant.
servisto, servant.
okulisto, oculist.
presisto, printer.
Itelisto, thief.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 128]
lagEspo'sufix.OBLO, lagEspo'oblo:
186. The suffix -obl- is used to form multiples indicating how many fold, as ” two fold,” “ double,” “ triple,” etc.:
duoblo, a double. duobla, double. duoble, doubly.
kvarobla, quadruple. kvinclekobla, fifty-fold. multobla, manifold.
Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 139]
lagEspo'sufix.ONO, lagEspo'ono:
kell166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suflix -on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings -a or -e :
La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three.
Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive.
La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two.
Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths.
Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 122]
lagEspo'sufix.OP, lagEspo'op:
kell261. The suffix -op- is used to form collective numerals:
duope, by twos, in pairs. milope, by thousands.
kvarope, by fours. sesopigi, to form into groups of six.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 206]
lagEspo'sufix.UJ, lagEspo'uj:
181. The suffix -uj- may he used to form words indicating that which contains, hears, or is a receptacle for, some number or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of -Lando to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of -arbo to form the names of fruit trees:
ujo, a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando), fatherland.
monujo, purse. sukerujo, sugar-bowl.
supujo, soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo), apple-tree.
leterujo, letter-case. sagujo, quiver,
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 135]
lagEspo'sufix.UL, lagEspo'ul:
kell132. The suffix -ul- is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root:
junulo, a youth, a young man (from juna, young).
belulino, a beauty, a belle (from bela, beautifuz).
maljunulo, an old man (from maljuna, old).
sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from sagxa, wise).
malricxulino, a poor woman (from malricxa, poor).
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 95]
lagEspo'sufix.UM, lagEspo'um:
268. The indefinite suffix -um- serves the same general purpose in word formation which je serves as an indefinite preposition (260) :
aerumi, to air. kolumo, collar.
busxumo, muzzle. plenumi, to fulfil.
gustumi, to taste. proksimume, approximately.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 213]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'SYLLABLE,
kell7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows:
a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as pa-no, be-la, a-e-ro.
b. A consonant followed by l or r (which are liquids) goes with the l or r, as in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla.
c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, dekstra.
d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words are divided into their component parts, as cxef-urbo, sun-ombrelo.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 3]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ACCENT,
kell8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last: as tA-blo, a-grI-bla, sus-pEk-ti.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 4]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ELISION,
kell280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry.
a. The -a of the article may be elided before a word beginning with a vowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel:
“ L’ espero, l’ obstino kaj la pacienco.”
“ De l’ montoj riveretoj fluas.”
“ Kaj kantas tra l’ pura aero.”
b. The final -o of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent of the noun remains unchanged:
“ Ho, mia kor’, ne batu maltrankvile.”
“ Sur la kampo la rozet’.”
c. The final -e of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the expression dank’ al, which occurs in prose as well as in poetry) :
“ Ke povu mi foj’ je eterno ekdormi! ”
Dank’ al vi, mi sukcesis, thanks to you, I succeeded.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 225]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'ABBREVIATION,
§ kell286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the ordinals see p. 107, ftn., and for those of the metric system see any English dictionary):
Dro., Doktoro, Dr.
Fino., Fraillino, Miss.
Pro., Profesoro, Prof.
Sro., Sinjoro, Mr.
Sino., Sinjorino, Mrs.
Ko., K-io., Kompanio, Co.
No., N-ro., Numero, No.
&, kaj, &.
Sm., spesmilo(j).
Sd., spesdeko(j).
k. t. p., kaj tie1 plu, and so lo&.
k. c., kaj ceteraj, etc.
k. sim., kaj simila(j), et. sim.
t. e., tio estas, i.e.
e., ekzemple, e.g.
p.s., postskribajo, P.S.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 227]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'resourceInfHmn,
Word-Building with Esperanto Affixes
by Don Harlow
http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/affixes.html:
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'OTHER-VIEW,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'preposition,
kell36. A preposition is a word like "in" "on" placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun, which is called its complement.
In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but, to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun.
In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case:
_stxEspo: La arbo _stxVrb:{estas} en la gardeno, ==> the tree is in the garden.
_stxEspo: Bonaj pomoj _stxVrb:estas sur ei, ==> good apples are on it.
_stxEspo: Mi _stxVrb:{donis} eerizojn al li, ==> I gave cherries to him.
_stxEspo: La knabo _stxVrb:{estas} apud mi, ==> the boy is near me.
_stxEspo: Sub la arbo _stxVrb:{staris} Eevalo, ==> under the tree stood a horse.
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 18]
_SPECIFIC:
lagEspo'al, toward, towards, to
lagEspo'anstataux, instead of
lagEspo'antaux, before, in front of, ahead of
lagEspo'apud, next to, beside, near, near to, nearby, at, by, adjacent to
lagEspo'cxe, at, beside, with
lagEspo'cxirkaux, about, round, towards, around
lagEspo'da, of
lagEspo'de, of, from, by, since
lagEspo'dum, whereas, while, during, for
lagEspo'ekster, outside of, outside
lagEspo'el, from, out of
lagEspo'en, in, within, inside, into, on, per
lagEspo'gxis, till, until
lagEspo'inter, between, among
lagEspo'je, upon, at, by, on
lagEspo'kontraux, opposite, against, across from, in exchange for
lagEspo'krom, except for, except, apart from, besides
lagEspo'kun, with
lagEspo'laux, along, according to, following, by
lagEspo'malgraux, despite, in spite of, notwithstanding
lagEspo'per, with, through, by, on, by means of
lagEspo'po, by; at, at the rate of
lagEspo'por, for, per, to, in order to
lagEspo'post, behind, after
lagEspo'preter, by, straight past, beyond, past
lagEspo'pri, about, concerning, upon, on
lagEspo'pro, through, on account of, owing to, for sake of, for, due to, because of
lagEspo'sen, without
lagEspo'sub, beneath, underneath, below, under
lagEspo'super, over, above
lagEspo'sur, on, upon
lagEspo'tra kaj trans.
[http://en.lernu.net/lernado/gramatiko/detala/prepozicioj.php]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo'conjunction,
kell52. Words like aux, kaj, nek, sed, which join words, word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases,* or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate:
cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? (Aux connects the verbs.)
sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. (Kaj connects the sentences.)
Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. (The second nek connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)
Aii li aii 3i perdis la libron. (The second aii connects the pronouns, the first being introduc,tory and adverbial.)
GXi falis sur la seeon, sed ne sur la plankon. (Sed connects the phrases.)
Li ne Satis gxin. Tamen li tenis gin. (Tamen connects the sentences.)
[Kellerman, A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 1910, 31]
Conjunctions
lagEspo'kaj (=and)
Used like and in English. When used with a list of items, use kaj normally only before the last one
A, B, C, kaj D A, B, C, and D
kaj...kaj (=both...and )
Used when the and is rather emphatic
kaj A kaj B kaj C both A and B and C
lagEspo'aux (=or)
Used like or in English. When used with a list of items, use au( normally only before the last one
A, B, C, au( D A, B, C, or D
au(...au( either...or
Used when the or is rather emphatic.
au( A au( B either A or B
lagEspo'sed but
Used like kaj, but emphasizes a contrast.
Liaj gepatroj estis ric^aj, sed honestaj. His parents were rich, but honest.
lagEspo'plus/lagEspo'minus plus/minus
Used generally in mathematical expressions
Tri plus du estas kvin 3 + 2 = 5
Ok minus kvin estas tri 8 - 5 = 3
Plus kvindek gradoj +50°
Minus dek gradoj -10°
lagEspo'nek nor (and not)
Used generally after a negation, to negate something else as well, and sometimes to mean and not
Li ne trinkis vinon, nek bieron. He didn't drink wine, or beer either.
Akvo, akvo c^ie ajn, nek iu gut’ por trinki. Water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink.
lagEspo'nek...nek neither...nor
Used to negate a list of items
nek A nek B nek C neither A nor B nor C
lagEspo'se if
Used for marking that a dependent clause states a condition that the main clause depends on; if the situation is hypothetical, the verbs in both clauses are conditional
Se vi iros al la teatro, mi iros ankau(. If you go to the theater, I’ll go, too.
Se mi havus monon, mi ac^etus tiun libron. If I had money, I’d buy that book.
lagEspo'ke that
The general subordinating conjunction, used to cause an entire clause to be treated as a noun phrase
Mi scias, ke li jam venis. I know that he has already come.
lagEspo'cxu whether
The interrogative subordinating conjunction, used to indicate an indirect question
Mi volus scii, c^u li venos. I would like to know whether he will come.
lagEspo'kvazaux as though
Li promenadis, kvazau( lia piedo estus rompita. He walked as though his foot were broken.
lagEspo'do so
Same meaning as tial “therefore” but a bit weaker
Mi malsatas, do mi mang^os. I’m hungry, so I’ll eat.
[http://steve-and-pattie.com/esperantujo/grparcnj.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEspo.WORDS-WITH-NO-GRAMMATICAL-ENDING,
Prepositions, Conjunctions and other words with no grammatical ending
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Short words which do not have any grammatical ending are used
very often. They are prepositions, conjunctions, interjections
and even adverbs, and a real pain to always be looking up in a
dictionary. Here is a fairly complete list of all you will likely
meet.
ajn -ever (with a correlative)
al to(wards)
almenau( at least
ankau( also
ankorau( still, yet
anstatau( instead of
antau( before
apenau( scarcely
apud beside, near
baldau( soon
c^ar because
c^e at, by, in case of
c^i this- (with a correlative or noun)
c^irkau( around
da of (quantinty)
de of, from
des so much the
do then, thus, therefore
dum during
ec^ even
ekster outside of
el out of
en in
for away
g^is until
inter between
ja indeed
jam already
je indefinte preposition
jen hereis, behold
jes yes
ju so much the
j^us just
kaj and
ke that
kontrau( against
krom except, apart from
kun with
kvankam although
kvazau( as if
lau( according to, along
malgrau( in spite of
mem -self (with a pronoun)
ne no
nu well
nun now
nur only
ol than
per by means of
plej most
pli more
po at the rate of
por for
post after
preter past, by, beyond
pri concerning, about
pro on account of, oweing to, because of
sed but
sen without
sub under
super above
sur on
tamen however
tra through
trans across
tre very
tro too
tuj immediately
[http://bernd.wechner.info/Esperanto/grammar.html]
_DESCRIPTION:
* langoKamo is a-language for the-computer era,
Komo will be the product of an EVOLUTIONARY process and not a revolutionary as Esperanto. I'm showing the way. The language must be tested and then to be used. Also it must be open to changes.
- Komo will have the BEST (= simplest and clearest) attributes of all human-languages.
- The more we will understand our languages, the more better we will make the komo.
- In our computer era, komo must have the attributes needed to be more easily managed by a computer.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.1.1p1]
* my last view,
_CREATED: {2001-12-09}
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore683,
* McsEngl.lagoSinago, {2025-10-16}
* McsEngl.SngoLago, {2025-10-16}
* McsEngl.lagKamo, {2019-08-02}
* McsEngl.lagKmo, {2019-08-30} [because kam=Kamba]
* McsEngl.lgkm, {2014-10-05}
* McsEngl.langokamo, {2012-09-13}
* McsEngl.lngKmo, {2012-09-13}
* McsEngl.lngKoo, {2012-08-22} (for 3 letter)
* McsEngl.lgk, {2012-04-02}
* McsEngl.lk, {2012-04-02}
* McsEngl.lngk, {2012-03-31}
* McsEngl.langoko, {2012-03-31}
* McsEngl.lngK, {2011-09-02}
* McsEngl.lkm, {2017-03-11}
* McsEngl.lagKam, {2017-03-11}
* McsEngl.langoKo, {2011-09-02}
* McsEngl.komono-language, {2007-12-16}
* McsEngl.kn!=common-language, {2004-01-12}
* McsEngl.common-language,
* McsEngl.international-language,
* McsEngl.kml!=common-language,
* McsEngl.kl!=common-language,
* McsEngl.komo-language,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.artificial.LANGOKAMO (lagKmo),
* McsEngl.lagSngo,
* McsEngl.lagoSINAGO,
* McsEngl.lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.language.common,
* McsEngl.language.international,
* McsEngl.language.common,
* McsEngl.the-komon,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.langohoko@lagoSngo, {2011-12-27}
* McsEngl.langoKo@lagoSngo, {2011-09-02}
* McsEngl.komo@lagoSngo, {2008-03-16}
* McsEngl.langufino.komono@lagoSngo, {2007-12-16}
* McsEngl.komunolingvo@lagoSngo, {2006-12-02}
* McsEngl.komuno@lagoSngo, {2006-11-13}
* McsEngl.lango-komo@lagoSngo, {2006-01-06}
* McsEngl.komolango@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.kmn@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lango-komo@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lango.komuno@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.lingvo-komuno@lagoSngo,
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.κάμο-γλώσσα@cptCore683,
* McsElln.ΚΟΙΝΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ@cptCore683,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ@cptCore614,
* McsElln.ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.Κόμο-γλώσσα,
* McsElln.Κοινή-γλώσσα,
====== lagoEsperanto:
* McsEngl.komuna lingvo@lagoEspo,
* McsEspo.komuna lingvo,
* McsEspo.Koma-lingvo,
KOMONO:
I change the name from "komuno" to "komono" because "-muno" is a reserved sufiksero for female.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-16_KasNik]
specific:
Komo-language is my constructed-human-language that could be used as the future common language of the world.#h0.1p1#
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.1p1]
KOMON-LANGUAGE is the HUMAN-LANGUAGE#cptCore93.a# all humans will speak in the future, at most at the end of 21st century.
[hmnSngo.2001-12-09_nikkas]
ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WholeNo-relation,
_ENVIRONMENT:
* Komo's-Domain
* Komo's-Mid-domain.
* Komo's-Co-domain
* Komo's-Grammar
* Komo's-Implementation.
* Komo's-Translation
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'OTHER-VIEW,
_DESCRIPTION:
Some have suggested that we could devise a plan for a language which would be easier to learn than Esperanto. Here is a list of some of the changes that have been suggested.
* Get rid of the plural ending –j. Chinese gets along nicely without a plural ending.
* Replace the three third person singular pronouns, the words for he, she and it, with a single pronoun that is not gender-specific. Hungarian has this feature.
* Get rid of the Esperanto word for the (la). Russian has no word for the.
* Get rid of the r-sound. This is an exceedingly difficult sound for the Chinese and Japanese to pronounce, and the Chinese and Japanese make up a good part of the human race. Many Americans find that they cannot pronounce the trilled r-sound which, according to some authorities, is the only correct r-sound in Esperanto.
* Get rid of the accusative ending –n. Instead make all verbs neither transitive nor intransitive in their bare form. Create a special particle to indicate that a direct object, stated or implied, follows. Verbs will be transitive whenever they are used with that particle. Hebrew has such a particle in the word which is pronounced as es or et or eth, depending on the dialect. Create a second particle which indicates that the verb is being used as an intransitive verb. This method would save all the work of learning the transitivity status of each verb.
* Establish a rule making it wrong to use a new root when a reasonable combination of existing roots could do the job. Instead of saying something like "telephone", for instance, say something like "farspeaktool." The Germans do this with one of their words for "telephone", Fernsprecher (far-speaker).
[http://members.aol.com/sylvanz/gv20.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'ATTRIBUTE,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'euphony,
1) In a syllable a combination of voiced-voiceless is NOT permitted:
- permitted: pfo, pso, pho, ...
- not permitted: pbo, pdo, ...
[hmnSngo.2008-08-18_HokoYono]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'importance,
More importan than komo is the creation of an integrated_worldview#ql:integrated_worldview-*# presenting with the komo.
[hmnSngo.2008-08-28_HoKoNoo]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.nameSms.CONJUNCTION (-A),
* McsEngl.conjunction.langokamo,
* McsEngl.deanero.kml,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'deinero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'conjunction,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'korelatero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'deinero,
* McsEngl.nameKmoSms.conjunction,
_GENERIC:
* CONJUNCTION#cptCore1104#
_DESCRIPTION:
Conjunctions end with -a.
Komo does not use root-words for conjunctions as all languages do. Komo changes the suffix -o of the ordinary-noun of the conjunction's logal-concept to -a.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.14.9.8.1p1]
_SUFIKSERO:
* -A DEANERO#ql:deanero@cptCore1104#.
[hmnSngo.HokoYono_2008-08-18]
* -e
[hmnSngo.2008-03-14_HokoYono]
* konsonero except n (verbero) and s (pozeseino).
_SYNTAX:
By setting the conjunction in front of a verb's-argument gives time to the speaker to add information after the beggining of his speech.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.14.9.8.2p1]
===
* Korelatero-Verberos are placed BEFORE verbaleros#ql:verbalero@cptCore641#. This way, they give the chance to the speaker to add information after the begining of his speech.
name::
* McsEngl.lagKmo'conjunction.specific,
_SPECIFIC:
It is important to distiguish one argument from two argument conjunction. We must have something that will show this.
[hmnSngo.2008-12-09]
===
List:
* A: relation = atreino.
* ALA: verb's-argument.
* OLA: verb's-subject, if it is not placed before the verb.
* ILA: verb's-object (object), if it is not placed after the verb.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.14.9.8.4p1]
lagSngo'conjunction.ONE'ARGUMENT:
* LOK:
lagSngo'conjunction.TWO'ARGUMENT:
* AND:
* OF:
* OR:
lagSngo'conjunction.VERBOLERO:
* ORDER: in the begining of a sentensero.
* OLA: in any other position. [2007-01-27]
lagSngo'conjunction.VERBLELERO:
* ORDER: after verbero.
* ELA: in any other position. [2007-01-27]
lagSngo'conjunction.VERBLULERO:
* ULA: the product. [2007-01-27]
lagSngo'conjunction.VERBLALERO:
* ALA: denotes any verbalero. [2007-01-27]
lagSngo'conjunction.PLACE:
* lok: the general korelatero for loko. [2007-01-27]
* behind:
* infront:
* above:
* under:
* inside:
* outside:
* near:
* far:
* around:
lagSngo'conjunction.TIME:
* temp: the general korelatero for temp. [2007-01-27]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'conjunction.ALPHABETICALLY,
_SPECIFIC:
- aut (out):
- ap (up):
- and:
- as: 's' is possesion ending?
- at:
- al:
- if:
- in: I can't use because 'n' is a verbero ending.
- on:
- of:
- or:
- ot (to):
- bat (but):
- for:
- from:
- sub: under in esperanto.
* lok:
* temp:
lagSngo'conjunction.ALE [2008-06-15]:
= verbalero#ql:verbalero-*#.
* lagSngo'conjunction.AL [2008-06-15]:
* Denotes ANY deino-mineto verbeto-verbaleto.
lagSngo'conjunction.ELE [2008-06-15]:
* the position of verbalero on the right, denotes verbelero. In other positions we can use this deanero.
[hmnSngo.2008-03-01_KasNik]
* Denotes the deino-mineto verbeto-verbeleto.
lagSngo'conjunction.ILE [2008-06-15]:
* Denotes the "indirect-object".
lagSngo'conjunction.OLE [2008-06-15]:
= verbolero#ql:verbolero-*#.
* the position of verbalero on the left, denotes verbolero. In other positions we can use this deanero.
[hmnSngo.2008-03-01_KasNik]
* Denotes the deino-mineto verbeto-verboleto.
lagSngo'conjunction.ULE [2008-06-15]:
* Denotes the deino-mineto verbeto-verbuleto.
===========================================================
lagSngo'conjunction.DE:
= related to, [2008-06-22] the most general deanero (from "deano")
* I can NOT use this, because connotes "negation" from the words "do", "da".
[hmnSngo.2008-06-24_HokoYono]
lagSngo'conjunction.ENE:
= and
lagSngo'conjunction.OFE:
* putting a nounero after another, we imply from the position the the second is an atribo of the first.
[hmnSngo.2008-03-01_KasNik]
* Denotes the atribeino (any atribo not only parto):
* sintaksero: atribo of entepto.
- STRUKTURO-ONOMERO(atribo) of STRUKTURO-ONOMERO(entepto)
* Denotes the ENTEPTO of an atribo.
lagSngo'conjunction.LAIK:
* to denote resebleino#cptCore546.7#.
* sintaksero: laik STRUKTURO(entepto)
lagSngo'conjunction.LUE [2008-06-15]:
* lagSngo'conjunction.LOK [2008-06-15]:
* Denotes the deino-mineto between a verbeto and the LOKO of it.
* lok STRUKTUO(loko).
This is one-argument korelatero, but also serves as a marker for verbalero-loko. [hmnSngo.2007-01-28_nikkas]
lagSngo'conjunction.TUA [2008-07-21]: tuo, tueano, tua-683i,
lagSngo'conjunction.TUE [2008-06-15]:
* lagSngo'conjunction.TEMP [2008-06-15]:
* Denotes the deino-mineto between a verbeto and the TEMPO of it.
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.nameSms.NAUN (O),
* McsEngl.conceptCore683.2,
* McsEngl.komo-noun,
* McsEngl.nameKmoSms.naun,
* McsEngl.lagSngo'noun,
=== _NOTES: idea: RESERVING the "o" ONLY for the end of nouns, we could create "specific-terms" that we can understand in speech and not only in writing with the camel-notation "langoKomo".
Then verbs could end in -oi.
conjunctions in -oa.
Both verbs and conjunctions will derive from nouns.
[hmnSngo.2011-09-02]
_GENERIC:
* nameLingoKmo#cptCore256#
* nameLingo#cptCore453#
_SPECIFIC:
* ORDINARY
* SPECIAL
_Convention:
Existing nouns that CONTAIN 'o' I can use as langoko-nouns by CONVERTING the 'o' to 'a'.
[hmnSngo.2012-08-24]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'ORDINARY-NOUN,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'PLAIN-NOUN (O),
DEICTIC|CONCRETE_VAGUE:
- tio, dio,
QUANTITY: NONE_ALL:
- koPio, koBio,
QUANTITY: ONE_NOTONE:
- koFo, koVo,
QUANTITY: ONE_NOTONE_VAGUE:
- koFoDio, koVoDio,
QUANTITY: FEW_MANY:
- koFio, koVio,
QUANTITY: CONCRETE_VAGUE(ANY):
- koTio, koDio (koDioFo koDioVo),
DISTANCE: NEAR'_FAR_ADDRESSEE:
DISTANCE: NEAR'_FAR_SPEAKER'ADDRESSEE:
INDIVIDERO:
* we must put the individeros AFTER the namero, for consistency with "adnounero".
- buko la = the book
- buko ka = a book
- buko koroblanko la = the white book
[hknu-HokoYono_2008-03-30]
DEFINITNESS: expressed with instansero.
* DEFINITE-NOUNERO:
- au buko => one book. [hmnSngo.2007-01-27_nikkas]
- au buka ==> some books. [hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
* INDEFINITE-NOUNERO:
- eu buko => the book. [hmnSngo.2007-01-27_nikkas]
- eu buka ==> the books. [hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
* NONE: if we don't want to be either definite or indefinite. An example if we refer to a generic-concept.
[2007-02-11]
* If a konsepto is an instance-concept (Earth, John) we do NOT use "instansero-definitness"
* POSITION: if we use korelateros-minetos only infront of verbaletos, Then it would be nice to put the instansero-definitness AFTER the nounero.
[hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
NUMBER: expressed with sufikso.
* SINGULAR-NOUNERO:
- buko => book.
* PLURAL-NOUNERO:
- buka => books.
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'CASE-NOUN,
* McsEngl.komo-conjunctive-noun,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.foEtoOReino@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.nounodeanero@lagoSngo,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'SPECIFIC-CASE (E),
* McsEngl.specific-case,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.specifivero@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.specivero@lagoSngo,
_DEFINITION:
* Specifivero is a nounodeanero that denotes a nounemo and that it is an attribute of the PREVIOUS koncero AND it is one entity with the previous koncero. In other words the whole structure is a specific concept of the previous concept alone.
- lango kome = the komo language
[hmnSngo.2008-09-18]
EVOLEFINO:
We don't need the specific-case. Adding semiwords at the end of a noun create specifics. [2008-12-29]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'ATTRIBUTE-CASE (U),
* McsEngl.attribute-case,
====== lagoSINAGO:
* McsEngl.atrivero@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.atribivero@lagoSngo,
_DEFINITION:
* Atrivero is a nounodeanero that denotes a nounemo and that it is an attribute of the PREVIOUS koncero. In other words the whole structure is a attribute concept of the previous concept alone.
- lango gramu = the grammar of a language
[hmnSngo.2008-09-18]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'PROPERTERO,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'adnounero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'adverbero,
With the use of korelateros to denote verbaleros, komuno does not need adverberos neither adnouneros.
[hmnSngo.2007-02-13_nikkas]
Like TURKISH one yordero, with sufix -e, can serve both functions. I prefer the use of korelatero + nounero.
[hmnSngo.2007-01-30_nikkas]
"There is no distinction between adjectives and adverbs -- one word serves both purposes."
[http://www.cromwell-intl.com/turkish/background.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'SPECIAL-NOUN (pronoun),
* McsEngl.lagKmo'onomantero,
* McsEngl.lagSngo'pronoun,
_PERSEPTO:
* mio = I mia = we
* manomio = I (male) manomia = we (female)
* munomio = I (female) munomia = we (female)
---------------------------------
* vio = you via = you
* manovio = you (male) manovia = you (female)
* munovio = you (female) munovia = you (female)
----------------------------------
* lio = lia = they
* manolio = he (male) manolia = they (female)
* munolio = she (female) munolia = they (female)
[hmnSngo.2008-02-24_KasNik]
sing plural ProAdverbero
a person: moi mai mei
b person: voi vai vei
c person: noi nai nei
c masc. loi lai
c femin. soi sai
c neuter toi tai
[hmnSngo.2006-12-03_nikkas]
sing plural
a person: mi mia
b person: vi via
c person: ni nia
c masc. li lia
c femin. si sia
c neuter ti tia
[hmnSngo.2006-11-26_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.nameSms.VERB (I),
* McsEngl.lagKmo'verb,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'verbero,
* McsEngl.nameKmoSms.verb,
* McsEngl.verbLangokamo,
* McsEngl.verb.kamo, {2012-11-05}
* McsEngl.verb@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.verbero-of-kml,
* McsEngl.verbKamo,
* McsEngl.verbKmo,
* McsEngl.vbKm, {2014-10-05}
* McsEngl.vrbkmo,
* McsEngl.verbSngo,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* file:///D:/File1a/HSBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#LgVerb,
name::
* McsEngl.vbKm'name-creation,
_DESCRIPTION:
Like every concept, its prefix will show its generic-attribute: process#ql:process@cptCore475# or relation#ql:relation@cptCore546#.
The attributes to be showed with semiwords.
The ending will show that it is a verb.
- eni, ani, uni ==> past, present, future
- ui ==> negation
- cii ==> interogation
- bi ==> passiveness
- havi ==> perfectiveness.
...
[hmnSngo.2014-04-15]
_SUFIKSERO:
-N=VERBERO:
-IN=notime/dependent-sentence,
-EN=past, -AN=present, -UN=future,
[hmnSngo.2008-07-21_HokoYono]
===
-N=VERBERO:
-ON=notime/dependent-sentence,
-EN=past, -AN=present, -UN=future,
[hmnSngo.2008-06-29_HokoYono]
===
- AN-notime/dependent-sentence, -EN-past, -IN-present, -ON-future,
[hmnSngo.2008-06-25_HokoYono]
===
- IN-present, AN-past, ON-future. [2006-07-24]
- UN = imperative. 2006-11-26
_QUESTION:
cie (cio)
da
da mio skributin?
Do, vio (do) skributin.
No, vio no skributin.
[KasoNiko, 2008-03-02]
DUTINO:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect
pres: (mio) skributin hava skributin ba skributin ba hava skributin
past: mio skributan hava skributan ba skributan ba hava skributan
futu: mio skributon hava skributon ba skributon ba hava skributon
[KasoNiko 2008-03-02]
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect
pres: mi skributin mi estein skributin mi skribusin mi estein skribusin
past: mi skributan mi estean skributan mi skribusan mi estean skribusan
futu: mi skributon mi esteon skributon mi skribuson mi esteon skribuson
DUDINO:
pres: mi skribufin mi estein skribufin
past: mi skribufan mi estean skribufan
futu: mi skribufon mi esteon skribufon
skribuino, skributino, skribusino, skribufino,
[hmnSngo.2006-11-26_nikkas]
Aoristic PresentPerf PastPerf FuturePerf
Pr mi skribas mi estas skribanta mi estas skribinta mi estas skribonta Active
mi estas skribata mi estas skribita mi estas skribota Passive
Pa mi skribis mi estis skribanta mi estis skribinta mi estis skribonta Active
mi estis skribata mi estis skribita mi estis skribota Passive
Fu mi skribos mi estos skribanta mi estos skribinta mi estos skribonta Active
mi estos skribata mi estos skribita mi estos skribota Passive
_DIRECTION:
OLO-DIRECTION ==> ELO-DIRECTION
relat- eino, uino, utino, ufino, ==> relat- esino, usino, ustino, usfino,
[hmnSngo.2006-11-30_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.vbKm.instance,
_INSTANCE:
Active-Direction Passive-Direction
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect
NoTime skributini skributini-havi skributini-bi skributini-havi-bi
Past skributeni skributeni-havi skributeni-bi skributeni-havi-bi
Present skributani skributani-havi skributani-bi skributani-havi-bi
Future skributuni skributuni-havi skributuni-bi skributuni-havi-bi
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.13.2.8.1p2]
===
INDIVIDUAL-SEMASIAL-VERB
INDIVIDUAL-VERB
VBMI# Mood Tense Direction Perfecti-
veness Interro-
gation Affir-
mation VBRI# Expresion
vbm001 nonimperative no-time active imperf noing aff vrb001 (ao) skributini
vbm002 nonimperative no-time active imperf noing neg vrb002 (ao) skributini-ui
vbm003 nonimperative no-time active imperf ing aff vrb003 cii (ao) skributini?
vbm004 nonimperative no-time active imperf ing neg vrb004 cii (ao) skributini-ui?
vbm005 nonimperative no-time active perf noing aff vrb009 (ao)-havi skributini
vbm006 nonimperative no-time active perf noing neg vrb010 (ao) skributini-havi-ui
vbm007 nonimperative no-time active perf ing aff vrb011 cii (ao) skributini-havi?
vbm008 nonimperative no-time active perf ing neg vrb012 cii (ao) skributini-havi-ui?
vbm009 nonimperative no-time passive imperf noing aff vrb017 (ao) skributini-bi
vbm010 nonimperative no-time passive imperf noing neg vrb018 (ao) skributini-ui-bi
vbm011 nonimperative no-time passive imperf ing aff vrb019 cii (ao) skributini-bi?
vbm012 nonimperative no-time passive imperf ing neg vrb020 cii (ao) skributini-ui-bi?
vbm013 nonimperative no-time passive perf noing aff vrb021 (ao) skributini-havi-bi
vbm014 nonimperative no-time passive perf noing neg vrb022 (ao) skributini-havi-ui-bi
vbm015 nonimperative no-time passive perf ing aff vrb023 cii (ao) skributini-havi-bi?
vbm016 nonimperative no-time passive perf ing neg vrb024 cii (ao) skributini-havi-ui-bi?
vbm017 nonimperative present active imperf noing aff vrb001 (ao) skributani
vbm018 nonimperative present active imperf noing neg vrb002 (ao) skributani-ui
vbm019 nonimperative present active imperf ing aff vrb003 cii (ao) skributani?
vbm020 nonimperative present active imperf ing neg vrb004 cii (ao) skributani-havi-ui?
vbm021 nonimperative present active perf noing aff vrb009 (ao) skributani-havi
vbm022 nonimperative present active perf noing neg vrb010 (ao) skributani-havi-ui
vbm023 nonimperative present active perf ing aff vrb011 cii (ao) skributani-havi?
vbm024 nonimperative present active perf ing neg vrb012 cii (ao) skributani-havi-ui?
vbm025 nonimperative present passive imperf noing aff vrb017 (ao) skributani-bi
vbm026 nonimperative present passive imperf noing neg vrb018 (ao) skributani-ui-bi
vbm027 nonimperative present passive imperf ing aff vrb019 cii (ao) skributani-bi?
vbm028 nonimperative present passive imperf ing neg vrb020 cii (ao) skributani-ui-bi?
vbm029 nonimperative present passive perf noing aff vrb021 (ao) skributani-havi-bi
vbm030 nonimperative present passive perf noing neg vrb022 (ao) skributani-havi-ui-bi
vbm031 nonimperative present passive perf ing aff vrb023 cii (ao) skributani-havi-bi?
vbm032 nonimperative present passive perf ing neg vrb024 cii (ao) skributani-havi-ui-bi?
vbm033 nonimperative past active imperf noing aff vrb029 (ao) skributeni
vbm034 nonimperative past active imperf noing neg vrb030 (ao) skributeni-ui
vbm035 nonimperative past active imperf ing aff vrb031 cii (ao) skributeni?
vbm036 nonimperative past active imperf ing neg vrb032 cii (ao) skributeni-ui?
vbm037 nonimperative past active perf noing aff vrb037 (ao) skributeni-havi
vbm038 nonimperative past active perf noing neg vrb038 (ao) skributeni-havi-ui
vbm039 nonimperative past active perf ing aff vrb039 cii (ao) skributeni-havi?
vbm040 nonimperative past active perf ing neg vrb040 cii (ao) skributeni-havi-ui?
vbm041 nonimperative past passive imperf noing aff vrb045 (ao) skributeni-bi
vbm042 nonimperative past passive imperf noing neg vrb046 (ao) skributeni-ui-bi
vbm043 nonimperative past passive imperf ing aff vrb047 cii (ao) skributeni-bi?
vbm044 nonimperative past passive imperf ing neg vrb048 cii (ao) skributeni-ui-bi?
vbm045 nonimperative past passive perf noing aff vrb049 (ao) skributeni-havi-bi
vbm046 nonimperative past passive perf noing neg vrb050 (ao) skributeni-havi-ui-bi
vbm047 nonimperative past passive perf ing aff vrb051 cii (ao) skributeni-havi-bi?
vbm048 nonimperative past passive perf ing neg vrb052 cii (ao) skributeni-havi-ui-bi?
vbm049 nonimperative future active imperf noing aff vrb057 (ao) skributuni
vbm050 nonimperative future active imperf noing neg vrb058 (ao) skributuni-ui
vbm051 nonimperative future active imperf ing aff vrb059 cii (ao) skributuni?
vbm052 nonimperative future active imperf ing neg vrb060 cii (ao) skributuni-ui?
vbm053 nonimperative future active perf noing aff vrb065 (ao) skributuni-havi
vbm054 nonimperative future active perf noing neg vrb066 (ao) skributuni-havi-ui
vbm055 nonimperative future active perf ing aff vrb067 cii (ao) skributuni-havi?
vbm056 nonimperative future active perf ing neg vrb068 cii (ao) skributuni-havi?
vbm057 nonimperative future passive imperf noing aff vrb073 (ao) skributuni-bi
vbm058 nonimperative future passive imperf noing neg vrb074 (ao) skributuni-ui-bi
vbm059 nonimperative future passive imperf ing aff vrb075 cii (ao) skributuni-bi?
vbm060 nonimperative future passive imperf ing neg vrb076 cii (ao) skributuni-ui-bi?
vbm061 nonimperative future passive perf noing aff vrb077 (ao) skributuni-havi-bi
vbm062 nonimperative future passive perf noing neg vrb078 (ao) skributuni-havi-ui-bi
vbm063 nonimperative future passive perf ing aff vrb079 cii (ao) skributuni-havi-bi?
vbm064 nonimperative future passive perf ing neg vrb080 cii (ao) skributuni-havi-ui-bi?
vbm065 imperative present active aff vrb001 skributani
vbm066 imperative present active neg vrb001 skributani-ui
vbm067 imperative future active aff vrb001 skributuni
vbm068 imperative future active neg vrb001 skributuni-ui
===
Active-Direction Passive-Direction
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect
Affirm Negat Affirm Negat Affirm Negat Affirm Negat
No-Time NonInt (ao) givutini (ao) givutini-ui (ao) givutini-havi (ao) givutini-havi-ui (ao) givutini-bi (ao) givutini-ui-bi (ao) givutini-havi-bi (ao) givutini-havi-ui-bi
Inter cii (ao) givutini? cii (ao) givutini-ui? cii (ao) givutini-havi? cii (ao) givutini-havi-ui? cii (ao) givutini-bi? cii (ao) givutini-ui-bi? cii (ao) givutini-havi-bi? cii (ao) givutini-havi-ui-bi?
Past NonInt (ao) givuteni (ao) givuteni-ui (ao) givuteni-havi (ao) givuteni-havi-ui (ao) givuteni-bi (ao) givuteni-ui-bi (ao) givuteni-havi-bi (ao) givuteni-havi-ui-bi
Inter cii (ao) givuteni? cii (ao) givuteni-ui? cii (ao) givuteni-havi? cii (ao) givuteni-havi-ui? cii (ao) givuteni-bi? cii (ao) givuteni-ui-bi? cii (ao) givuteni-havi-bi? cii (ao) givuteni-havi-ui-bi?
Present NonInt (ao) givutani (ao) givutani-ui (ao) givutani-havi (ao) givutani-havi-ui (ao) givutani-bi (ao) givutani-ui-bi (ao) givutani-havi-bi (ao) givutani-havi-ui-bi
Inter cii (ao) givutani? cii (ao) givutani-ui? cii (ao) givutani-havi? cii (ao) givutani-havi-ui? cii (ao) givutani-bi? cii (ao) givutani-ui-bi? cii (ao) givutani-havi-bi? cii (ao) givutani-havi-ui-bi?
Future NonInt (ao) givutuni (ao) givutuni-ui (ao) givutuni-havi (ao) givutuni-havi-ui (ao) givutuni-bi (ao) givutuni-ui-bi (ao) givutuni-havi-bi (ao) givutuni-havi-ui-bi
Inter cii (ao) givutuni? cii (ao) givutuni-ui? cii (ao) givutuni-havi? cii (ao) givutuni-havi-ui? cii (ao) givutuni-bi? cii (ao) givutuni-ui-bi? cii (ao) givutuni-havi-bi? cii (ao) givutuni-havi-ui-bi?
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango/sm-verb-mapping_kml.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.SEMASIAL-UNIT,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'terminero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'instansero,
GENEREPO:
* lingo-human-semasio-unit#cptCore473#
_SPECIFIC:
* TERM
* SYMBOL_NAME
*
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'AUXILIARY,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'auxiliary,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'individero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'instansero,
_DEFINITION:
* The attributes of verbs, can be expressed as semiwords with -i ending and the attributes of conjunctions can be expressed with semiwords with -a ending.
This way, komo will have only 3 types of words, nouns, verbs and conjunctions.
[hmnSngo.2009-01-14]
Komo does not have auxiliaries. It expresses specific attributes with individual logal-concepts by adding semiwords at the end of them.
How I will implement this in verbs?
[hmnSngo.2009-01-12]
_SPECIFIC:
(be=passive, cie=interrogation, have=perfectiveness, ue=negation).
* lagSngo'individero.LA (NOUNEMO-INDIVIDEPO)
* lagSngo'individero.KA (NOUNEMO-ONE-RANDOM)
* lagSngo'instansero.AU => NOUNERO-INDEFINITE (a)
* lagSngo'instansero.EU => NOUNERO-DEFINITE (the)
_SYNTAX:
* AFTER the term of lconcept.
* BEFORE the NONIMERO.
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'SEMIYUORDERO,
GENEREPO:
* SEMIYUORDERO#cptCore59.8#
Aderos follows primary-nonimos AND have the same sufikso.
* eng: on the table ==> kmn: (lok) tablo ono
[hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
lagSngo'adero.CO:
* The kompleteelo-spesifepto-dichotomous:
- homo ==> homo-co.
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.WORD,
* McsEngl.conceptCore683.1,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'word,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'yuordero@cptCore683.1,
* McsEngl.yuordero'komuno@cptCore683.1,
* McsEngl.yordero'komuno@cptCore683.1,
* McsEngl.word.langokamo,
* McsEngl.word@lagoSngo,
* McsEngl.worder'kml,
* McsEngl.wordkmo, {2014-04-17}
* McsEngl.kmowrd, {2014-04-17}
* McsEngl.wrdkmo,
_GENERIC:
* wordLngHmn#cptCore59.9#
_NOTATION:
* defino'generufino ==> ONE yordero compound. 2006-12-08
- The use of >'< help the eye to see quickly the parts.
* definufino-generufino ==> TWO yorderos denoting one STORED konsepto. 2006-12-08
??? Is it possible to eliminate adnouners by setting nouners infront of another to express the corelaton the adnouner expresses???
[hmnSngo.2006-01-06_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lkw'creating,
* McsEngl.word-creation,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.RULE,
RULE_KML_1:
* SUFFIXES denote logal-concepts (nouns, verbs, corelators)
* SEMIWORDS denote brainual-concepts.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-19]
RULE_KML_2:
* ALL SPECIFICS begin with the SAME semiword if possible, or LETTER-RELATED words.
- HoKoNoUmo, HoKoNoEmo.
- lo, leo, luo, luto, ludo, ....
[hmnSngo.2010-06-20]
RULE_KML_3:
* Words are CASE-SENSITIVE.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-20]
IDEA:
The names of concepts, directly specific of "entity", to begin with "o".
[hmnSngo.2010-06-16]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'ENGLISH'TO'KOMO,
* group ==> grupo
Because the sound is very FAMILIAR to most people than the written form.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-11_KasNik]
* I will prefer the sound than its letters, when the whole image of the word still resembles the english word, eg: real ==> rialo, rialepto.
[hmnSngo.2007-11-01_KasNik]
* Another FACTOR I must take into consideration in the komuno word creation process is the ETYMOLOGY and its use in other languages of the word:
eg: general (gr γενικό) ==> generepto and not jenerepto because g=γ.
[hmnSngo.2007-11-01_KasNik]
* A combination of sound/picture I will use in yordero creation. The evolution of sound have done the yorderos more easy in its pronunciation. Yorderos with very big use, I'll prefer its sound: out ==> aut.
[hmnSngo.2006-12-13_nikkas]
* When I will create yorderos from english I will try to keep the leteros more than the sound, because we use more writen than spoken language.
- noun ==> nounero (not naunero)
- name ==> nameptero (not neimeptero)
Of course, the new yordero will have the komo sound.
BUT:
- concept ==> konsepto
- word ==> yordero
Where we have leteros with many pronunciations, I will prefer one sound.
- ph ==> f
- c ==> k
- y ==> i
[hmnSngo.2006-06-18_nikkas]
- c ==> s:
- c ==> c: process --> procuino
- c ==> k: cicada --> cikada
- ch ==> k: mechamism --> mekanizm
- nn ==> n: manner --> manereino
- q ==> k: equality --> ekualeino
- w ==> y: word --> yordero
- x ==> ks:
* manner ==> manero ==> maniro (because -ero is used). 2006-12-13
- modelo ==> modilo. 2006-12-15
* attribute ==> atributo ==> atribo.
- If we can make the yordero shorter without loosing something, we do it. 2006-12-13
* The big advantage over all other previous languages the komo will have WILL BE its wordero-creating-mechanism. It will be a machine operating mechanism which will take into considaration all rules. This is imposible to be done by a human-brain.
[hmnSngo.2006-01-13_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'TRANSFORMATIONS,
- KD ==> KT: akt-duino --> akduino --> akdutino
- TD ==> D: relat-duino --> reladuino
- TF ==> F: relat-fuino --> relafuino
* IF we want to preserve the apearance of a captive-lektero we and an -o-:
- akt-duino --> aktoduino
- funkt-fuino --> funktofuino
[2006-08-08]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.SEMIWORD,
RULE_KML:
Semiwords create DIFERENT-MEANINGS in diferent environments.
- letero-fo
- kuo-fo.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-18]
RULE_KML:
A semiword in the BEGINNING or as WORD, always has the same meaning.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-18]
RULE_KML_WORKING:
* A NON-ENDING semiword could end in any vowel.
* NO, because will destroy the logal-concept system in a sentence.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-20]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.VOWEL,
dao: space:
deo: point=place.
duo: interval=distance.
dio:
doo:
ao: first person
io: second-person
oo: third-person
===========
eo: attribute
uo: NEGATION
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.CONSONANT,
opposites:
p f q t s c k h m r
b v w d z j g y n l
t-d:
luo: process
luto: process-action
ludo: process-function
==========
to: whole
do: part
m-n:
umo: MALE
uno: FEMALE
umno: (not male not female) or (and male and female) [2010-06-18]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.COMPOUND,
If two or more yorderos create a TERM, then we unite with "_":
- Kaseluris_Nikos, brainepto_base,
Another method is the CASE_SENSITIVE:
- KaselurisNikos, BraineptoBase,
[[hmnSngo.2007-09-16_KasNik]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.SUFIX,
ADDING 2 SUFIKSOS:
* verb-ero + ol(o) ==> verbol-ero:
We don't add the nounero-sufikso (o) INSIDE a yordero, IF the next sufikso begins with vokalero.
[hmnSngo.2006-12-03_nikkas]
- we put "co" for kompletealo-dihotomealo.
* emos-epto + co ==> emoco-epto.
* mapeal-ero + co ==> mapealco-ero.
* kogn-ufino + co ==> kognoco-ufino.
* hom-o + co ==> homco,
* hom-e + co ==> homcoe, 2006-12-10
* emoseptoco = emocoepto. 2006-12-11
* puting "co" at the end is more VISIBLE. 2006-12-12
* homoco ==> homo'co.
- We must put a >'< if we want to pronounce as "homo". 2006-12-14
** IF the second sufikso destroys the meaning of the entity denoted with the first sufikso, WE can put the second sufikso as PREFIKSO:
- sentensetro + tupo ==> tuposentensetro.
[2007-02-03]
* A second method is the creation of a dezigneptero with 2 yorderos:
- sentensetro + tuto ==> sentensetro-tuto.
The advantage of the second method is that the new dezigneptero begins as the original yordero.
[2007-02-03]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'WordCreation.MERGING,
* klas-epto - specif-epto ==> klasospecif-epto.
IF 2 yorderos have the same sufikso, We can create one by missing the first sufikso. We can use and the other form as "klasepto-specifepto".
[hmnSngo.2006-12-03_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'PREFIX,
* McsEngl.prefix-of-komo@cptCore714i,
* McsEngl.prefikso'kmn@cptCore714i,
_GENERIC:
* PREFIKSERO#cptCore59.13#
KANONO:
* NO PREFIX: only SEMIWORDS can be first parts of kml-words.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-17]
* ONE or TWO will be the majority of FIRST semiwords of a name.
[hmnSngo.2010-06-17]
We can use prefiksos, BUT instead of sufiksos they are NOT mandatory, ie and other unrelated words can begin with these prefiksos.
[hmnSngo.2006-12-03_nikkas]
KANONO:
If a sufikso denotes a KONSEPTO, then we use it as a prefikso in order to follow the creation rule of specifics.
* entito + logo ==> logoentito
* komuno + lingvo ==> lingvokomuno
[hmnSngo.2006-11-23_nikkas]
_NOTATION:
lagSngo'prefiksero.XXX:
* prefiksero.kml.XXX:
= MEANING.
- example.
lagSngo'prefiksero.U:
* prefiksero.kml.U:
* "u" presserves its stress, to give ephasis (like its similar sufiksero) on the opposition relation.
[hmnSngo.2008-06-25_HokoYono]
= OPPOSITE (same as sufiksero "co") 2008-06-04
= WITHOUT. 2008-04-09
lagSngo'prefiksero.LANGO:
* prefiksero.kml.LANGO:
= language#cptCore49#
- prefiksero.kml.lang-ufino
- lang-ero = any codomain
- lang-eto = any middledomain
lagSngo'prefiksero.LOGO:
* prefiksero.kml.LOGO:
= SCIENCE.
- prefiksero.kml.LOGO: science.
lagSngo'prefiksero.LOKO:
* prefiksero.kml.LOKO:
= place#cptCore309#
[hmnSngo.2008-02-17_KasNik]
lagSngo'prefiksero.MONO:
* prefiksero.kml.MONO:
* lagSngo'prefiksero.ONE:
= means one.
- monoyordero = one yordero.
[hmnSngo.2008-02-15_KasNik]
kml.prefiksero.MONTO:
* prefiksero.kml.MONTO:
= mountain. from esperanto.
[hmnSngo.2008-02-16_KasNik]
lagSngo'prefiksero.MULTO:
* prefiksero.kml.MULTO:
* lagSngo'prefiksero.MANY:
= means many.
- multoyordero = many yordero.
lagSngo'prefiksero.PRI:
* prefiksero.kml.PRI:
= denotes en entity in a stage BEFORE its current stage.
- prefiksero.kml.PRI:
[hmnSngo.2008-02-06_KasNik]
lagSngo'prefiksero.SIN:
* prefiksero.kml.SIN:
= SET
- sinlangero = a set of langeros that denote the same brainepto.
- sinkoncepto = a set of konceptos that are denoted with same dezigneptero.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-12_KasNik]
lagSngo'prefiksero.SOCIETY:
* prefiksero.kml.SOCIETY:
- prefiksero.kml.elad-o: eladosocio, eladohomo, eladomano, eladomuno.
- prefiksero.kml.ital-o: italosocio, italohomo, italomano, italomuno.
- ccin-o: ccinosocio, ccinohomo, ccinomano, ccinomuno.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-12_KasNik]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'SUFFIX,
* McsEngl.lkw'suffix,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'suffix,
* McsEngl.suffixKmo, {2012-11-04}
* McsEngl.sufiksero.komo,
* McsEngl.sufiksero-of-komono,
* McsEngl.sufikso'kml,
QUERY-KOMO-SUFIKSO#ql:sufikso.kmn.*#
_SPECIFIC:
==================================
P,F,Q,T,S,C,K,H,M,R
B,V,W,D,Z,J,G,Y,N,L
A,E,I,O,U
==================================
lagSngo'suffix.O_I_E_U_A, suffixKmo.O_I_E_U_A,
lagSngo'suffix.O, lagSngo'suffix.I, lagSngo'suffix.E, lagSngo'suffix.U, lagSngo'suffix.A:
==================================
-O NOUNERO:
-I VERBERO:
-A DEANERO.
-E SPECIFIVERO (a specific of previous yuordero), INDIVIDERO:
-U ATRIVERO (an atro of previous yuordero):
[hmnSngo.HokoYono_2008-08-18]
=================================
--- WORKING_IDEA ---
-O NOUNERO:
-I ATRIVERO, INDIVIDERO:
-E PARTIVERO:
-U NONPARTIVERO:
-A DEANERO.
-N VERBERO: IN-nothing, EN-past, AN-present, UN-future.
[hmnSngo.2008-08-17_HokoYono]
=================================
-O NOUNERO-SINGULAR:
-I NOUNERO-PLURAL:
-E ATRIVERO-SINGULAR, INDIVIDERO:
-U ATRIVERO-PLURAL
-A DEANERO.
-N VERBERO: AN-nothing, EN-past, IN-present, ON-future.
-S ATRO_ESIVERO.
-Z ATRO_EZIVERO.
[hmnSngo.2008-06-29_HokoYono]
=================================
P,F,Q,T,S,C,K,H,M,R
B,V,W,D,Z,J,G,Y,N,L
A,E,I,O,U
-A DEINO ATRIBEPO with previous yuordero.
-E DEANERO:
-I NOUNERO-PLURAL:
-O NOUNERO:
-IO NOUNERO WITH ATRIBEPO
-A ? INSTANSERO:
-U individero-plural (near to me|us = disto-hio ma|mu) [2008-06-26]:
-N VERBERO: AN-nothing, EN-past, IN-present, ON-future.
-S DEINO WHOLE-PART with next yuordero.
-Z DEINO NON_WHOLE with next yuordero.
[hmnSngo.2008-06-14_HokoYono]
=================================
A,E,I,O,U, P,B,T,D,K,G,F,V,S,Z,C,J,Q,W,L,R,M,N,H,Y (X)
-O NOUNERO:
-I NOUNERO-PLURAL:
-A INSTANSERO: la mano,
-E ADVERBERO:
-U
-N VERBERO: IN-present, AN-past, ON-future.
-S WHOLE of a whole-part deino.
-KONSONERO-REST: DEINERO. if, at, it,
[hmnSngo.2008-02-25_KasNik]
=================================
-O NOUNERO:
-A NOUNERO-PLURAL:
-E PROPERTERO-ADVERBERO:
-I PRONOMERO: moi, mai, mei || voi, vai, vei || noi, nai, nei,
specialero ends like other onomors. [hmnSngo.2008-02-25_KasNik]
-U INSTANSERO:
-N VERBERO: IN-present, AN-past, ON-future. [2006-07-24]
-S WHOLE of a whole-part korelateino.
-KONSONERO-REST: KORELATERO. if, at, it,
-INO relat-ino. [2006-08-07]
-UINO relat-uino (proc-uino). [2006-08-07]
-TUINO relato-dutino (akto-dutino). [2006-08-25]
-FUINO relato-fuino (funkto-fuino). [2006-08-10]
-EINO relat-eino (korelat-eino). [2006-07-26]
-OLO who: [2006-07-24] procuinolo, akduinolo, funkfuinolo, korelateinolo
-ELO whom: [2006-07-24] adkuinelo, korelateinelo
-ULO product: [2006-07-24]
-ALO argument other: [2006-07-24]
- EPTO BREINEPTO: konsepto, breinepto, sensepto, ...
- ETO MINETO: kosepteto, sentenseto, ... [2006-07-25]
- ERO LOGERO: konseptero, sentensero, ...
- ENTO REFERENTO: [2006-11-15]
- MANO homomano= man, tigromano, [2006-11-15]
- MUNO homomuno= woman, tigromuno [2006-11-15]
Few endings contribute in finding the worders in speech-logo. Ancient greek had fiew endings and propably this is the reason why its first writing was continuous.
[hmnSngo.2006-01-07_nikkas]
ESPERANTO WORDER ENDINGS:
- o noun.
- j plural of noun, adjective.
- n accusative.
- as present of verb.
- is past of verb.
- os future of verb
- i infinitive of verb.
- us conditional mood
- a adjective.
- e adverb.
EXAMPLES:
* konsepto ==> konseptero = maping-korelateino.
* konseptero ==> meaning-konseptero = mapping-korelateino.
* konsepto ==> sensepto, emosepto = analogous-korelateino.
KANONO:
SUFIKSOS are MANDATORY, ie no other yordero can end with a sufikso and to denote a diferent thing than that of sufikso.
[hmnSngo.2006-12-03_nikkas]
_NOTATION:
lagSngo'suffix.XXX:
* suffixKmo.XXX:
= MEANING.
- example.
lagSngo'suffix.LANGUAGE:
* suffixKmo.LANGUAGE:
-suffixKmo.O NOUNERO:
-suffixKmo.A NOUNERO-PLURAL:
-suffixKmo.E PROPERTERO-ADVERBERO:
-suffixKmo.I PRONOMERO: moi, mai, mei || voi, vai, vei || noi, nai, nei,
-suffixKmo.U INSTANSERO:
-suffixKmo.N VERBERO: IN-present, AN-past, ON-future. [2006-07-24]
-suffixKmo.S WHOLE of a whole-part korelateino.
-KONSONERO-REST: KORELATERO. if, at, it,
- suffixKmo.EPTO BREINEPTO: konsepto, breinepto, sensepto, ...
- suffixKmo.ETO MINETO: kosepteto, sentenseto, ... [2006-07-25]
- suffixKmo.ERO LOGERO: konseptero, sentensero, ...
- suffixKmo.ENTO REFERENTO: [2006-11-15]
- LANGO Denotes language. Homolango (=human-language).
lagSngo'suffix.AO_EO_UO: [2008-08-18]
lagSngo'suffix.AO, lagSngo'suffix.EO, lagSngo'suffix.UO:
lagSngo'suffix.CONTINUOUS_MEGETHOS:
- dao(space), deo(point), duo(interval)
- tao(time), teo(point), tuo(interval)
* problem = point, interval are specifics, then must begin with the general. [2008-08-28]
* KO (quantity)
* KEO | KUFELO (unit)#cptCore776#
* KUO | KUFULO (number)#cptCore88#
[hmnSngo.2008-08-18_HokoYono]
lagSngo'suffix.ATRIBO:
* suffixKmo.ATRIBO:
- suffixKmo.PUPO any PARTO-atribo
- suffixKmo.TUPO any TUTO-atribo
- suffixKmo.GUPO any GENEREPTO-atribo (like super-general)
- suffixKmo.SUPO any SPECIFEPTO-atribo. (like sub-general)
lagSngo'suffix.MACHINE:
* suffixKmo.MACHINE:
- suffixKmo.CINO: machine.
[contradicts with "present" of dinos, 2008-06-15]
* We need a sufikso for "machines". How about "cino" (from macino).
"CCino" is the name for China.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-03_KasNik]
lagSngo'suffix.PROPERTY:
* suffixKmo.PROPERTY:
* VOWEL+O:
[hmnSngo.2008-06-15_HokoYono]
lagSngo'suffix.RELATION_PROCESS:
suffixKmo.RELATION_PROCESS:
-INO relat-ino. [2006-08-07]
-EINO relat-eino (korelat-eino). [2006-07-26]
-UINO relat-uino (proc-uino). [2006-08-07]
-TUINO relato-dutino (akto-dutino). [2006-08-25]
-FUINO relato-fuino (funkto-fuino). [2006-08-10]
-OLO who: [2006-07-24] procuinolo, akduinolo, funkfuinolo, korelateinolo
-ELO whom: [2006-07-24] adkuinelo, korelateinelo
-ILO whom2: [2007-12-11]
-ULO product: [2006-07-24]
-ALO argument other: [2006-07-24]
lagSngo'suffix.STANDARD:
* suffixKmo.STANDARD:
* suffixKmo.NORMO:
= We need one for it. "normo" may is good.
[hmnSngo.2007-12-10_KasNik]
_FILE:
* \AAj\AAjWORKING-2010-06-21-00.02.03\AAjProgram\AAjKB\AAjINDEXES\kml_word.txt,
_SPECIFIC_DIVISION.SEMIWORD:
* ROOT (one semiword)
* NON-ROOT (not-one semiword)
_SPECIFIC_DIVISION.VOWEL_CONTAINED:
* lao, leo, luo, lio, loo.
* alo, elo, ulo, ilo, olo.
...
_SPECIFIC_DIVISION.VOWEL_CONTAINED:
* lao, rao.
* omo, ono.
_SPECIFIC_DIVISION.SYLLABLE:
* ONE-SYLLABLE-WORD
* TWO-SYLLABLE-WORD
* ....
_SPECIFIC_DIVISION.MEANING:
* SPECIFIC_COMPLEMENT_WORDS
* PARTIAL_COMPLEMENT_WORDS
* GENERIC_SPECIFIC_RELATION
* WHOLE_PART_RELATION
name::
* McsEngl.lkw.SEMIWORD-RELATED,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'word.ROOT,
* McsEngl.RootWord,
* McsEngl.krt,
* McsEngl.rt,
* McsEngl.primary-word,
name::
* McsEngl.lkw.LETTER-RELATED,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'word.VOWEL-OPPOSITION,
VOWEL-OPPOSITION:
- ano, eno, uno: present, past, future.
- kao, keo, kuo: quantity, unit, number.
name::
* McsEngl.lkw.MEANING-RELATED,
SPECIFIC (of entity):
- kuoFo, kuoQo, kuoTo, ... specific-numbers.
ATTRIBUTE (of entity):
- osAtro: attribute-of-entity.
NEGATION(uo) - AFFIRMATION(nothing):
- lao, laoUo: light, dark.
INTERROGATION(cio) - NONINTERROGATION(nothing):
-
name::
* McsEngl.lkw.SYLLABLE1,
lkw1.A = letter a.
- conjunction the most general.
- sufix of conjunctions.
- first person, deanero.
lkw1.E = letter e.
- entity as specific attribute of another.
- first person, relativero, singular.
lkw1.I = letter i.
- verb sufix.
- first person, plural.
lkw1.O = letter o.
- entity [2008-08-19]
- sufiksero: nounero.
- first person [hmnSngo.2008-06-28_HokoYono]
lkw1.U = SYMPAN [2014-04-18]
- letter u.
- entity as attribute of another.
- first person, relativero, plural,
lkw1.P
lkw.PO = letter p. Number 0.
- general 2008-08-16, vacuum (from bo="simban"),
- semiyuordero: kuoPo (=zero), diktero_po (= letter p),
* lkw.PA =
* lkw.PE =
* lkw.PI =
* lkw.PU =
lkw.PFO =
lkw.PQO =
lkw.PTO =
lkw.PSO =
lkw.PCO =
lkw.PKO =
lkw.PHO =
lkw.PNO =
lkw.PRO =
lkw.PLO =
lkw1.F:
* lkw.FO = letter f.
- number 1.
- info [2008-09-13], [2010-06-16].
- semiyuordero, kuo_fo (= one), diktero_fo (= letter f),
* lkw.FA =
* lkw.FE =
* lkw.FI =
* lkw.FU =
lkw1.Q:
* lkw.QO = Number 2. entity_vague [2008-11-30] specific_entity,
* lkw.QA =
* lkw.QE =
* lkw.QI =
* lkw.QU =
lkw1.T:
* lkw.TO = Number 3. deictic_entity [2008-11-29] external_attribute [2008-08-19] whole 2008-08-16, second person,
* lkw.TI =
* lkw.TE =
* lkw.TU =
* lkw.TA =
lkw1.S:
* lkw.SO = Number 4. non_life_form 2008-08-16,
* lkw.SA =
* lkw.SE =
* lkw.SI =
* lkw.SU =
lkw1.C:
* lkw.CO = Number 5. general 2008-09-18
* lkw.CA =
* lkw.CE =
* lkw.CI =
* lkw.CU =
lkw1.K:
* lkw.KO = leter K. Number 6. quantance 2008-11-26, quantity 2008-08-16, keano, kuano,
* lkw.KA =
* lkw.KE = addition,
* lkw.KI =
* lkw.KU =
lkw1.H:
* lkw.HO = human [2008-08-21]. Letter H, Number 7.
* lkw.HA =
* lkw.HE =
* lkw.HI =
* lkw.HU =
lkw1.M:
* lkw.MO= Letter M. Number 8. material_entity [2008-08-30], second_person 2008-08-16,
* lkw.MA =
* lkw.ME =
* lkw.MI =
* lkw.MU =
lkw1.L:
* lkw.LO = Leter R. Number 9. the third person.
* lkw.LI,
* lkw.LA =
* lkw.LE =
* lkw.LU =
lkw1.B:
* lkw.BO = leter b. body [2014-04-18]
- specific 2008-08-16, symban (from bio=all). 2008-08-14, the most-whole 2008-08-16,
* lkw.BA = individero passive. 2008-08-14
* lkw.BE =
* lkw.BI =
* lkw.BU =
lkw.BNO =
lkw.BRO =
lkw.BLO =
lkw1.V:
* lkw.VO = referent [2008-09-13]
- semiyuordero "not_one"
* lkw.VA =
* lkw.VE =
* lkw.VI =
* lkw.VU =
lkw1.W:
* lkw.WO = entity_deictic [2008-11-30], category_entity,
* lkw.WA =
* lkw.WE =
* lkw.WI =
* lkw.WU =
lkw1.D:
* lkw.DO = doing [2014-04-18]
- part 2008-08-16, IF "to" is the second person, THEN "do" must be the third. [hmnSngo.2008-07-25_HokoYono] negation,
- conflicts with deino [2008-08-17]
* lkw.DA = negation of verb.
* lkw.DE = the most general deanero (from de-ano).
* lkw.DI =
* lkw.DU =
lkw1.Z:
* lkw.ZO = life_form 2008-08-16, organism 2008-08-08,
* lkw.ZA =
* lkw.ZE =
* lkw.ZI =
* lkw.ZU =
lkw1.J:
* lkw.JO = individual 2008-11-25, specific 2008-09-18
* lkw.JA =
* lkw.JE =
* lkw.JI =
* lkw.JU =
lkw1.G:
* lkw.GO = not_quantance 2008-11-26,
* lkw.GA =
* lkw.GE =
* lkw.GI =
* lkw.GU =
lkw1.Y:
* lkw.YO = non_human [2008-08-21]
* lkw.YA =
* lkw.YE =
* lkw.YI =
* lkw.YU =
lkw1.N:
* lkw.NO= immaterial_entity [2008-08-30], third_person 2008-08-16,
* lkw.NA =
* lkw.NE =
* lkw.NI =
* lkw.NU =
lkw1.R:
* lkw.RO = leter R.
* lkw.RA, lkw.RI =
* lkw.RE =
* lkw.RU =
name::
* McsEngl.lkw.SYLLABLE2,
lkw2.A:
* lkw.AO = thirdperson [2014-01-06], first_person [2008-08-19]
* lkw.APO
* lkw.AFO
* lkw.AQO
* lkw.ATO
* lkw.ASO
* lkw.ACO
* lkw.AKO
* lkw.AHO
* lkw.AMO
* lkw.ALO
* lkw.ABO
* lkw.AVO
* lkw.AWO
* lkw.ADO
* lkw.AZO
* lkw.AJO
* lkw.AGO
* lkw.AYO
* lkw.ANO
* lkw.ARO
lkw2.E:
* lkw.EO = secondperson [2014-01-06], attribure [2008-08-19], third_person [2008-08-18]
* lkw.EPO
* lkw.EFO
* lkw.EQO
* lkw.ETO
* lkw.ESO
* lkw.ECO
* lkw.EKO
* lkw.EHO
* lkw.EMO
* lkw.ELO
* lkw.EBO
* lkw.EVO
* lkw.EWO
* lkw.EDO
* lkw.EZO
* lkw.EJO
* lkw.EGO
* lkw.EYO
* lkw.ENO
* lkw.ERO
lkw2.I:
* lkw.IO = firstperson [2014-01-06], second_person [2008-08-18]
* lkw.IPO
* lkw.IFO
* lkw.IQO
* lkw.ITO
* lkw.ISO
* lkw.ICO
* lkw.IKO
* lkw.IHO
* lkw.IMO
* lkw.ILO
* lkw.IBO
* lkw.IVO
* lkw.IWO
* lkw.IDO
* lkw.IZO
* lkw.IJO
* lkw.IGO
* lkw.IYO
* lkw.INO
* lkw.IRO
lkw2.O:
* lkw.OO = third_person [2008-08-18]
* lkw.OPO
* lkw.OFO
* lkw.OQO
* lkw.OTO
* lkw.OSO = attribute of entity [2014-04-18]
* lkw.OCO
* lkw.OKO = megethos [2014-04-18]
* lkw.OHO = human [2014-04-17]
* lkw.OMO = model [2014-04-17]
* lkw.OLO = whole-entity [2014-04-18]
* lkw.OBO = body [2014-04-18]
* lkw.OVO
* lkw.OWO
* lkw.ODO = doing [2014-04-18]
* lkw.OZO
* lkw.OJO
* lkw.OGO
* lkw.OYO
* lkw.ONO
* lkw.ORO
lkw2.U:
* lkw.UO = negation [2008-10-04] complement [2008-08-19]
* lkw.UPO
* lkw.UFO
* lkw.UQO
* lkw.UTO
* lkw.USO
* lkw.UCO
* lkw.UKO
* lkw.UHO
* lkw.UMO
* lkw.ULO
* lkw.UBO
* lkw.UVO
* lkw.UWO
* lkw.UDO
* lkw.UZO
* lkw.UJO
* lkw.UGO
* lkw.UYO
* lkw.UNO
* lkw.URO
lkw2.P:
* lkw.APO =
* lkw.EPO = SUFIKSERO, kogn-epo.
* lkw.IPO =
* lkw.UPO =
* lkw.PAO =
* lkw.PEO = male [2008-08-18]
* lkw.PIO = semiyuordero "none"
* lkw.POO =
* lkw.PUO =
lkw2.B:
* lkw.ABO =
* lkw.EBO =
* lkw.IBO =
* lkw.UBO = specific_complement (from bo=specific) [2008-08-20]
* lkw.BAO =
* lkw.BEO = female [2008-08-18]
* lkw.BIO = semiyuordero "all".
* lkw.BOO =
* lkw.BUO =
F:
* lkw.AFO =
* lkw.EFO =
* lkw.IFO =
* lkw.OFO =
* lkw.UFO =
* lkw.FAO =
* lkw.FEO =
* lkw.FIO = quantity_few
* lkw.FOO =
* lkw.FUO =
lkw2.V:
* lkw.AVO =
* lkw.EVO =
* lkw.IVO =
* lkw.OVO =
* lkw.UVO =
* lkw.VAO =
* lkw.VEO =
* lkw.VIO = quantity_many
* lkw.VOO =
* lkw.VUO =
Q:
* lkw.AQO =
* lkw.EQO =
* lkw.IQO =
* lkw.OQO =
* lkw.UQO =
* lkw.QAO =
* lkw.QEO =
* lkw.QIO =
* lkw.QOO =
* lkw.QUO =
lkw2.W:
* lkw.AWO =
* lkw.EWO =
* lkw.IWO =
* lkw.OWO =
* lkw.UWO =
* lkw.WAO =
* lkw.WEO =
* lkw.WIO =
* lkw.WOO =
* lkw.WUO =
lkw2.T:
* lkw.ATO =
* lkw.ETO = RESERVERD-SUFIKSERO, "kogn-eto"
* lkw.ITO =
* lkw.OTO =
* lkw.UTO =
* lkw.TAO = time 2008-08-17,
* lkw.TEO = timepoint 2008-08-17,
* lkw.TUO = timeinterval 2008-08-17,
* lkw.TIO = semi deictic/concrete,
* lkw.TOO =
lkw2.D:
* lkw.EDO = affirmation 2008-06-25.
* lkw.IDO =
* lkw.ODO =
* lkw.UDO = smw_partial_complement, negation 2008-06-25. lkw.uda,
* lkw.DAO = space 2008-08-17,
* lkw.DEO = spacepoint-place 2008-08-17,
* lkw.DUO = spaceinterval-distance 2008-08-17,
* lkw.DIO = semi vague
* lkw.DOO = surface {2008-08-17}
lkw2.S:
* lkw.SAO =
* lkw.SEO =
* lkw.SIO =
* lkw.SOO =
* lkw.SUO =
lkw2.Z:
* lkw.ZAO =
* lkw.ZEO =
* lkw.ZIO =
* lkw.ZOO =
* lkw.ZUO =
lkw2.C:
* lkw.CAO =
* lkw.CEO =
* lkw.CIO = interrogation
* lkw.COO =
* lkw.CUO =
lkw2.J:
* lkw.UJO = smw_specific_complement
* lkw.JAO =
* lkw.JEO =
* lkw.JIO =
* lkw.JOO =
* lkw.JUO =
lkw2.K:
* lkw.KAO = quantity 2008-11-26,
* lkw.KEO = unit_of_measurment 2008-11-26,
* lkw.KUO = number 2008-11-26,
* lkw.KIO = point_quantance 2008-11-26, random-number, quantance,
* lkw.KOO = interval_quantance {2008-11-26}
lkw2.G:
* lkw.GAO =
* lkw.GEO =
* lkw.GIO = random_quantity, any-number,
* lkw.GOO =
* lkw.GUO =
lkw2.H:
* lkw.HAO =
* lkw.HEO =
* lkw.HIO = near
* lkw.HOO =
* lkw.HUO =
lkw2.Y:
* lkw.YAO =
* lkw.YEO =
* lkw.YIO = far
* lkw.YOO =
* lkw.YUO =
lkw2.M:
* lkw.AMO = not_male_female [2008-08-19] [2008-09-10]
* lkw.EMO = female [2010-08-23]
* lkw.IMO = female [2008-08-19] [2008-09-10]
* lkw.OMO = male [2008-08-19] [2008-09-10]
* lkw.UMO = male (uno, umno) [2008-09-10]
* lkw.MAO =
* lkw.MEO =
* lkw.MIO =
* lkw.MOO =
* lkw.MUO =
lkw2.N:
* lkw.ANO = verbero sufiksero no time
* lkw.ENO = past
* lkw.INO = present
* lkw.ONO = future
* lkw.UNO = female (umo, umno) [2008-09-10]
* lkw.NAO = brain [2008-09-10]
* lkw.NIO =
* lkw.NOO = brain [2008-09-10]
* lkw.NEO =
* lkw.NUO = product_of_brain. [2008-09-10]
R:
* lkw.ERO = RESERVERD, "koncero"
* lkw.RAO =
* lkw.REO =
* lkw.RIO =
* lkw.ROO =
* lkw.RUO =
lkw2.L:
* lkw.ALO = any argument of dalo (= relation or process)
* lkw.ELO = the "object" argument
* lkw.ILO = the second "object"
* lkw.OLO = the "who"
* lkw.ULO = the "product"
* lkw.LAO =
* lkw.LIO =
* lkw.LOO =
* lkw.LEO =
* lkw.LUO = place, * lkw.LUI= * lkw.LUA= * lkw.LUE=
* lkw.LANGO = language.
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.SYLLABLE,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'silabero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'syllable,
* McsEngl.syllable@lagoSngo,
_SPECIFIC:
* silabero-komuno.xls#pl:excel::\DATA1\data.OFFICE\SSHEET\excel\silabero-komuno.xls#:
lagSngo'syllable.LETTER1:
A
E
I
O
U
lagSngo'syllable.LETTER2:
P? F? Q? T? S? C? K? H? M? R?
B? V? W? D? Z? J? G? Y? N? L?
lagSngo'syllable.LETTER3:
lagSngo'PT? (ptoma)
lagSngo'PS? (psomi)
lagSngo'PR? (proto)
lagSngo'PN? (pniyo)
lagSngo'PL? (plaka)
lagSngo'FH?
lagSngo'FL?
lagSngo'FQ?
lagSngo'FR?
lagSngo'FT?
lagSngo'TM?
lagSngo'TR?
lagSngo'TS?
lagSngo'SP? (spano)
lagSngo'SF? (sfalo)
lagSngo'SH? (
lagSngo'SK? (skavo)
lagSngo'ST? (stavlo)
lagSngo'SM?
lagSngo'SR?
lagSngo'SN? (snako)
lagSngo'SL? (slavo)
lagSngo'KL?
lagSngo'KN?
lagSngo'KR?
lagSngo'KS?
lagSngo'KT?
lagSngo'KV?
lagSngo'KZ?
lagSngo'HL?
lagSngo'HN?
lagSngo'HR?
lagSngo'HT?
lagSngo'MN?
------------------------------------------
lagSngo'BL?
lagSngo'BR?
lagSngo'DR?
lagSngo'DV?
lagSngo'GL?
lagSngo'GR?
lagSngo'VL?
lagSngo'VR?
lagSngo'YL?
lagSngo'YN?
lagSngo'YR?
lagSngo'ZB?
lagSngo'ZV?
lagSngo'ZW?
lagSngo'ZD?
lagSngo'ZG?
lagSngo'ZY?
lagSngo'ZN?
lagSngo'ZL?
lagSngo'ZM?
lagSngo'ZR?
lagSngo'syllable.LETTER4:
lagSngo'SKL?
lagSngo'SKN?
lagSngo'SKR?
lagSngo'SPL?
lagSngo'SPR?
lagSngo'STR?
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'syllable'ONSET (first-part),
_NOTATION:
? = a e i o u
* = a o u
lagSngo'onset.P:
lagSngo'p?
lagSngo'pl?
lagSngo'pr?
========
lagSngo'pt?
lagSngo'pk?
lagSngo'pf?
lagSngo'pq?
lagSngo'ps?
lagSngo'ph?
lagSngo'pc?
lagSngo'pn?
------------
lagSngo'pkk*
lagSngo'pss*
lagSngo'phh*
lagSngo'pcc*
lagSngo'pll*
lagSngo'onset.B:
lagSngo'b?
lagSngo'bl?
lagSngo'br?
=========
lagSngo'bd?
lagSngo'bg?
lagSngo'bgg*
lagSngo'bv?
lagSngo'bw?
lagSngo'bz?
lagSngo'bzz*
lagSngo'by?
lagSngo'byy*
lagSngo'bj?
lagSngo'bjj*
lagSngo'bn?
lagSngo'bll*
lagSngo'onset.T:
lagSngo't?
lagSngo'tr?
========
lagSngo'tp?
lagSngo'tk?
lagSngo'tkk*
lagSngo'tf?
lagSngo'tq?
lagSngo'th?
lagSngo'thh*
lagSngo'tn?
lagSngo'tl?
lagSngo'tll*
lagSngo'onset.D:
lagSngo'd?
lagSngo'dr?
=======
lagSngo'dd?
lagSngo'dg?
lagSngo'dgg*
lagSngo'dv?
lagSngo'dw?
lagSngo'dz?
lagSngo'dzz*
lagSngo'dy?
lagSngo'dyy*
lagSngo'dj?
lagSngo'djj*
lagSngo'dn?
lagSngo'dl?
lagSngo'dll*
lagSngo'dr?
lagSngo'onset.K:
lagSngo'k?
lagSngo'kn?
lagSngo'kl?
lagSngo'kll*
lagSngo'kr?
lagSngo'kv?
==========
lagSngo'kp?
lagSngo'kt?
lagSngo'kf?
lagSngo'kq?
lagSngo'ks?
lagSngo'kss*
lagSngo'kh?
lagSngo'khh*
lagSngo'kc?
lagSngo'kcc*
lagSngo'onset.G:
lagSngo'g?
lagSngo'gv?
lagSngo'gn?
lagSngo'gl?
lagSngo'gll*
lagSngo'gr?
======
lagSngo'gd?
lagSngo'gg?
lagSngo'ggg*
lagSngo'gw?
lagSngo'gz?
lagSngo'gzz*
lagSngo'gy?
lagSngo'gyy*
lagSngo'gj?
lagSngo'gjj*
lagSngo'onset.F:
lagSngo'f?
b.flu
b.fo
b.fo.e
b.fra
==========
lagSngo'fp?
lagSngo'ft?
lagSngo'fk?
lagSngo'fkk*
lagSngo'fq?
lagSngo'fs?
lagSngo'fss*
lagSngo'fh?
lagSngo'fhh*
lagSngo'fc?
lagSngo'fcc*
lagSngo'fn?
lagSngo'fl?
lagSngo'fll*
lagSngo'fr?
lagSngo'onset.V:
lagSngo'v?
lagSngo'vl?
lagSngo'vll*
lagSngo'vr?
========
lagSngo'vb?
lagSngo'vd?
lagSngo'vg?
lagSngo'vgg*
lagSngo'vw?
lagSngo'vz?
lagSngo'vzz*
lagSngo'vy?
lagSngo'vyy*
lagSngo'vj?
lagSngo'vjj*
lagSngo'vn?
lagSngo'onset.Q:
lagSngo'q?
lagSngo'ql?
lagSngo'qll*
lagSngo'qr?
=========
lagSngo'qf
lagSngo'qt?
lagSngo'qk?
lagSngo'qkk*
lagSngo'qf?
lagSngo'qs?
lagSngo'qss*
lagSngo'qh?
lagSngo'qhh*
lagSngo'qc?
lagSngo'qcc*
lagSngo'qn?
lagSngo'onset.W:
lagSngo'w?
lagSngo'wr?
========
lagSngo'wb?
lagSngo'wd?
lagSngo'wg?
lagSngo'wgg*
lagSngo'wv?
lagSngo'ww?
lagSngo'wz?
lagSngo'wzz*
lagSngo'wy?
lagSngo'wyy*
lagSngo'wj?
lagSngo'wjj*
lagSngo'wn?
lagSngo'wl?
lagSngo'wll*
lagSngo'onset.S:
lagSngo's?
lagSngo'sp?
lagSngo'spr?
lagSngo'st?
lagSngo'str?
lagSngo'sk?
lagSngo'skl?
lagSngo'skr?
lagSngo'sf?
lagSngo'sn?
lagSngo'sl?
lagSngo'sr?
==========
lagSngo'sq?
lagSngo'sh?
lagSngo'sc?
lagSngo'onset.SS:
lagSngo'ss*
=======
lagSngo'sskk*
lagSngo'sshh*
lagSngo'ssll*
lagSngo'onset.H:
lagSngo'h?
lagSngo'hl?
lagSngo'hr?
=======
lagSngo'hp?
lagSngo'ht?
lagSngo'hk?
lagSngo'hf?
lagSngo'hq?
lagSngo'hs?
lagSngo'hc?
lagSngo'hn?
------------
lagSngo'hkk*
lagSngo'hss*
lagSngo'hcc*
lagSngo'hll*
lagSngo'onset.Y:
lagSngo'y?
lagSngo'yl?
lagSngo'yr?
========
lagSngo'yd?
lagSngo'yg?
lagSngo'yv?
lagSngo'yw?
lagSngo'yz?
lagSngo'yj?
lagSngo'yn?
-------------
lagSngo'ygg*
lagSngo'yzz*
lagSngo'yjj*
lagSngo'yll*
lagSngo'onset.C:
lagSngo'c?
======
lagSngo'cp?
lagSngo'ct?
lagSngo'ck?
lagSngo'cf?
lagSngo'cq?
lagSngo'ch?
lagSngo'cn?
lagSngo'cl?
lagSngo'cr?
lagSngo'onset.J:
lagSngo'j?
=======
lagSngo'jd?
lagSngo'jg?
lagSngo'jv?
lagSngo'jw?
lagSngo'jy?
lagSngo'jn?
lagSngo'jl?
lagSngo'jr?
---------
lagSngo'jgg*
lagSngo'jyy*
lagSngo'jll*
lagSngo'onset.CC:
lagSngo'cc*
lagSngo'cckk*
lagSngo'cchh*
lagSngo'ccll*
lagSngo'onset.M:
lagSngo'm?
=======
lagSngo'mb?
lagSngo'md?
lagSngo'mg?
lagSngo'mgg*
lagSngo'mf?
lagSngo'mv?
lagSngo'mq?
lagSngo'mw?
lagSngo'mz?
lagSngo'mss*
lagSngo'mzz*
lagSngo'mh?
lagSngo'my?
lagSngo'mhh*
lagSngo'myy*
lagSngo'mc?
lagSngo'mj?
lagSngo'mcc*
lagSngo'mjj*
lagSngo'mn?
lagSngo'ml?
lagSngo'mll*
lagSngo'mr?
lagSngo'onset.N:
lagSngo'n?
=======
lagSngo'np?
lagSngo'nb?
lagSngo'nt?
lagSngo'nd?
lagSngo'nk?
lagSngo'ng?
lagSngo'nkk*
lagSngo'ngg*
lagSngo'nf?
lagSngo'nv?
lagSngo'nq?
lagSngo'nw?
lagSngo'ns?
lagSngo'nz?
lagSngo'nss*
lagSngo'nzz*
lagSngo'nh?
lagSngo'ny?
lagSngo'nhh*
lagSngo'nyy*
lagSngo'nc?
lagSngo'nj?
lagSngo'ncc*
lagSngo'njj*
lagSngo'nm?
lagSngo'nl?
lagSngo'nll*
lagSngo'nr?
lagSngo'onset.L:
lagSngo'l?
=======
lagSngo'lp?
lagSngo'lb?
lagSngo'lt?
lagSngo'ld?
lagSngo'lk?
lagSngo'lg?
lagSngo'lf?
lagSngo'lv?
lagSngo'lq?
lagSngo'lw?
lagSngo'ls?
lagSngo'lz?
lagSngo'lh?
lagSngo'ly?
lagSngo'lc?
lagSngo'lj?
lagSngo'ln?
lagSngo'lr?
lagSngo'onset.LL:
lagSngo'll?
=======
lagSngo'llkk*
lagSngo'llgg*
lagSngo'llss*
lagSngo'llzz*
lagSngo'llhh*
lagSngo'llyy*
lagSngo'llcc*
lagSngo'lljj*
lagSngo'onset.R:
lagSngo'r?
=======
lagSngo'rp?
lagSngo'rb?
lagSngo'rt?
lagSngo'rd?
lagSngo'rk?
lagSngo'rg?
lagSngo'rkk*
lagSngo'rgg*
lagSngo'rf?
lagSngo'rv?
lagSngo'rq?
lagSngo'rw?
lagSngo'rs?
lagSngo'rz?
lagSngo'rss*
lagSngo'rzz*
lagSngo'rh?
lagSngo'ry?
lagSngo'rhh*
lagSngo'ryy*
lagSngo'rc?
lagSngo'rj?
lagSngo'rcc*
lagSngo'rjj*
lagSngo'rm?
lagSngo'rn?
lagSngo'rl?
lagSngo'rll*
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'syllable'CODA (last-part),
CODA there is only at the end of a yordero.
[hmnSngo.2007-03-11_nikkas]
IF next yordero begins with a non-cluster konsenero, The language tends to put a vowel there, or to put scielence.
[hmnSngo.2007-03-11_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'syllable.START,
SILABEROS AT THE BEGINING OF A WORD:
a
b?
bl?
br?
c?
cru
d?
dr?
f?
fl?
fr?
g?
gl?
gr?
gv?
h?
i
j?
k?
kl?
kn?
kr?
kv?
l?
m?
n?
o
p?
pf?
pl?
pn?
pr?
ps?
r?
s?
sk?
skl?
skr?
sl?
sm?
sn?
sp?
spr?
sr?
st?
str?
sv?
t?
tr?
u
v?
z?
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'syllable.MIDDLE,
NON-START SILABEROS:
a
ba
bci
bdo
be
bi
--bkra
bla
ble
bli
blo
blu
--bma
bo
--bpa
bra
bre
bri
bro
bru
bse
bskri
bsta
bta
bte
bu
ca
cdo
ce
cfla
cfo
ci
cle
co
cpa
cru
cu
da
dbe
de
dfi
dfla
dfo
dga
dhi
di
--dje
dka
dko
dla
dmi
dmo
do
dpa
dpi
dpre
dpu
dra
dre
dri
dro
dta
dte
dtra
du
dve
e
fa
fbru
fca
fe
fto
fi
fko
fkru
fla
fle
fli
flo
flu
fo
fra
fre
fri
fro
fru
fspa
fsto
fstra
fto
fu
ga
gbe
ge
gha
gi
gla
gle
gli
glo
glu
gma
gme
gmo
gna
gni
gno
go
gpa
gpe
gpo
gra
gre
gri
gro
gru
gtu
gu
gvi
ha
he
hi
ho
hto
hu
i
ja
jba
jbi
jbu
jce
je
jfe
jho
ji
jka
jla
jo
jta
ju
ka
kblo
kbo
kbri
kbru
kca
kce
kci
kcka
kda
kdo
kdu
ke
kfa
kflu
kfo
kfro
khe
kho
ki
kje
kka
kko
kkri
kla
kle
kli
klo
klu
kmo
kna
kni
kno
ko
kpa
kpe
kplu
kpre
kpu
kra
kre
kri
kro
kru
ksa
ksci
kse
ksi
ksku
kso
kspe
ksplo
kspre
kste
ksto
kstra
kstre
kstro
kta
ktba
kte
kti
ktme
kto
ktra
ktre
ktri
ktro
ktu
ku
kva
kve
kvi
kvo
kza
kze
kzi
la
lba
lbo
lbra
lbru
lbu
lca
lci
lco
lda
lde
ldfo
ldi
ldo
le
lfa
lfe
lflo
lflu
lfo
lfru
lga
lgi
lgla
lgo
lgra
lha
lhe
lho
li
lje
ljo
lka
lke
lkla
lkle
lkmo
lko
lkre
lku
lkvi
lla
lle
lli
llo
llu
lma
lme
lmo
lmu
lna
lne
lno
lnu
lo
lpa
lpe
lpi
lple
lplo
lpo
lpra
lpre
lpro
lpu
lra
lre
lri
lsa
lse
lsge
lsi
lskri
lso
lspe
lsta
lsto
lstu
lsu
lta
lte
ltho
lti
ltkra
ltle
lto
ltra
ltro
ltru
ltu
lu
lva
lve
lvi
lvo
lvu
lze
lzu
ma
mba
mbe
mbi
mblo
mbo
mbra
mbre
mbro
mbsto
mbu
mdo
mdu
me
mfa
mfi
mflo
mfo
mfre
mfro
mga
mhe
mi
mkri
mla
mle
mlu
mna
mo
mpa
mpe
mpi
mpka
mple
mpli
mplo
mpo
mpre
mpro
mpto
mpu
mra
mro
mse
msi
mso
msta
mstro
mta
mte
mu
mvo
mzo
na
nba
nbe
nbi
nbo
nbri
nbru
nbu
nca
nce
nci
ncne
nco
ncu
nda
nde
ndi
ndkne
ndli
ndo
ndpa
ndre
ndro
ndru
ndspa
ndu
ndvi
ne
nfa
nfe
nfi
nflo
nflu
nfo
nfra
nfre
nfu
nga
ngbo
ngdi
nge
ngfo
ngi
ngla
nglo
nglu
ngo
ngpe
ngra
ngre
ngri
ngro
ngte
ngu
ngva
ngve
ngvo
nha
nho
ni
nja
nje
nji
njo
nka
nkci
nke
nkhi
nki
nkli
nklo
nklu
nkmo
nko
nkto
nktu
nku
nkvi
nla
nle
nli
nlo
nlu
nma
nme
nmo
no
npa
npe
nple
nplu
npo
npre
npu
nra
nre
nri
nru
nsa
nsci
nsdo
nse
nsi
nso
nspa
nspe
nspi
nsra
nsta
nstru
nsu
nsve
nta
ntblo
nte
ntfla
nti
nto
ntpa
ntra
ntre
ntri
ntro
ntu
nu
nva
nve
nvi
nvo
nze
nzi
nzo
o
pa
pbo
pdo
pe
pfe
pfla
pfru
pgu
pha
pi
pla
ple
pli
plo
plu
pne
po
pra
pre
pri
pro
pru
psa
psi
pso
pta
pte
pti
pto
pu
pve
ra
rba
rbe
rbi
rbo
rbra
rbri
rbro
rbsu
rbu
rca
rce
rci
rco
rcto
rda
rde
rdhu
rdi
rdo
re
rfe
rfi
rfko
rflo
rflu
rfo
rfu
rga
rge
rgi
rglo
rgo
ri
rja
rjdo
rje
rjo
rka
rke
rki
rko
rkre
rkti
rku
rla
rli
rlo
rma
rmbi
rmca
rme
rmi
rmo
rmu
rmvo
rna
rnblo
rnbru
rne
rni
rno
rnu
ro
rpa
rpe
rpi
rpla
rpo
rpre
rpri
rpro
rpu
rsa
rse
rsi
rso
rsta
rsto
rsu
rta
rtbi
rte
rtfa
rtga
rti
rtki
rtko
rtme
rtmi
rto
rtpa
rtpro
rtu
rtve
ru
rva
rve
rvi
rvo
rvra
rzo
sa
sba
sce
sci
sco
sde
se
sfa
sfe
sfo
sho
si
ska
ske
ski
skla
sko
skra
skri
sktu
sku
skvi
sla
sli
slo
smi
smo
snu
so
spa
spe
spi
splo
spo
spri
spru
spu
sra
sro
sse
ssi
sta
stbe
ste
stfla
stfo
sti
stka
stku
stkva
stma
stmo
stna
stno
sto
stpa
stra
stre
stri
stro
stru
stu
stvi
stvo
su
sve
svi
sze
ta
tba
tbe
tbru
tbu
tco
te
tfi
tfla
tfo
tga
ti
tka
tko
tku
tla
tle
tli
tmi
tmo
tmu
to
tpa
tra
tre
tri
tro
tru
tu
tva
tve
tvi
tvu
u
va
vbro
vdu
ve
vfi
vi
vki
vku
vma
vmi
vo
vpu
vra
vre
vri
vro
vsa
vsi
vte
vtu
vu
za
ze
zfi
zflo
zfri
zgra
zi
zka
zle
zli
zo
zpa
zri
zsa
ztu
zu
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'TRANSFORMATION,
_CLUSTER:
1) voiced+voiced
2) voiceless+voiceless
3) voided+voiceless ===> voiced+voiced:
- sg==>zg: esgo==>ezgo,
_ASIMILATION:
av fa a ffa
as ga a zga
as wa a zwa
as za a zza
as ma a zma
as ra a zra
----------------------
az fa a zva
az sa a zza | a ssa
-----------------------
ay fa a hfa | a yva
------------------------------
kt ly kly
SWAVA/BREAK if we want SEPARATED:
avfa av_fa
awza aw_za
------------------------
aswa as_wa
asza as_za
asma as_ma
asra as_ra
----------------------
az fa az_fa
az sa az_sa
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'code'node.UNIT,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'diktero,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'letero,
_GENERIC:
* lingo.human.unit.main#cptCore78.1#
_ORDER:
p f q s c t k h m l
b v w z j d g y n r
a e i o u
[2008-06-07]
===
a e i o u p b f v q w s z c j t d k g h y m n l r
[2007-12-11]
_VOWEL:
The vowels that the KL will have, will be 5: i,u,e,o,a. These are the most distiguished vowels of all human-languages and all humans can easily distiguish.
I project this from the example of classic-greek which lost its long/short vowel-attribute when non-natives spoke it.
[hmnSngo.2001-12-09_nikkas]
e-u, i-o have the most opposite attributes. I will use them to express related concepts.
[hmnSngo.2008-06-25_HokoYono]
SPOKEN TO WRITTEN DIKTIM MAPEINO:
The KL will have a one-to-one mapping.
[hmnSngo.2001-12-09_nikkas]
_CONSONANT:
* kommon will not have the "thin/fat" sounds of english or n/ni sound of russian.
IF we want to use the "fat" sounds, we could use its DOUBLE writing:
ss ==> sh, zz ==> fat z, etc.
[hmnSngo.2006-01-04_nikkas]
_DIPHTHONG:
* Kommon will not have "diphthongs" in the sense of esperanto. Two vowels, indiferently if they are spoked quickly or not, will be two vowels.
[hmnSngo.2006-01-04_nikkas]
_SPECIFIC:
A,E,I,O,U, P,B,T,D,K,G,F,V,S,Z,C,J,Q,W,L,R,M,N,H,Y
A(α), E(ε), I(ι), O(ο), U(ου),
Voiceless: Voiced:
Pp(π), Bb(μπ), Stops, Bilabial,
Tt(τ), Dd(ντ), Stops, Alveolar,
Kk(κ), Gg(γκ), Stops, Velar,
Ff(φ), Vv(β), Fricatives, Labiodental,
Ss(σ), Zz(ζ), Fricatives, Alveolar,
Cc(τσ), Jj(τζ), Affricates, Palatal,
Qq(θ), Ww(δ) Fricatives, Dental,
SS(σσ), ZZ(ζζ) Fricatives, Palatal,
Ll(λ), Rr(ρ), Liquids
Mm(μ), Nn(ν), Nasals
Hh(χ), Yy(γ),
? X(κσ): I will not use a letero for (κσ) because then I need and a letero for (πσ).
[hmnSngo.2006-04-21_nikkas]
ks, ps,
* We could NOT use the "q/θ, w/δ" which have and very little use in todays english.
[hmnSngo.2006-11-12_nikkas]
IF we need more yorderos (or after evaluation) we can add to the above sound and the one that are near to some konsoneros, denoting them with DOUBLE leteros: KK, HH, NN, SS, ZZ.
[hmnSngo.2006-11-26_nikkas]
THE RUSSIAN -I SOUND:
* Because these sounds are used in extend in world languages we can use them:
- nn => nna ~=> "nia" as ONE syllable.
- ll => lla ~=> "lia"
- yy => yya ~=> "yia" as one syllable.
- hh => hha ~=> "hia"
[hmnSngo.2007-01-23_nikkas]
- cc => cca ~=> "cia"
- jj => jja ~=> "jia"
- kk => kka ~=> "kia"
_ENGLISH:
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'letter,
* McsEngl.letter.langokamo,
* McsEngl.letterKmo,
ENGLISH-ALPHABET FOR KOMO-WRITING:
P B
F V
Q W
S Z
T D
K G
H Y
------
C J
------
M N
L R
------
A E I O U
-----------
X unused
[hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
#img.letetro.JPG#
Like russian, Capitals and small letters must look the same. Also printed and hand-written letters must look the same.
I think and relations among them must be shown.
[hmnSngo.2007-02-11_nikkas]
2007-03-04:
(a + l 3 2 - 0 0 -) ;;vowel,short,open,front2,rounding-,
(e + l 2 1 - 0 0 -)
(i + l 1 1 - 0 0 -)
(o + l 2 3 + 0 0 -)
(u + l 1 3 + 0 0 -)
(p - 0 - - - s l -) ;;stop(plosive),labial,voiceless
(b - 0 - - - s l +)
(t - 0 - - - s d -) ;;stop,dental
(d - 0 - - - s d +)
(k - 0 - - - s v -) ;;stop,velar
(g - 0 - - - s v +)
(kk - 0 - - - s p -) ;;stop,palatal ==>one syllable
(gg - 0 - - - s p +) ;; ==>one syllable
(f - 0 - - - f b -) ;;fricative,labiodental
(v - 0 - - - f b +)
(q - 0 - - - f d -) ;;(θ)fricative,dental
(w - 0 - - - f d +)
(s - 0 - - - f a -) ;;fricative,alveolar
(z - 0 - - - f a +)
(ss - 0 - - - f a -) ;;fricative,alveolar ==>one syllable
(zz - 0 - - - f a +)
(hh - 0 - - - f v -) ;;fricative,palatal ==>one syllable
(yy - 0 - - - f v +) ;;==>one syllable
(h - 0 - - - f v -) ;;fricative,velar
(y - 0 - - - f v +)
(m - 0 - - - n l +) ;;nasal,labial
(n - 0 - - - n a +) ;;nasal,alveolar
(nn - 0 - - - n p +) ;;nasal,palatal
(l - 0 - - - l a +) ;;liquid,alveolar
(ll - 0 - - - l p +) ;;liquid,palatal ==>one syllable
(r - 0 - - - l a +) ;;liquid,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'phoneme,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'LETEPRO,
* McsEngl.phoneme.langokamo,
* McsEngl.phonemeKmo,
_DESCRIPTION:
hSbc:: KOMO's-PHONEME (lgl-cpt):
Specific:
* VOWEL: the long history of languages being used as common-languages (greek, latin) shows us that komo must have 5 vowels as in esperanto: /a, e, i, o, u/.
* CONSONANT: the attributes of the consonant-phonemes must have, like the vowels, the most OPPOSITE characteristics that most diferent native speakers understand. Greek people for example does not understand the diference of h|h and s|s of esperanto.
* DIPHTHONG: komo has no diphthongs.
* ALLOPHONE: Each individual pronounces with its unique way the sound of a language (phoneme). Komo supports any variation of its sounds, only to the extent that no one of its language-users misunderstands the phoneme being pronounced.
Discussion:
If we want to add palatals, we can use double-letters (digraphs) to denote them. The same can be done with post-alveolars.
Bilabial Labio-
Dental Dental Alveolar Post-
Alveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal /m/ (m) /n/ (n) /?/ (nn)
Plosive voiceless /p/ (p) /t/ (t) /c/ (kk) /k/ (k)
voiced /b/ (b) /d/ (d) /?/ (gg) /g/ (g)
Fricative voiceless /f/ (f) /??/ (q) /s/ (s) /η/ (hh) /x/ (h)
voiced /v/ (v) /π/ (w) /z/ (z) /?/ (yy) /?/ (y)
Affricate voiceless /ts/ (c)
voiced /dz/ (j)
Trill /r/ (r)
Lateral /l/ (l) /?/ (ll)
hSbc:: KOMO's-LETTER (lgl-cpt):
Description:
in our computer era, the existing keyboards must contain the letters.
In the future a new alphabet, simpler and denoting the attributes of the letters can be constructed. For example, a suggesting alphabet is: KomosLetter
The above alphabet, denotes the voiceless ("look" right) and the voiced ("look" left) phonemes and there is no difference between capitals and small letters. If ones knows the first, knows and the other letter.
Discussion:
many people can work on the new alphabet. Then we can choose the best.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.14.5.3p3]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'phoneme-order,
hSbc:: KOMO's-LOGAL-UNIT-ORDER (lgl-cpt):
Description:
My order is based on the IPA chart and my goal to use it for the creation of komo-numerals.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
p f q t s c k h m r
b v w d z j g y n l
a e i o u
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.14.5.3p3]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'ResourceInfHmnn,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#decoding,
* file:///D:/FILE1a/AAjWORKING/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'publication,
_DESCRIPTION:
Komo must be published with an integrated-WorldView#ql:worldview.integrated@cptCore1099.18#. Then it can be used as a "unit of communication".
[hmnSngo.2009-03-15]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'viewBraino,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'relation,
YUORDERO_RULE:
- atr-o = the deanelo
- atr-eano = the deano
- atr-a = the deanero
[hmnSngo.2008-06-21_HokoYono]
DEANERO:
- karo ofe homo = homos kara [2008-06-16]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'viewSemasio,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'smsAttribute,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'atribemo,
1) we talk about the entepo.
The atribepos of an ENTEPO are expressed with one yuordero (mono|multi stressed):
a) one-yuordero: homo-tio, homo-kio, homo-alto
b) two-yuordero: homo alta,
[hmnSngo.2008-06-14_HokoYono]
2) we talk about the ATRIBEPO of an entepo:
always 2 yuorderos.
- homos kara
[hmnSngo.2008-06-14_HokoYono]
3) yuorderos related with previous end in -a:
[hmnSngo.2008-06-14_HokoYono]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'viewLingo,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'lingo,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'mapeelo,
_DESCRIPTION:
Langokamo-lingo is ANY entity of a viewLingo of it.
[hmnSngo.2014-01-04]
name::
* McsEngl.lagKmo'lingo.specific,
_SPECIFIC:
* name#ql:lngkmo'lingo.name#
* onom-structure#ql:lngkmo'naun_structure@cptCore#
* sentence#ql:lngkmo'sentence@cptCore#
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'doing,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'translating,
_DESCRIPTION:
When komo will be ready for international adoption, computers will have the ability to translate between komo and any other human-language.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.19.1p1]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'EVOLUTING,
* McsEngl.lagKmo'evoluting,
{time.2008-07-31}:
I coin the term "semiyuordero" instead for "adero".
{time.2008-02-29}:
I created the the html-komo-kognespo.
===
I created this file, which presents the "komo-language" as an html--sensorial-b-concept.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.15p3]
{time.2001-12-09}: GENESIS:
The KL will born evolutionarilly, not from the nowhere as eg the 'esperanto'.
An example in this process is the creation of new logims#ql:logim_cpt*# that consistenly follow the language rules.
The simplification of vowels will work on this end also.
etc.
[hmnSngo.2001-12-09_nikkas]
I created the concept of "common language" in my notes.
{time.1988}:
ΤΗΝ ΙΔΙΑ ΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΑ ΟΤΑΝ ΔΟΥΜΕ ΠΩΣ ΤΗΝ ΕΚΦΡΑΖΟΥΝ ΟΙ ΔΙΑΦΟΡΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ, ΤΟΤΕ ΘΑ ΒΡΟΥΜΕ ΠΩΣ ΠΡΕΠΕΙ ΝΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ Η ΔΙΕΘΝΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ ΠΟΥ ΘΑ ΥΠΕΡΒΕΙ ΤΙΣ ΑΤΕΛΕΙΕΣ ΤΩΝ ΜΟΝΑΔΙΚΩΝ ΣΗΜΕΡΙΝΩΝ ΓΛΩΣΣΩΝ.
[hmnSngo.1988.03_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.lagSngo'TODO,
PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGE:
LangoKamo to become AND a programming-language.
[hmnSngo.2014-09-20]
name::
* McsEngl.lagKmo.SPOKEN,
_DESCRIPTION:
Komo will have one to one mapping between written to spoken AND the opposite.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.9.1p2]
name::
* McsEngl.lagKmo.WRITTEN,
_DESCRIPTION:
Komo will have one to one mapping between written to spoken AND the opposite.
[file:///D:/File1a/SBC-2010-08-23/hSbc/lango_ho_kml.html#h0.9.1p2]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.GENERIC,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.abstract,
_SPECIFIC:
* lagHmn.artificial#cptCore93.30#
* lagHmn.indigenous
* lagHmn.international
* lagHmn.italic#cptCore93.29#
* lagHmn.native
* lagHmn.natural
* lagHmn.pidgin_creole
* lagHmn.scientific
* lagHmn.sign#cptCore986#,
===
* lagHmn.ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΗ & ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΑ
* lagHmn.ΙΝΔΟΕΥΡΩΠΑΙΚΗ ΟΙΚΟΓΕΝΕΙΑ#cptCore93.27#
* lagHmn.ΚΛΙΤΗ & ΑΚΛΙΤΗ ΓΛΩΣΑ
* lagHmn.ΚΟΥΦΩΝ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ
* lagHmn.ΛΑΤΙΝΟΓΕΝΕΙΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ#cptCore93.29#
* lagHmn.ΖΩΝΤΑΝΗ & ΝΕΚΡΗ ΓΛΩΣΑ
* lagHmn.ΣΗΜΙΤΙΚΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ#cptCore970#
* lagHmn.ΤΥΦΛΩΝ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.AFROASIATIC,
* McsEngl.afroasiatic-language,
Afroasiatic (alternatively Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,[1] is a large language family, including about 375 living languages.[3]
Afroasiatic languages are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel. More than 300 million people speak an Afroasiatic language.[1]
The most widely spoken Afroasiatic language is Arabic (including all its colloquial varieties), with 230 million native speakers, spoken mostly in the Middle East and North Africa.[4] Berber languages are spoken in Morocco, Algeria, Libya and across the rest of North Africa and the Sahara Desert by about 25 to 35 million people. Other widely spoken Afroasiatic languages are Amharic, the national language of Ethiopia, with 18 million native speakers; Somali, spoken by around 19 million people in Greater Somalia; and Hausa, the dominant language of northern Nigeria and southern Niger, spoken by 18.5 million people and used as a lingua franca in large parts of the Sahel,[5] with some 25 million speakers in total.[6]
In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, Akkadian, and Biblical Hebrew.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages]
_ATTRIBUTE:
Geographic distribution: Horn of Africa, North Africa, Sahel, and Middle East[1]
Linguistic classification: One of the world's major language families
Proto-language: Proto-Afroasiatic
Subdivisions: Semitic
Berber
Cushitic
Chadic
Egyptian (extinct)
Omotic (inclusion debated)[2]
ISO 639-2 and 639-5: afa
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ANALYTIC,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.37,
* McsEngl.conceptCore647,
* McsEngl.analytic-language@cptCore647,
* McsEngl.analytic'language@cptCore647,
* McsEngl.language.analytic@cptCore647,
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.γλώσσα.αναλυτική@cptCore647,
_DESCRIPTION:
An analytic language is any language where syntax and meaning are shaped more by use of particles and word order than by inflection. The opposite of an analytic language is a inflecting language.
A related, often-confused concept is that of isolating language. An isolating language is any language where the vast majority of morphemes are free morphemes and are considered to be full-fledged "words". The degree of isolation is defined by the morphemes-per-word ratio. By contrast, in a synthetic language, words are composed of agglutinated or fused morphemes that denote their syntactic meanings.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language]
===
An analytic language is a language that conveys grammatical relationships syntactically — that is, via the use of unbound morphemes, which are separate words, rather than via bound morphemes, which are inflectional prefixes, suffixes or infixes. If a language is isolating, with only a single morpheme per word, then by necessity it must convey grammatical relationships analytically.
However, the reverse is not always true: for example, Mandarin Chinese can be argued[4] to have many compound words, giving it a moderately high ratio of morphemes per word, yet since it does not use inflections to convey grammatical relationships it is an analytic language.
It is also possible that a language may have virtually no inflectional morphology but have a larger number of derivational affixes. For example, Indonesian has only two inflectional affixes but about 25 derivational morphemes. With only two inflectional affixes, Indonesian can be considered mostly analytic.
The term "analytic" is commonly used in a relative rather than an absolute sense. For example, English is less inflectional, and thus more nearly analytic, than most Indo-European languages. (For example, it uses "would go" whereas in Romance languages this would be expressed as a single inflected word; and it uses prepositions where most Slavic languages use declensional inflections). But English is also not totally analytic, because it does use inflections (for example, choose / chose / chosen / choosing); Mandarin Chinese has, e.g., "I go to store today.", "I go to store tomorrow.", "I go to store yesterday."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language#Analytic_languages] {2012-03-13}
ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΟΠΟΥ ΟΙ ΠΕΡΙΣΣΟΤΕΡΕΣ ΣΥΝΤΑΧΤΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΕΣ ΕΚΦΡΑΖΟΝΤΑΙ
- ΜΕ ΤΗ ΣΕΙΡΑ ΤΩΝ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ ΚΑΙ
- ΜΕ ΑΝΕΞΑΡΤΗΤΕΣ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ, ΟΝΟΜΑΖΟΝΤΑΙ "ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΕΣ" ΛΕΞΕΙΣ...
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 79#cptResource191#]
ΣΤΗΝ ΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΑ ΜΟΝΟ ΣΕ ΣΠΑΝΙΕΣ ΠΕΡΙΠΤΩΣΕΙΣ ΕΧΟΥΜΕ ΕΞΑΙΡΕΤΙΚΑ ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΕΣ ή ΕΞΑΙΡΕΤΙΚΑ ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ, ΣΥΝΗΘΩΣ ΥΠΑΡΧΟΥΝ ΔΙΑΒΑΘΜΙΣΕΙΣ ΑΝΑΜΕΣΑ ΣΤΑ ΔΥΟ ΑΚΡΑ.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 80#cptResource191#]
_CREATED: {2012-08-24} {2007-08-20}
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ARTIFICIAL,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.30,
* McsEngl.conceptCore553,
* McsEngl.artificial-language@cptCore553,
* McsEngl.constructed-language@cptCore553,
* McsEngl.lngArt@cptCore553, {2012-08-20}
_DESCRIPTION:
A constructed or artificial language — known colloquially/informally as a conlang — is a language whose phonology, grammar, and/or vocabulary have been devised by an individual or group, instead of having evolved naturally. There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language: to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code); to bring fiction or an associated constructed world to life; linguistic experimentation; celebration of one's aesthetic tastes in language; and language games.
The synonym planned language is sometimes used to refer to international auxiliary languages, and by those who may disagree with the more common term "artificial". For example, few speakers of the auxiliary language Interlingua consider it artificial, since it has no invented content, unlike Esperanto and to some extent Ido. Some speakers of Esperanto and Ido also avoid the term "artificial language" because they deny that there is something "unnatural" about the use of their language in human communication.
Calling languages "planned" also helps to resolve a difficulty with the term "constructed language": it is often used loosely to include a few auxiliary languages that are not seen as constructed. Interlingua, for example, has a naturally occurring vocabulary and grammar that have been catalogued and standardized by a linguistic research body. While standardization might be considered planning of a sort, it is difficult to characterize as constructed a language whose content has developed naturally.
Similarly, Latino sine Flexione (LsF) is a simplification of Latin from which the flexions (inflections) have been removed. As with Interlingua, it is difficult to explain how LsF might be viewed as constructed. Both LsF and Interlingua are considered major auxiliary languages, although only Interlingua is widely spoken today.
Outside the Esperanto community, the term language planning refers to prescriptive measures taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, even "natural languages" may be artificial in some respects. In the case of prescriptive grammars, where wholly artificial rules exist, the line is difficult to draw. For example, the rule in the English language that prohibits a split infinitive is artificial. "Glossopoeia," coined by J. R. R. Tolkien, is also used to refer to language construction.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language]
_SPECIFIC:
* Langoko#cptCore683#
===
Auxiliary languages
Spoken (major)
Language Name Year of first publication Creator's Name Comments
Volapu"k 1879-1880 Johann Martin Schleyer
Esperanto 1887 L. L. Zamenhof Speakers variously placed between several thousand and 2 million
Idiom Neutral 1902 Waldemar Rosenberger Based on Volapu"k, abandoned in 1908
Latino sine flexione 1903 Giuseppe Peano Replaced Idiom Neutral in 1908
Ido 1907 A group of reformist Esperanto speakers
Occidental 1922 Edgar de Wahl (Interlingue)
Novial 1928 Otto Jespersen
Glosa 1943 Lancelot Hogben, et al. Originally called Interglossa
Interlingua 1951 International Auxiliary Language Association
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_constructed_languages]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ARTIFICAL.NO (natural),
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.76,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.natural,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.artificialNo,
* McsEngl.natural-human-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
from languages that have evolved through usage.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.AUSTRONESIAN,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.71,
* McsEngl.austronesian-languages@cptCore93.71, {2012-10-25}
* McsEngl.lagHmn.austronesian@cptCore93.71, {2012-10-25}
_DESCRIPTION:
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the best-established ancient language families. Otto Dempwolff, a German scholar, was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method. Another German scholar, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch[2] which comes from Latin auster "south wind" plus Greek nκsos "island". The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots. The family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands: only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Many Austronesian languages have very few speakers, but the major Austronesian languages are spoken by tens of millions of people and one Austronesian language, Malay, is spoken by 180 million people, making it the 8th most spoken language in the world. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official of their respective countries (see the list of Austronesian languages).
Different sources count languages differently, but Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language families in the world, each having roughly one-fifth of the total languages counted in the world. The geographical span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family before the spread of Indo-European in the colonial period, ranging from Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa to Easter Island in the eastern Pacific. Hawaiian, Rapanui, and Malagasy (spoken on Madagascar) are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family.
According to Robert Blust (1999), Austronesian is divided in several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively on Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan (including its offshore Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_languages] {2012-10-25}
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ASIAN.EAST,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.east-asian,
* McsEngl.east-asian-languages,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.ΑΝΑΤΟΛΙΚΕΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ,
_DESCRIPTION:
East Asian languages describe two notional groupings of languages in East and Southeast Asia:
* Languages which have been greatly influenced by Classical Chinese and the Chinese writing system, in particular Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (also known as CJKV).
* The larger grouping of languages includes the CJKV area as well as other languages in several language groups of Southeast Asia including Sino-Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Mon–Khmer, and Hmong–Mien, as well as a small number of Austronesian languages. In the same geographic area but outside of this linguistic grouping are those languages to the east and south (most Austronesian languages), west (the South Asian languages, including the Indo-Iranian, Munda, and Dravidian language families), and north (the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families).
Although most of these languages are generally believed to be genetically unrelated, they share many areal features due to geographic proximity. This is also known as the East Asian sprachbund.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_languages]
ΑΝΑΤΟΛΙΚΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ονομάζονται νεκρές και ζωντανές γλώσσες που μιλούνται στην ανατολη.
1) ΑΡΙΕΣ:
ΠΕΡΣΙΚΗ
ΑΡΜΕΝΙΚΗ
ΣΑΝΣΚΡΙΤΙΚΗ
κα ινδικές
2) ΧΑΜΗΤΙΚΕΣ:
ΒΕΡΒΕΡΩΝ Β. ΑΦΡΙΚΗΣ
3) ΣΗΜΙΤΙΚΕΣ:
ΕΒΡΑΪΚΗ
ΑΡΑΜΑΪΚΗ
ΧΑΛΔΑΪΚΗ
ΣΥΡΙΑΚΗ
ΑΡΑΒΙΚΗ
4) ΔΡΑΒΙΔΙΚΕΣ:
5) ΤΟΥΡΑΝΙΚΕΣ:
μιλούνται στο Τουρκεστάν και στη Β. Ασία
6) ΜΟΓΓΟΛΙΚΕΣ:
ΚΙΝΕΖΙΚΗ
ΚΟΡΕΑΤΙΚΗ
ΜΑΝΤΖΟΥΡΙΚΗ
7) ΠΟΛΥΝΗΣΙΑΚΕΣ:
ΧΑΒΑΗΣ
ΣΑΜΟΑΣ
κλπ
8) ΜΑΛΑΪΚΕΣ:
ΜΑΛΑΙΣΙΑΣ
ΜΑΔΑΓΑΣΚΑΡΗΣ
ΙΝΔΟΝΗΣΙΑΣ
9) ΜΙΚΤΕΣ:
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΑΙΓΥΠΤΙΑΚΗ
ΙΑΠΩΝΙΚΗ
ΤΟΥΡΚΙΚΗ
10) ΣΟΥΜΕΡΙΩΝ
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 493#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.BALTIC,
* McsEngl.baltic-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
The Baltic languages are a group of related languages belonging to the Indo-European language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe.
The name “Balts,” deriving from the Baltic Sea, Mare Balticum, is a neologism, used since 1845 as a general name for the people speaking “Baltic” languages — Old Prussian, Lithuanian, Lettish, Curonian, Semigallian, and Selian.
History
The Eastern Baltic languages split from Western Baltic between 400 and 600. The differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian -- the only living languages -- started after 800, with a long period of being one language but different dialects. At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th century or 15th century, and perhaps as late as the 17th century.
Old Prussian disappeared around 1700 due to German colonization of East Prussia. Curonian, Semigallian, and Selian disappeared between 1400 and 1600. These were either Lettonized or Lithuanized. Other eastern Baltic languages or dialects became extinct in the protohistoric or early historic period and are not preserved in written sources. Goljad (Galindian, Eastern), for instance, was totally surrounded by Slavic tribes and was assimilated.
[http://wiki.verbix.com/Languages/Baltic]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.DIALECT,
* McsEngl.conceptCore102,
* McsEngl.dialect,
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΔΙΑΛΕΚΤΟΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ,
* McsElln.ΔΙΑΛΕΧΤΟΣ,
ΔΙΑΛΕΚΤΟΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ είναι 'διαφοροποίηση' ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ#cptCore93.a#.
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
It is usual to distinguish between dialect and accent. Both terms are used to identify different varieties of a particular language, but the word 'accent' is used for varieties which differ from each other only in matters of pronunciation while 'dialect' also covers differences in such things as vocabulary and grammar.
[Peter Roach Encyc 2000]
H διάλεχτος ΔΕΝ είναι γλώσα, γιατί δεν έχει δικό της σύστημα, απλώς είναι διαφοροποιήσεις σε σημεία μιας γλώσας.
It has been said, in regard to the difference between a language and a dialect, that a language is a dialect with an army. This idea implies that, while almost all humans speak (or sign), recognizing their mode of communication as language confers prestige, while calling it a dialect suggests that their society is unimportant.
[Amy Rosenberg Thesis University Kansas www.signwriting.org/forums/research/ 0]
Σε γλωσικούς χώρους με πολύ μεγάλη ή με πολιτική και πολιτιστική διαφοροποίηση, ΔΕΝ είναι εύκολο μια διάλεχτος να θεωρηθεί "καλύτερη" ή έστω πιο χρήσιμη από τις άλλες και να επικρατήσει. Αυτή ήταν η κατάσταση στην αρχαία Ελλάδα μέχρι περίπου τον 4 πχ αιώνα. Συμβαίνει σήμερα στις διάφορες περιοχές των ΗΠΑ και ακόμη περισότερο στην ευρύτερη περιοχή τών αγγλικών: ΗΠΑ, Καναδάς, Αγγλία, Σκωτία, Νότια Αφρική, Αυστραλία, Ν. Ζηλανδία, Ινδία, Φιλιπίνες.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 127#cptResource191#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.FAMILY-TREE,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.24,
* McsEngl.language-family@cptCore93.24, {2012-08-21}
_GENERIC:
* entity.whole.system.sysTree.family_tree#cptCore348.42#
_DESCRIPTION:
A language family is group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term 'family' comes from the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree or in a subsequent modification to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy. All the apparently biological terms are used only in the metaphoric sense: No actual biology relationship is implied by the metaphor.
As of early 2009, SIL Ethnologue catalogued 6,909 living human languages.[1] A "living language" is simply one that is in wide use as a primary form of communication by a specific group of living people. The exact number of known living languages will vary from 5,000 to 10,000, depending generally on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular on how one classifies dialects. There are also many dead and extinct languages.
Membership of languages in the same language family is established by comparative linguistics. Daughter languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship; the former term is more current in modern times, but the latter is equally as traditional.[2] The evidence of linguistic relationship is observable shared characteristics that are not attributed to borrowing. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing (convergence). Membership in a branch or group within a language family is established by shared innovations; that is, common features of those languages that are not attested in the common ancestor of the entire family. For example, what makes Germanic languages "Germanic" is that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in Proto-Indo-European. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that was the source of all Germanic languages.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.FORMAL,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.14,
* McsEngl.human-formal-language@cptCore93.14, {2008-01-02}
* McsEngl.formal-language-human@cptCore93.14,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.FORMAL-LANGUAGE,
_DEFINITION:
A language would be considered formal if
a) it has a well-defined syntax
b) with a semantics that gives that syntax mathematical meaning in terms of conclusions that may be drawn and manipulations that may be performed.
[Tim Lethbridge's PhD Thesis 1994.11]
===
In mathematics, logic, and computer science, a formal language is a language that is defined by precise mathematical or machine processable formulas. Like languages in linguistics, formal languages generally have two aspects:
* the syntax of a language is what the language looks like (more formally: the set of possible expressions that are valid utterances in the language)
* the semantics of a language are what the utterances of the language mean (which is formalized in various ways, depending on the type of language in question)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.GERMANIC,
* McsEngl.germanic-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
Germanic Languages, subfamily of the Indo-European languages. Germanic languages are spoken by more than 480 million people in northern and western Europe, North America, South Africa, and Australia. In their structure and evolution they fall into three branches:
1. East Germanic (extinct): the Gothic language and some other extinct languages. Substantial information survives only for Gothic.
2. North Germanic or Scandinavian: western group - the Icelandic language, the Norwegian language, and Faroese; eastern group - the Danish language and the Swedish language.
3. West Germanic:
Anglo-Frisian group - the English language and the Frisian language;
Netherlandic-German group - Netherlandic, or Dutch-Flemish and the Low German dialects, Afrikaans, the German language or High German, and the Yiddish language.
[http://wiki.verbix.com/Languages/Germanic]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.HEAD-FIRST,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.61,
* McsEngl.head-first-language@cptCore93.61, {2012-09-04}
_DESCRIPTION:
It is important to know that phrases that add information to a main phrase are always placed before the main phrase in Japanese. This is a consistent rule with no exception. Linguists call it head-last. English is a head-first language, where a main phrase is placed before additional phrases, but it is not so consistent as Japanese. That-clauses and preposition phrases are good examples of the head-first rule of English; both a dog that is white and a dog with white hair are dogs. But adjectives break the rule because they are placed before a main phrase. A white dog is a kind of dog, not a kind of whiteness.
[http://www.sf.airnet.ne.jp/ts/japanese/counter.html#head-last]
===
The 'entity' is placed before the 'attribute'.
[hmnSngo.2012-09-04]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.HEAD-LAST,
* McsEngl.head-last-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
It is important to know that phrases that add information to a main phrase are always placed before the main phrase in Japanese. This is a consistent rule with no exception. Linguists call it head-last.
[http://www.sf.airnet.ne.jp/ts/japanese/counter.html#head-last]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.INDO-EUROPEAN,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.27,
* McsEngl.conceptCore634,
* McsEngl.indoeuropean-languages@cptCore93.27, {2012-08-24}
* McsEngl.Indo-European-languages,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.indo-european-family@cptCore93.27, {2012-08-24}
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΙΝΔΟΕΥΡΩΠΑΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΙΚΗ-ΟΙΚΟΓΕΝΕΙΑ@cptCore634, {2012-08-20}
_DESCRIPTION:
ΙΝΔΟΕΥΡΩΠΑΙΚΗ ΟΙΚΟΓΕΝΕΙΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-indo-european-language,
Οι ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες προήλθαν από νομάδες της Ρωσίας
Η φυλή των Γιαμνάγια έφερε στην Ευρώπη πριν από 4.500 έτη τη μητέρα των ινδοευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών
ΔΗΜΟΣΙΕΥΣΗ: 13/02/2015 14:44
Μια νομαδική φυλή βοσκών από την περιοχή της σημερινής Ρωσίας έφτασε στην Ευρώπη πριν από 4.500 χρόνια φέρνοντας μαζί της την εφεύρεση του τροχού, καθώς και τη μητέρα των ινδοευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών που χρησιμοποιούνται στην ήπειρο σήμερα.
Γενετικές αναλύσεις σε προϊστορικούς σκελετούς
Το συμπέρασμα προκύπτει από γενετικές αναλύσεις σε δεκάδες προϊστορικούς σκελετούς από όλη την Ευρώπη που χρονολογούνται στα 3 με 8 χιλιάδες χρόνια.
Τα ευρήματα της μελέτης της Ιατρικής Σχολής του Χάρβαρντ, διαθέσιμα στην υπηρεσία προδημοσίευσης bioRxiv, δείχνουν έτσι να επιβεβαιώνουν τις υποψίες αρχαιολόγων και γλωσσολόγων για το ρόλο της φυλής των Γιαμνάγια (Yamnaya) ή Γιάμνα (Yamna) στη γέννηση των ευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών.
Οι πρώτοι σύγχρονοι άνθρωποι στην Ευρώπη ήταν κυνηγοί-τροφοσυλλέκτες που έφτασαν πριν από 45.000 χρόνια, και σταδιακά αντικατέστησαν τους πληθυσμούς Νεάντερταλ που κατοικούσαν στην ήπειρο για εκατοντάδες χιλιάδες χρόνια.
Η μεγάλη δημογραφική αλλαγή ήρθε πριν από περίπου 8.000 χρόνια, όταν μετανάστες από τη Μέση Ανατολή έφεραν την τεχνολογία της γεωργίας. Σε ορισμένες περιοχές αντικατέστησαν τους πληθυσμούς κυνηγών-τροφοσυλλεκτών, σε άλλες οι δύο ομάδες αναμείχθηκαν.
Μεταγενέστερο κύμα μετανάστευσης πριν από 4.500 χρόνια
Η νέα μελέτη αποκαλύπτει ότι υπήρξε και ένα μεταγενέστερο κύμα μετανάστευσης στα ανατολικά, πριν από περίπου 4.500 χρόνια. Το γενετικό υλικό από σκελετούς των Γιαμνάγια, ηλικίας 5.000 ετών, βρέθηκε να ταιριάζει με το DNA Ευρωπαίων που έζησαν πριν από 4.500 χρόνια.
Γονίδια των Γιαμνάγια εντοπίζονται σήμερα σε όλους τους Ευρωπαίους, ειδικά στα βόρεια της ηπείρου, επισημαίνουν οι ερευνητές. Πιστεύουν μάλιστα ότι οι νομάδες από τη Ρωσία αντικατέστησαν πλήρως τους υπάρχοντες πληθυσμούς σε περιοχές όπως η Γερμανία.
Η «υπόθεση της στέπας»
Οι γενετικές αναλύσεις δεν μπορούν φυσικά να αποκαλύψουν τι γλώσσα μιλούσαν αυτοί οι μετανάστες, ωστόσο οι ερευνητές θεωρούν πως τα ευρήματα στηρίζουν τη λεγόμενη «υπόθεση της στέπας», σύμφωνα με την οποία ο πρόγονος των ινδοευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών μεταφέρθηκε στην Ευρώπη από νομάδες της Κασπίας και της Μαύρης Θάλασσας τα τελευταία 6.000 χρόνια, όταν η ανακάλυψη του τροχού και η εξημέρωση του αλόγου επέτρεψαν τις μετακινήσεις σε μεγάλες αποστάσεις.
Σύμφωνα με την ερευνητική ομάδα, οι Γιαμνάγια εισήγαγαν στην ήπειρο τουλάχιστον ένα μέρος της οικογένειας των ινδοευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών, η οποία περιλαμβάνει μεταξύ άλλων τα γερμανικά, τα σλαβικά και τα ελληνικά.
Παραμένει ωστόσο ασαφές αν τα ευρήματα της μελέτης είναι αρκετά για να διαψεύσουν μια δεύτερη διαδεδομένη θεωρία, σύμφωνα με την οποία οι ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες διαδόθηκαν στη Ευρώπη από γεωργούς της Μέσης Ανατολής πριν από 8.500 χρόνια.
Οι επιφυλάξεις
Σχολιάζοντας τη μελέτη στο δικτυακό τόπο της επιθεώρησης Nature, ανεξάρτητοι ερευνητές χαρακτήρισαν πειστική τη σύνδεση ανάμεσα στους Γιαμνάγια και τους σύγχρονους Ευρωπαίους.
Εξέφρασαν όμως επιφυλάξεις για το εάν αυτοί οι νομάδες μιλούσαν μια γλώσσα από την οποία κατάγονται όλες οι σημερινές ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες. Όπως είπαν, οι γλώσσες της νότιας Ευρώπης, όπως τα αρχαία ελληνικά, δεν αποκλείεται να είχαν διαφορετική προέλευση.
[http://www.tovima.gr/science/technology-planet/article/?aid=676851]
Virus-tracking technique pinpoints origin of languages
Posted on August 24, 2012 - 04:08 by Emma Woollacott
Using methods originally developed to track the spread of viruses, researchers say they've found evidence that Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia - present-day Turkey - 8,000 to 9,500 years ago.
The Indo-European languages, of which there are several hundred, include English, Spanish, French, German, Hindi and Bengali.
The conventional 'steppe hypothesis' suggests that they originated north of the Capsian Sea, and started spreading into Europe and the Near East thanks to Kurgan semi-nomadic pastoralists around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago.
But the 'Anatolian hypothesis' argues that the languages spread with the expansion of agriculture from Anatolia beginning 8,000 to 9,000 years ago.
[http://www.tgdaily.com/general-sciences-features/65662-virus-tracking-technique-pinpoints-origin-of-languages]
Linguistic archeology
The tree of knowledge
Aug 25th 2012, 13:46 by J.P.
TREES are a gift to students of the past. An entire discipline, known as dendrochronology, is devoted to using tree rings to date ancient wooden objects and buildings. Linguistic archaeologists, it seems, share these arboreal inclinations, though the trees they examine are of an altogether different species.
In 2003 a team led by Quentin Atkinson, of the University of Auckland, in New Zealand, employed a computer to generate a genealogical tree of Indo-European languages. Their model put the birth of the family, which includes languages as seemingly diverse as Icelandic and Iranian, between 9,800 and 7,800 years ago. This was consistent with the idea that it stemmed from Anatolia, in modern-day Turkey, whence it spread with the expansion of farming. A rival proposal, that their origin amid the semi-nomadic, pastoralist tribes in the steppes north of the Caspian Sea, supposes their progenitor to be several thousand years younger.
Some proponents of the steppe hypothesis remained unconvinced. They pointed out that the computer-generated phylogeny, to give the tree its technical name, showed only how Indo-European tongues evolved over time. It said nothing about how they spread across space. As Dr Atkinson and his colleagues report in Science, this issue has now been addressed. The results lend further credence to the Anatolian theory.
Linguistic archaeologists have even less to go on than their peers in other past-oriented disciplines, who can at least pore over the odd trinket for clues to mankind's prehistoric ways. The earliest written records date back less than 6,000 years, long after "proto-Indo-European" is believed to have emerged. Researchers do, however, enjoy an abundance of data about contemporary languages. Because tongues change less chaotically than other aspects of culture, this is more useful to someone studying linguistic prehistory than it might appear.
Dr Atkinson began by collecting basic vocabulary terms—words for body parts, kinship, simple verbs and the like—for 83 modern languages as well as 20 ancient ones for which records are available. For each family, Dr Atkinson and his team identified sets of cognates. These are etymologically related words that pop up in different languages. One set, for example, contains words like “mother”, “Mutter” and “mere”. Another includes “milk” and “Milch”, but not “lait”. (Here is the whole list; known borrowings, such as "mountain" and "montagne" were excluded, as they do not stem from a common ancestor.) Then, for each language in their sample, they added information about where it is spoken—or is thought to have been, based on where ancient texts were discovered—and in what period. The result is a multidimensional Venn diagram that records the overlaps between languages.
Each of the 103 languages, with its cognate sets, temporal and geographical range, constituted one leaf of the Indo-European family tree. The tricky part was filling in the branches. Here, Dr Atkinson resorted to rolling of the dice, using a method called Markov-chain Monte Carlo. This generates a random set of boughs (each assigned its own randomly generated cognate sets, time and place) that fits the known foliage. Next, an algorithm calculates how likely it is that this tree would sprout the modern leaves given the way languages evolve and travel. For instance, it is assumed that a cognate can only be gained once, by an ancestral language, but lost many times, whenever it disappears from any of the descendants. And languages, or at least their speakers, might migrate in any direction, though less readily across water or mountain ranges, say, than through plains and valleys.
The first rolls of the dice are unlikely to offer a good fit. They might, for example, have Icelandic and Iranian as siblings, as opposed to distant cousins. So the algorithm tweaks the tree, again at random, and decides whether the new branches are any better. If so, they are kept; if not, the algorithm reverts to the previous tree in the series. Repeat this process long enough, typically millions of times, and a point is reached where no further improvement is possible. Let a forest of such equally likely trees grow, then look at the number of those with roots in Anatolia and the steppes. The proportions reflect the relative likelihood that either of the hypothesis is correct.
Dr Atkinson's findings leave much less room for doubt. The Anatolia-rooted trees are orders of magnitude more numerous than those growing out of the steppes (see picture; an animated version of Indo-European peregrinations is available here). The researchers verified the method's validity by getting it to retrace the evolution of modern romance languages from its Roman roots. The model returned an accurate reconstruction, closely in keeping with historical records. In linguistics, then, cultivating trees pays. So does a bit of gambling.
(Picture credit: Quentin Atkinson)
[http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2012/08/linguistic-archeology]
_SPECIFIC:
ΠΡΩΤΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ
ΜΕΣΑΙΩΝΙΚΑ ΚΑΙ ΝΕΑ ΕΛΛΝΙΚΑ
ΠΡΩΤΟΙΤΑΛΙΚΗ
ΛΑΤΙΝΙΚΗ
ΙΤΑΛΙΚΑ
ΙΣΠΑΝΙΚΑ
LADINO
ΠΟΡΤΟΓΑΛΙΚΑ
ΚΑΤΑΛΑΝΙΚΑ
ΓΑΛΛΙΚΑ
ΡΟΥΜΑΝΙΚΑ
ΒΛΑΧΙΚΑ
ΟΣΚΙΚΗ/ΟΥΜΒΡΙΚΗ
ΚΕΛΤΙΚΗ
ΙΡΛΑΝΔΙΚΑ
ΣΚΩΤΙΚΑ
ΟΥΑΛΛΙΚΑ
ΓΑΛΑΤΙΚΗ
ΠΡΩΤΟΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗ/ΤΕΥΤΟΝΙΚΗ
ΒΟΡΕΙΕΣ
ΣΟΥΗΔΙΚΑ
ΔΑΝΕΖΙΚΑ
ΝΟΡΒΗΓΙΚΑ
ΙΣΛΑΝΔΙΚΑ
ΔΥΤΙΚΕΣ
ΝΟΤΙΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΑ/HOCHDEUTSCH
JIDDISCH
ΒΟΡΕΙΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΑ
ΦΛΑΜΑΝΔΙΚΑ, ΟΛΑΝΔΙΑΚΑ, AFRIKAANS
ΑΓΓΛΙΚΑ
ΑΝΑΤΟΛΙΚΕΣ
ΓΟΤΘΙΚΗ
ΒΑΛΤΟΣΛΑΒΙΚΗ
ΒΑΛΤΙΚΕΣ
ΛΕΤΟΝΙΚΑ
ΛΙΘΟΥΑΝΙΚΑ
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΠΡΩΣΙΚΗ
ΣΛΑΒΙΚΕΣ
ΑΝΑΤΟΛΙΚΕΣ
ΡΩΣΙΚΑ
ΛΕΥΚΟΡΩΣΙΚΑ
ΟΥΚΡΑΝΙΚΑ
ΔΥΤΙΚΕΣ
ΠΟΛΩΝΙΚΑ
ΤΣΕΧΙΚΑ, ΣΛΟΒΑΚΙΚΑ
ΝΟΤΙΕΣ
ΣΛΟΒΕΝΙΚΑ
ΣΕΡΒΟΚΡΟΑΤΙΚΑ
ΒΟΥΛΓΑΡΙΚΑ, ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΚΑ
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΑΡΜΕΝΙΚΗ
ΑΡΜΕΝΙΚΗ
ΧΕΤΙΤΙΚΗ
ΙΝΔΟΙΡΑΝΙΚΗ
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΠΕΡΣΙΚΗ
ΜΕΣΑΙΩΝΙΚΗ ΠΕΡΣΙΚΗ
ΝΕΟΤΕΡΑ ΠΕΡΣΙΚΑ
ΚΟΥΡΔΙΚΑ
ΑΡΧΑΙΑ ΙΔΝΙΚΗ/ΒΕΔΙΚΗ ΣΑΝΣΚΡΙΤΙΚΗ
ΜΕΣΑΙΩΝΙΚΗ ΙΝΔΙΚΗ
ΙΝΔΙΚΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ
ΒΕΓΚΑΛΙΚΑ
ΤΣΙΓΚΑΝΙΚΑ
ΤΟΧΑΡΙΚΗ
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 171#cptResource191#]
_SPECIFIC:
Indo-European language families
Albanian (4 languages)
Armenian
Baltic (3 languages)
Celtic (7 languages)
Germanic (53 languages)
Greek (6 languages)
Indo-Iranian (308 languages)
Italic (48 languages)
Slavic (19 languages)
Extinct:
Anatolian (9 languages)
Paleo-Balkans
Tocharian
Venetic
[http://wiki.verbix.com/Languages/Indo-European?from=Category.Indo-European]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ISOLATING,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.18,
* McsEngl.isolating-language@cptCore93.18,
* McsEngl.language.isolating@cptCore93.18,
_DESCRIPTION:
An isolating language is a type of language with a low morpheme-per-word ratio — in the extreme case of an isolating language words are composed of a single morpheme. A closely related concept is the analytic language, which in the extreme case does not use any inflections to indicate grammatical relationships (but which may still form compound words or may change the meanings of individual words with derivational morphemes, either of which processes gives more than one morpheme per word).
Isolating languages are in contrast to synthetic languages, where words often consist of multiple morphemes. This linguistic classification is subdivided into the classifications fusional, agglutinative, and polysynthetic, which are based on how the morphemes are combined.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolating_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.ITALIC-FAMILY,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.29,
* McsEngl.conceptCore974,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ'ΛΑΤΙΝΟΓΕΝΗΣ@cptCore974,
* McsElln.ΛΑΤΙΝΟΓΕΝΗΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
_DESCRIPTION:
The Italic subfamily is a member of the Indo-European language family. It includes the Romance languages derived from Latin (Catalan, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Occitan, etc.), and a number of extinct languages of the Italian Peninsula, including Umbrian, Oscan, Faliscan, and South Picene.
In the past various definitions of "Italic" have prevailed. This article uses the classification presented by the Linguist List:[1] Italic includes the Latin subgroup (Latin and the Romance languages) as well as the ancient Italic languages (Faliscan, Osco-Umbrian and two unclassified Italic languages, Aequian and Vestinian). Venetic (the language of the ancient Veneti), as revealed by its inscriptions, was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western Indo-European branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an independent Indo-European language.
In the extreme view, Italic did not exist, but the different groups descended directly from Indo-European and converged because of geographic contiguity. This view stems in part from the difficulty in identifying a common Italic homeland in prehistory.[2]
In the intermediate view, the Italic languages are one of the ten or eleven major subgroups of the Indo-European language family and might therefore have had an ancestor, common Italic or proto-Italic, from which its daughter languages descend. Moreover, there are similarities between major groups, although how these similarities are to be interpreted is one of the major debatable issues in the historical linguistics of Indo-European. The linguist Calvert Watkins went so far as to suggest, among ten major groups, a four-way division of East, West, North and South Indo-European. These he considered "dialectical divisions within Proto-Indo-European which go back to a period long before the speakers arrived in their historical areas of attestation."[3] This is not to be considered a nodular grouping; in other words, there was not necessarily any common west Indo-European serving as a node from which the subgroups branched, but rather a hypothesized similarity between the dialects of Proto-Indo-European which developed into the recognized families. The West Indo-European dialects are Celtic, Italic and Tocharian. By the time of any written language, Tocharian was geographically remote from the other two.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.NATIVE-AMERICAN,
* McsEngl.indigenous-language-of-the-Americas,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.native-american,
_DESCRIPTION:
Indigenous languages of the Americas are spoken by indigenous peoples from Alaska and Greenland to the southern tip of South America, encompassing the land masses that constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families, as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages.
Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made, such as in three macrofamilies of Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, and Amerind. This scheme is rejected by nearly all specialists.[1]
According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered, and many are already extinct.[2] The most widely spoken indigenous language is Southern Quechua, with about 6 to 7 million speakers, primarily in South America.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_languages]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.SANSCRIT,
name::
* McsEngl.lagSan'Sentence,
About World Language @aboutworldlangs
The usual word order in#Sanskrit sentences places the verb in final position.#language http://buff.ly/2k60G99
1:30 AM - 28 Jan 2017
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.SEMETIC,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.31,
* McsEngl.conceptCore970:-new-Base,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ'ΣΗΜΙΤΙΚΗ@cptCore970,
* McsElln.ΣΗΜΙΤΙΚΕΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ,
_SPECIFIC:
Αλλες ξεχάστηκαν
* ΑΡΑΜΑΙΚΗ
* ΑΣΣΥΡΙΑΚΗ
* ΒΑΒΥΛΩΝΙΑΚΗ
* ΦΟΙΝΙΚΙΚΗ
Αλλες επιβιουν
* ΑΡΑΒΙΚΗ
* ΕΒΡΑΙΚΗ
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 5-335#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.SIGN (lagSgn),
* McsEngl.conceptCore986,
* McsEngl.language.sign@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.manual-language,
* McsEngl.sign-language@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn@cptCore986, {2012-08-22}
* McsEngl.lngSgn@cptCore986, {2012-08-20}
* McsEngl.slng@cptCore986, {2012-04-21}
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΝΟΗΜΑΤΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.νοηματική-γλώσσα@cptCore986, {2012-08-20}
I'll call it "gesture" because with the word "sign" I will call any medium (oral, written, gesture, etc) we use to create a language. In this respect, ALL languages are sign-languages.
[hmnSngo.2003-01-19_nikkas]
manual language:
"Italian Sign Language or LIS (Lingua Italiana dei Segni) is the manual language employed by deaf in Italy."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Sign_Language] 2007-06-21
A sign Language is not a universal language, contrary to popular belief. Like spoken languages, sign languages in different countries are entirely different. Even though, Deaf foreigners at international conventions, conferences, or meetings seem to communicate with each other somehow easier than their hearing counterpart. Those Deaf people "suspend" using their natural sign languages and use gestures, mimes, pictorial signs, and other combinations, instead.
Another way of communication is the International Sign Language (previously known as old term, "Gestuno") which is an artificially devised sign language. Gestuno is to Deaf as Esperanto is to Hearing. It is often used to communicate among Deaf officials, as well as a small number of Deaf individuals, at some international level meetings, conventions and such. It's highly unlike that International SL will ever replace natural foreign sign languages.
[http://www.handspeak.com/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'ENVIRONMENT,
The past decades of sign language research have shown a significant
degree of structural similarity in sign languages of large Deaf communities.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002183/bookpart.pdf, 1] 2007-07-02
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'Concept,
* McsEngl.konseptersro@cptCore986,
_GENERIC:
* KONSEPTOLISTO#cptCore93.11#
_SPECIFIC:
* COLOR
* COUNTING
* KINSHIP
* TIME
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'Number,
The Role of Numbers
All numbers under one thousand are signed using a single hand, and the second hand is only used to designate that a number is in the thousands or millions. They are separate signs that need to be learned in order to talk about age, time, money, and other concepts. Numbers are used the same way that they are in English.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'doing.EVOLUTING,
One line of evidence for the theory of linguistic evolution that claims that spoken language evolved from gestural language is that infants use manual gestures before using vocalizations (Stokoe 1978). Infants use pointing and reaching first before even accompanying them with vocalizations, and after they do start to vocalize, they vocalize simultaneously with the gestures (Stokoe 1978). Even adults use gestures to reinforce their own verbal communication, so manual gestures clearly play a necessary role even in spoken language. Futhermore, Stokoe claims that there is evidence that gestural signs are easier for children to learn, particularly when the signs are iconic (1978), meaning that they are not arbitrary.
[http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/Linguistics/Papers/2007/hunt_stephanie.pdf
FOXP2: A gene of linguistic importance
Stephanie Hunt
Bryn Mawr College]
This proves that there is no unidirectional path of development for sign languages. Sign languages develop in the direction of a balance between being maximally economical and maximally functional.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'fingerspelling,
* McsEngl.fingerspelling@cptCore986,
Fingerspelling around the world..
The British manual alphabet, using with two hands, is used in Australia, Great Britain, New Zealand and some other countries. Although, the British manual alphabet and British sign language are entirely different from American manual alphabet and American Sign Language which are used in the America and Canada. Though, the manual alphabet in ASL is the same as in Germany (except for "T") but German Sign Language and American Sign Language are all different.
"Which right or left hand should I use?"
That depends on which left-handed or right-handed you are. Although, interesting, many left-handeds are right-handed signers.
A Brief Story
It took only a few moments to learn a fingerspelling in another foreign sign language. At the World Games for the Deaf in Christchurch, New Zealand in January 1989, some deaf Australians and New Zealanders had learned American manual alphabet beforehand while some Americans and Canadians learned British fingerspelling. Why?
One night at a nightly social gathering, I chatted with an Australian in mixed gestures, pictorial signs and others in combination. When he struggled to understand what I tried to say a phrase, I fingerspelled an English word in his British fingerspelling. He read it and understood it naturally. Similarly, when I failed to understand his sign, he fingerspelled in my ASL alphabet. The good thing was that we read and write the same "spoken" language, English.
What it had taught me was that I then understood why it took some time to develop to read fingerspelling fast for hearing learners. When I was a teenager and had taught many hearies how to fingerspell, I had to fingerspell really, really slow for them to catch each letter. I thought it was because.. they were hearing. Until that event in New Zealand, I was unable to read their British fingerspelling as fast as in my native fingerspelling. It was the same on their side when reading our fingerspelling. Although, we could understood each other in signs, mimes, gestures, etc. at our normal pace. However, deafies could learn to read the foreign fingerspelling in shorter time of practice.
Practice Tips
It takes some time to learn to finger-read. Here are some suggestions for learning to finger-read:
Talk in fingerspelling to yourself in the mirror. Practice with your sign language partner. Use fingerspelling font instead of any fonts in your emails with your partner. :-)
...Sign Languages
Numerous lingustic studies have shown that sign languages do have their own grammatical structures, syntax, rules, etc. like spoken languages.
[http://www.handspeak.com]
The Role of Fingerspelling
Fingerspelling is used for proper nouns. They may include, but are not limited to movie titles, books, names, and street names. When glossing ASL or writing it down, we denote fingerspelled words like this:#DOG. Fingerspelling should not be used in place of a sign. If you do not know what a sign is do not immediately fingerspell. First, one should gesture or attempt to describe the object. If that does not work, then you can fingerspell.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
Question: When should you use fingerspelling?
Answer: There are lots of times when fingerspelling is used. The most common uses are for naming people, places, movies, books, and brands. Or maybe there is a sign, but it is just as fast or faster to fingerspell the word. For example: C-A-R.
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/fingerspelling/fingerspelling.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'MANUAL'ALPHABET,
* McsEngl.manual'alphabet@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.finger'alphabet@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.hand'alphabet@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
There are many manual alphabets (also known as finger alphabets or hand alphabets) in use, past and present — especially in deaf education and, subsequently adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages around the world.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerspelling]
Manual Alphabet is used to fingerspell a series of alphabetical letters to form a word, using one or two hands, depending on sign languages. Usually, it is used when there is no sign for a certain word, person's name, etc.
[http://www.handspeak.com]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'grammar,
_DESCRIPTION:
Spatial relations, directions, and orientation of the hand movements, as well as facial expressions and body movement, make up the grammar of SL.
"Deafness," Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 97 Encyclopedia. (c) 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.NAME,
* McsEngl.gesture,
* McsEngl.name.lagHmnSgn,
* McsEngl.sign,
name::
* McsEngl.nameSgn'resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://www.newsbeast.gr/travel/Tips/arthro/801074/poies-heironomies-na-apofeugete-analoga-me-to-pou-pate//
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.adjective,
_DESCRIPTION:
Placement of Adjectives
Typically, ASL puts the adjective after a noun, but one may place the adjective before the noun for stylistic purposes. The concept of placing these words after the noun is similar to that of many of the Romance languages, but not the same in English. The English language requires that the adjective precedes the noun that it is describing.
English: I have a brown dog.
ASL: DOG BROWN I HAVE
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar] 2007-06-25
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.adverb,
_DESCRIPTION:
Placement of Adverbs
In English the adverb is placed after the verb, whereas in ASL it is placed before the verbs. Most of the time adverbs are simple the same sign as an adjective, only it is distinguished by the context of the sentence.
English: I enter the house quietly.
ASL: HOUSE I QUIET ENTER
Adding -LY to the end of the adjective to form an adverb is improper and is considered Signing Exact English. One should avoid slipping into other portions of the sign continuum at all costs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar] 2007-06-25
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Conjunction,
Conjunction
The combining of two sentences in ASL is different based on the conjunction needed. For example, the concept of the word and does not exist in ASL. Simply, sign a sentence, take a short pause and then sign the next sentence. Similar conjunctions such as or and but have signs.
English: I have two cats and they are named Billy and Bob.
ASL: TWO CATS I HAVE. NAME#BILLY#BOB.
English: I like to swim, but I don't like to run.
ASL: SWIM I LIKE, BUT RUN I LIKE-NOT
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
Prepositions
Now, most prepositions are not used in ASL at all, because it is reserved more for Signing Exact English. It is a good idea to avoid prepositions when signing in ASL, because they are shown in context.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Noun,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.4,
* McsEngl.noun-of-sl@cptCore986.4,
DEFINETRO:
Nouns and pronouns allow a signer to talk about things and ideas.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar] 2007-06-24
CREATION:
Using movement, one can derive nouns from ASL verbs. In general, this process occurs when a movement is added to the verb, making it a noun.
[Amy Rosenberg Thesis University Kansas www.signwriting.org/forums/research/ 6]
The signed language literature assumes that there are four possible values for the number feature: singular, dual, exhaustive and multiple (Klima and Bellugi 1979, Padden 1983).
[http://mmm.lingue.unibo.it/mmm-proc/MMM4/235-250-Rathmann-Mathur-MMM4.pdf, 3] 2007-07-05
PLURAL:
The only notable thing here is that ASL like other languages does not specify plurality. It is understood by context. Adding an s to the signed noun is Signing Exact English and is improper usage in ASL.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar] 2007-06-24
ASL Gender
An easy way to recognize genders is to remember that most male signs are made at the forehead. Female ones are made next to the cheek or chin.
[http://library.thinkquest.org/10202/learnasl_text.html] 2007-07-04
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Part-of-speech,
Noun / Verb / Adjective / Etc.
If you look up a word but don't find the right figure of speech, don't be desperate. Often, signs are the same for noun and adjective but also different for some. For example, signs for "wise" and "wisdom" are the same. Signs or movement of signs are often different between noun and verb.
[http://www.handspeak.com]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.pronoun,
_GENERIC:
* PRONOMERO#cptCore256.4#
_DESCRIPTION:
Pronouns
For instance, to use pronouns in English (or any other spoken language I've looked at), you first refer to something ("The boy goes to the store"), and then use a pronoun to refer back to it ("He finds a nice cat there.") In ASL, when you introduce each thing, you can indicate a point in space for it. Then to refer back, you just point to the spot you previously indicated.
So for the previous example, you might sign something like: BOY (point to your right side to establish where he is) HE GO STORE (and indicate the store on the left).
For the next sentence, just say: HE (which is done by pointing at the spot that we set up to be the boy) FIND NICE CAT THERE (by doing the sign for FIND in the location we set up for the store)
The other person or people you're talking to can use the same points to refer to things. When the context changes, your space is reset and you can start new ones (just like 'it' doesn't have to refer to the same thing through an entire conversation - it's usually pretty clear when the discourse shifts).
[\INFORMATION\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\SIGN LANGUAGE\Sign Language Grammar maddog.weblogs.com stories storyreader$85.htm]
===
Pronouns in ASL are fairly simple, because ASL is a visual language. Simply pointing using the index finger or a 1 handshape is a normal pronoun. Now, you may be wondering, but what if the thing or person I want to talk about isn't there? The answer to your problem is contrastive structure, which will be dealt with later on in the article. To form a possessive pronoun such as my, your, his, or our one uses an extended B handshape with an outward palm orientation. Once again with possessive pronouns you may merely point to what you wish to speak about, however it's not really pointing in this case. Finally, reflexive pronouns are made using an extended A handshape. As one can see pronouns in ASL are fairly simplistic. All you do is point and identify the object.
Contrastive Structure
Suppose you want to talk to someone about a person who is not physically nearby, you should use contrastive structure. The rules of contrastive structure are easy. First, identify the person by fingerspelling his or her name; describing a few key features such as hair color or height also helps. Second, just point to the right of one's body. That's all there is to it. Once a person has been established using contrastive structure, you simply point back to that spot to refer back to them. This works with multiple people as well, but try to refrain from using more than two people at a time, as it may confuse the other signer.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.transcription,
* McsEngl.lngSgn'notation,
* McsEngl.slng'symbolic'representation,
* McsEngl.slng'glos,
* McsEngl.notation'system-of-sl@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
Notation for the recording of sign languages.
A written transcription of a signed language is referred to as a gloss, although it is not usually perfectly representative of the signed meaning. Because signed languages cannot be written in a spoken language without being translated, glossing is an attempt to capture the grammar and syntax of the signed language in a manner that can be easily committed to paper. This presents many problems, because one sign can be represented by many spoken-language words, and some spoken-language words can be signed in multiple ways, and so glossing is at best a semi-accurate method of transcription. Individuals glossing the same signed sentence may write somewhat different words, although the grammar is often the same.
There are some common methods within glossing of signed languages, which are usually taught in a curriculum about glossing, but may not be followed by everyone transcribing a signed speech. For example, there is a commonly accepted practice of writing a fingerspelled word with a pound sign in front of it:#WIKI. However, some glossers may choose to indicate the spelled word in another way, such as W-I-K-I. Some use the pound sign only for lexicalized fingerspellings, but it is often used for all lexicalized words. Other variations on glossing may attempt to communicate facial expressions, such as raised eyebrows or a quizzical look, by adding marks surrounding the text.
Valerie Sutton's SignWriting is an attempt to eliminate the problems posed by glossing by establishing a written form of signed languages.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloss_%28transliteration%29] 2007-06-24
SPESIFEPTO:
The absolute palm and finger orientations described in dictionaries is likely a
reflection of the notation systems used in the collection and transcription of data.
Notation systems such as KOMVA (NSDSK 1988) and HamNoSys (Prillwitz et al.
1989) transcribe orientation by looking at the orientation of the palm of the hand and
the ‘extended finger’ orientation, that is, the direction in which the fingers point if
they were extended. These notations can be extremely useful in the narrow phonetic
transcription of signs, but they often fail to capture the phonological specification of
the sign, which specifies the relative orientation of the specified articulator, typically
the fingers. For use as a mnemonic aid in dictionaries and teaching sign language,
notation systems would do better not to focus on the hand orientation in space, but
rather on the finger orientation with respect to the location of the sign.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/000121/bookpart.pdf]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SignWriting,
* McsEngl.sign-writing@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.signwriting@cptCore986,
_DESCRIPTION:
Sign Writing is a system of writing the movements and handshapes of sign languages. It was developed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton, a dancer who had two years earlier developed DanceWriting.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SignWriting] 2007-06-22
The main attractions of this system are its universality, the fact that it can be used to write any Signed language and the fact that its creators have developed a computer program to ease its writing.
...
What makes this system particularly easy to learn is its iconicity. One need only learn the conventions for drawing the symbol of a hand and hand placement in the signing space, (palm-in, palm-out, palm-side, arm out) to apply this knowledge fairly consistently to most of the symbols. The facial expression symbols are also transparent. Only the movement and some of the body location symbols might require some study to master.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese015.html] 2007-07-05
There is no reason for SignWriting to adopt unique punctuation marks for American Sign Language and it does not take away from the writing of SignWriting to use English punctuation marks. Furthermore, when a signer fingerspells an English word in ASL, SignWriting uses the appropriate handshape symbol to write the letters in the English word. This is also possibly a convention that could be changed. Writing SignWriting by hand, one would probably write the fingerspelled word in English letters instead of writing the handshapes for each of the letters...
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese025.html] 2007-07-05
Writing ASL in a linear fashion where the handshape, movement, location and facial expression involved in creating a sign would be placed in an arbitrary sequence like "I*~>>" makes less sense than writing ASL in SignWriting:
("idea").
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese025.html] 2007-07-05
This has always been the case in particular with writing. "Any change or modification was met with great hesitation, and even today, attempts to reform spelling or eliminate inconsistencies in writing conventions meet with strong resistance" (Microsoft Encarta 1997). There are several protests to the idea of writing ASL. These protests are made by Deaf people and hearing alike, but are based on misinformation or misconception. The first and most innocuous protest is that the status quo is easier than instituting a new system. A more serious protest is that writing ASL will affect the language negatively. The most problematic resistance to writing Sign comes from those who think it will actually hurt the Deaf community to have a separate writing system. This section will consider these areas of protest and offer solutions to the problems submitted within these perspectives.
...
A realistic argument against SignWriting, as opposed to some of the systems based on the symbols on a typical keyboard, is that it takes too long to write. However, the pictographic nature of SignWriting means that it might take less time to read than other systems, just as sentences written in Chinese characters are more quickly read than the same sentences written in pinyin. Also, there is a computer program called SignWriter which enables quick writing of ASL in this system. And, there is a SignWriting shorthand. As more people use SignWriting, a quickly written shorthand will probably become the standard.
One final thought on communicating in ASL through writing is that soon enough computer technology will allow the pervasive use of video, so that messages in ASL can be maintained as they are and still be easily passed around. This position claims that computer improvements will allow for the easy transfer of video and photographs, meaning that newsletters, newspapers, notes etc. can be passed around over computer (desktop or hand-held) in video format. This may be true sometime in the future, but that would be equivalent to claiming that writing spoken languages will cease in the future when all of society will be sending videos of each other talking and will be listening/watching news reports and other information reports, given by videos of people, instead of continuing to make use of writing.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese016.html] 2007-07-05
The pieces that are used in SignWriting to create any number of signs, including new lexical items, can describe each parameter, including handshape, movement, location, palm orientation or non-manual sign. SignWriting is made up of over 600 symbols which can describe all of these parameters as well as palm orientation and non-manual signs.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese015.html] 2007-07-05
These go beyond what is necessary to distinguish signs at a cheremic level but this is why SignWriting is used for over ten different Signed languages world wide.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese015.html] 2007-07-05
Any word written in SignWriting has the face, or shoulder bar on top (if necessary) and the handshape(s) around the face or shoulder bar. General movements are below the handshape(s) , but finger movements are indicated by the fingers of the handshape(s) and head movements are indicated by the face symbol.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese008.html] 2007-07-05
The most widely used method for writing ASL is using English words in ASL word order. This is unsuccessful because there is no word-to-word correspondence between sign and English. ASL verbs, for example, are inflected in ways that cannot be described in a single English lexical item.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese025.html] 2007-07-05
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Translation,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'PSLT,
* McsEngl.Portable-Sign-Language-Translator,
* McsEngl.PSLT@cptCore986i,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://www.pslt.org/index.html,
_DESCRIPTION:
Turning gesture into text in the beat of a wing
We are currently developing a fully-fledged version of the PLST, a software application that works on a variety of portable off-the-shelf devices with the following goals:
Allow young learners with speech difficulties to create and use customised libraries of hand gestures and signs that express the domain-specific concepts (words, symbols) that are needed to discuss their topics of study with instructors, trainers, experts, and peers
Allow people with reduced mobility and speech difficulties due to ill health or accidents to issue commands to appliances and devices either around the home or on the move using a simple but effective set of hand gestures tailored their physical capabilities
Allow people with speech difficulties to use general-purpose sign languages (e.g., the British Sign Language, BSL), to talk about everyday issues and situations, personalising the language to take into account regional variations and individual preferences or needs
The Portable Sign Language translator has three main features that contribute to make it a first in its own kind:
It is portable. This means that it can be used on Android smartphones and Tablet PCs, as well as on any netbooks, notebooks, laptops and desktops running Linux or Windows equipped with a standard webcam. We will port the PSLT to iphones/ipads and other mobile platforms if there will be enough request for these. Although the sign sequence recognised from a camera can be displayed as text on the very same device this has been detected from, nothing prevents it from being transmitted and visualised remotely (e.g., sent as an SMS message or as a Bluetooth command to control an appliance).
It is flexible. This means that it can use the British Sign Language (BSL), Makaton, our own Customisable Sign Language (CSL) or any combination of these and other sign languages (such as the American Sign Language). The PSLT also supports regional variations of the said sign languages. We are developing a range of configurations for both text visualisation and appliance control using CLS.
It is customisable. This means that any signer can create her/his own set of signs and gestures (or adapt them from any general-purpose set of signs such as the BSL) and associate to them their own words and concepts. In this way, signers can bridge the current communication gap with the wider community around them, being able to use whatever jargon they need in whatever situation they may find themselves (e.g., in education, in training, at work, at home, on the go).
[http://www.pslt.org/index.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Sentence,
Syntax
With background on how parts of speech are used in ASL, we can now evaluate the syntax, or word order, of ASL. As stated previously in the article, the word order of ASL is different from that of English. English follows a SVO, Subject-Verb-Object sentence pattern, whereas ASL uses a Topic-Comment pattern.
English: I go to the store.
ASL: STORE I GO
Signing is a heavily visual language and does not require as many words as spoken English. In the above example one can see that the words to and the are deemed unnecessary for an ASL sentence. However, the inclusion of these words is called Signing Exact English and is therefore not ASL.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SYNTAX,
* McsEngl.syntax-of-signLanguage@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.word-order,
Syntax
In American Sign Language, we have a different syntax. In general, the order of our words in a sentence follows a "TOPIC" "COMMENT" arrangement. This is could also called "subject" + "predicate" sentence structure.
Plus you will often see this structure: "TIME" + "TOPIC" + "COMMENT."
For example:
"WEEK-PAST ME WASH CAR "
or "WEEK-PAST CAR WASH ME "
I personally prefer the first version. Depending on which expert you listen to, you will hear that one way is better than the other. Anyone who tells you that ASL can't use a "subject" + "verb" + "object" sentence structure is simply denying reality. ASL uses SVO quite often. What it doesn't use is "subject" + "be-verb" + "object." For example, in ASL you wouldn't sign the "is" in "HE IS MY BROTHER." You'd simply sign "HE MY BROTHER" while nodding your head. Instead of signing "IS" you nodded your head. "IS" didn't "disappear" it simply took a "non-manual" form. Which is why we say that ASL doesn't use "be verbs." The concept of being and existing are still conveyed--but we do it without "be verbs." Instead we nod our heads, and/or use signs like "HAVE" and "TRUE."
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/syntax.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'VERBOLERO (SUBJEKTERO),
Estonian Sign Language relies completely on the word order strategy to convey which element is a subject, (while English, as Tallerman (1998:152-153) notes, displays the relics of a previous nominative/accusative case system in the forms of the first and third person pronouns in order to distinguish pronominal NPs functioning as objects from pronominal NPs functioning as subjects).
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/case.html]
For subject-object marking, Kata Kolok uses strict word order instead of spatial agreement verbs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kata_Kolok]
Placement of Time Words
Time words are the only thing that comes before the topic of the sentence in ASL. So, adding time words makes our ASL word order now Time-Topic-Comment. Also, the concept of AM and PM does not exist in ASL. They simply sign MORNING or AFTERNOON to denote AM or PM.
English: I'm going to the store at 9:00AM.
ASL: 9:00 MORNING STORE I GO
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'QUESTION,
Word Order of Questions
In other natural languages such as English, French or German statements are given in a particular word order. Then for questions they either invert the word order or add in a few words such as: do or est-ce que. ASL does not invert its word order nor does it add in any helping words, it uses non-manual signals to display a question asked. These non-manuals can consist of body movements, facial expressions, or eyebrow movements. Let's examine a simple YES/NO question in ASL and English.
English: Did you go to the store?
ASL: STORE YOU GO?
English added our helping verb to do, but ASL didn't change or add anything. This is because in a YES/NO question the eyebrows are raised and the body leaned forward slightly. These non-manuals show the receptive signer that the statement is actually a question.
Another type of question is a WH-question. These types of question require more of a response than yes or no. They always include signs like WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, HOW, or WHY? These WH-words always come at the end of the question, unlike in English where it is the first word in the question.
English: What are you eating?
ASL: YOU EAT WHAT?
Similar to a YES/NO question, WH-word questions also have non-manual markers, however this time instead of raising your eyebrows, you must lower your eyebrows. In addition to lowering your eyebrows the signer must lean the body in slightly and extend the last sign for a couple seconds. This allows the receptive signer to understand they are being asked a question that requires more of a response.
The final type of question is called an RH-question. The use of an RH-question is like an English speaker using the word because. There is no sign for the word because in ASL, therefore they sign a question and answer it themselves. The non-manual markers for an RH-question are the same as a YES/NO question.
English: I like to play tennis, because it is fun.
ASL: TENNIS I LIKE PLAY WHY?#FUN
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
Questions are marked with a question sign either before or after the clause, described as "a motion of the index finger towards the referent (addressee) with a slight wrist twist."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urub%C3%BA_Sign_Language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'NEGATION,
Negation
In American Sign Language, you make a sign or a statement negative by:
* shaking your head
* frowning
* some people use the sign "not"
These negative expressions do not require a separate manual sign. They are used along with signs that have a negative connotation like "can't," or "refuse."
For example, to sign "I'm not happy," you would sign "I HAPPY" while shaking your head negatively.
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/negation.htm]
Negation in ASL
The role of negation in ASL is a fairly easy concept to grasp. There are only two signs one needs to know to be able to negate a sentence. These two signs are NOT and NONE. The non-manual marker for a negated sentence is simply a shake of the head when signing the word NOT or NONE. Also, one must remember that in ASL syntax negation words always come at the end. The only exception to this rule is a WH-word.
NONE is typically used when talking about possession of a noun. It functions similar to the English words none or any.
English: I don't have any dogs.
ASL:#DOG I HAVE NONE
NOT functions the exact way it does in English. Except that in English it is typically found in contractions like don't.
English: I don't like to play tennis.
ASL: TENNIS I LIKE PLAY NOT
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.STOPERO,
An analysis of the pauses (holds) in a passage in American Sign Language reveals that sequences of signs are interspersed with holds of different lengths. Long holds appear to indicate the ends of sentences; shorter holds, the break between two conjoined sentences; and the shortest holds, breaks between internal constituents. (Author/MV)
ERIC#: EJ180522
Title: Pauses and Syntax in American Sign Language
Authors: Grosjean, Francois; Lane, Harlan
[http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ180522&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=EJ180522]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.UNIT-OF-YORDERO,
* McsEngl.structural'part-of-slang@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.building'block-of-slang@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.parameter-of-slang@cptCore986,
the communicative channel used by sign languages – that is, the visual-spatial
modality.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf]
Signs are made up of smaller components similar to the phonemes of spoken language, which utilize distinctive features, and are sometimes called parameters (Valli and Lucas 1992: 18). Their parameters include handshape, location, movement, palm orientation and sometimes non-manual signs, and each parameter consists of a bundle of primes.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese014.html] 2007-07-05
The structural parts of a sign can be divided in two main categories: manual and non-manual structural parts. The manual parts are hand configuration, place of articulation, movement and orientation. Non-manual parts are generally the mouth movements connected to the sign and the movements of the cheeks and body. Looking at the structural parts of signs helps the learner to visualise and remember signs.
Although one structural part does not usually carry a meaning, changing one structural part into another can change the meaning of the sign.
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf, 18]
Handshapes are one of the five fundamental building blocks of a sign: Handshape, movement, location, orientation, and nonmanual markers. Nonmanual markers include those aspects of body language that do not involve the hands such as shoulder movements, head tilts, and facial expressions. The handshape is literally the shape in which we form our hand during the production of a sign.
[ASL http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/classifiers.htm]
Just as spoken words are formed from "parts" (e.g. vowel sounds and consonant sounds) so are the signs in any sign language. But the "parts" of signs are not sounds. Rather the "parts" of a sign are specific handshapes, movements of the hand, and specific locations of the hand.
[http://www.signmedia.com/info/asl.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'DIKTERO,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.3,
* McsEngl.letesro@cptCore986.3,
Sign languages, like oral languages, organize elementary, meaningless units (phonemes; once called cheremes in the case of sign languages) into meaningful semantic units. The elements of a sign are Handshape (or Handform), Orientation (or Palm Orientation), Location (or Place of Articulation), Movement, and Non-manual markers (or Facial Expression), summarised in the acronym HOLME.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_language] 2007-06-22
Our current understanding of Signing requires five parameters to describe any Sign, and we will look at each one in turn. They are:
1. Movement
2. Handshape
3. Location
4. Orientation
5. NMGSs
[Joe Martin A Linguistic Comparison www.signwriting.org]
Stokoe proved that each sign has the three parameters of Location, Movement and Hand Shape.
[Joe Martin A Linguistic Comparison www.signwriting.org]
Sign languages use hand, face, head, or other body movements in a three-dimensional space as the physical means of communication (Steinberg 1982:73).
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/sign.html]
However, two fundamentally different ways of analysing the sign have emerged: one emphasising the simultaneity of the sign and the other the sequentiality of the sign.
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/structure.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'HAND,
Signs can be articulated with one hand or two. In a two-handed sign, a distinction should be drawn between the active and the passive hand, or the strong and the weak hand (Engberg-Pedersen 1993:35-36). Also, signing can be right-dominant whereby the signer uses his/her right hand as the strong hand and the left hand as a weak hand, or left-dominant (here the signer tends to use his/her left hand as the strong hand and the right as the weak hand) (Engberg-Pedersen 1993:35-36).
...
It should be emphasised that hand configurations form only ONE component of sign languages (this refutes the argument that sign languages are “gestural” languages), since facial expressions such as eyebrow motion and lip-mouth movement are not only used for conveying attitude and referring to objects through size, but also have a crucial part at the grammatical level, performing syntactic, indexic, or conversation regulatory (discourse) functions, (as well as morphological functions (cf. Davies 1985)). (For a full discussion of non-manual markers see Engberg-Pedersen 1990, Vogt-Svendsen 1990, Baker-Shenk 1985, Aarons et al. 1992, Ebbinghaus & Hessmann 1996). In a word, “a string of manual signs can mean different things depending on the non-manual marking that accompanies it” (Aarons 1994:41).
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/sign.html]
A right handed signer produces the one-handed signs mainly with the right hand, and the left handed signer with the left hand. One-handed signs are e.g. signs for HEVONEN (horse; 632), OMENA (apple; 1027) and TV (929).
Both in the one- and two-handed signs, the right hand of the signer is called the dominant hand and the left hand is the non-dominant hand. For the left handed signer, the names for the hands are the other way around.
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'H (slang'Handshape),
There are various estimates regarding the number of primes for each of the above-mentioned parameters. Handshape is a key characteristic of almost any sign. There are around forty-one distinct handshapes used in ASL...*Footnote 5: See Appendix C.... Each of these handshapes can also be considered in terms of the openness of the hand, the number of fingers extended, the manner in which the fingers are held and the orientation of the palm. A handshape may be closed, open/extended vertical or open/extended horizontal (Valli and Lucas 1992).
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese014.html] 2007-07-05
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SPACE slang'L (slang'LOCATION | PLACE),
Another parameter, location, refers to the placement of the hands and arms in front of the signer. The location of a given sign can be anywhere from the top of the head to the hip area and from the signer's furthest reach right to furthest reach left. Signs rarely occur behind the signer or much below the signer's waist. Stokoe et al. (1965) recognized twelve basic locations within this signing space. The neutral sign space, in front of the middle area of the chest, is where most two-handed signs are made. Because of this, the location of many two-handed signs refers to the location on the non-dominant hand with which the dominant hand is in contact. Unless both hands are symmetrical in a two-handed sign, one hand is dominant and can form any number of handshapes while the non-dominant hand will maintain one of seven basic handshapes generally attributed to the passive hand (Valli and Lucas 1992: 5).
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese014.html] 2007-07-05
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'M (lagHmnSgn'MOVEMENT),
In terms of movement parameters, one might expect the largest number of possibilities. Stokoe et al. (1965) postulated twenty-six separate and distinguishing movements possible in the sign space including the opening or closing of a hand. Most of these fall into five general categories: vertical actions, sideways actions, horizontal actions, rotary actions, interactions of hands, and the movements of individual hands. Stokoe et al. (1965) claimed that any sign could be described by the simultaneous production of various parameters. Another conception of the basic units of any given sign views each lexical item as a series of movements and holds. In each unit of a sign, movement or hold, the handshape, location, orientation and nonmanual sign features are bundles of articulatory features, representing the relevant parameters of a given sign.
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese014.html] 2007-07-05
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'letero'QUANTITY,
Note that the early work by W. Stokoe preferred the term “cheremes” [70] over “phonemes,”
but the term “phoneme” has long since become established in sign language linguistics
[17, 12, 10, 62, 61]. Just as in spoken languages, the number of phonemes in ASL
is limited and small compared to the number of signs. The exact number is still a matter
of debate and depends greatly on the phonological model used. Stokoe’s system [70],
for instance, identifies 55 units, whereas Liddell and Johnson’s Movement-Hold model
identifies more than 100 [44].
[http://gri.gallaudet.edu/~cvogler/research/data/vogler-diss03.pdf]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'NON-MANUAL-MARKER,
* McsEngl.non'manual'marker@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.non'manual'feature@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.non'letero'unit@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
* Nonmanual markers consist of the various facial expressions, head tilting, shoulder raising, mouthing, and similar signals that we add to our hand signs to create meaning.
[ASL http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/nonmanualmarkers.htm]
* Non-manual features
Non-manual elements are extremely important to ASL syntax, more important than intonation is to English syntax. However, they are also phonemic in a small percentage of basic lexical signs. Non-manual features involve the mouth (lips, tongue, jaws, cheeks, and breath; called 'mouthing'), eyes (gaze, lids, and brows), and movement of the head. For example, the sign translated 'not yet' requires that the tongue touch the lower lip and that the head rotate slowly from side to side, in addition to the manual part of the sign. Without these features it is ill formed, and may not be understood.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language]
A considerable number of AdaSL signs are found to be articulated by body
parts other than the hands, either alone or in unison with manual articulation. These are (parts of) the head, including articulations of the face and the mouth (§2.3.1), the leg (§2.3.2), and the arm (§2.3.3).
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002184/bookpart.pdf, 6] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'HEAD,
The head as a whole makes a nodding movement
simultaneously with a repeated extension of the base joint of the index finger in only one sign in the database, in LIZARD.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002184/bookpart.pdf, 6] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'FACIAL-EXPRESSION,
* McsEngl.facial'expression@cptCore986,
_DESCRIPTION:
* In Sign Language, facial expression including the raising or lowering of the eyebrows while signing, and body language are integral parts of communicating. These actions help give meaning to what is being signed, much like vocal tones and inflections give meaning to spoken words.
[http://www.masterstech-home.com/ASLDict.html, 2000-06-22]
* In American Sign Language, facial expressions are an important part of communication.
The facial expressions you use while doing a sign will affect the meaning of that sign.
For example, if you sign the word "quiet," and add an exaggerated or intense facial expression, you are telling your audience to be "very quiet."
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/facialexpressions.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'MOUTH,
The mouth can be active in signs in two ways: on the one hand in the
form of mouthings, based on words in a spoken language, on the other hand
in the form of mouth gestures that are by definition not based on spoken
words (Boyes-Braem & Sutton-Spence, 2001).
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002184/bookpart.pdf, 6] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'ARM,
In at least 6 signs (2%) in the database, the active articulator is larger than
the hand and includes (part of) the arm. In REFUSE the elbows move towards
the body hitting the sides. In FUNERAL#DANCE, SHOW-OFF, and EWE, the
arms represent gesturing or dancing arms. Probably, this is the case in more
signs in which the hands and arms represent hands and arms or arms holding
an object, e.g. in ABURI/ADAMOROBE. In PERSON (HEIGHT-OF), SHORT, and
BOTTLE (not in the database) the lower arm is oriented upwards and forms a
meaningful unit together with the hand. This seems to be the case in BABY as
well.
The arm acting as an articulator is also found in sign languages of
large Deaf communities, e.g. in TREE in ASL, or SCOTLAND in BSL. The use
of the whole arm seems to reflect the higher frequency of multi-channelled
signs and whole body signs in sign languages without a large Deaf
community as discussed above in §2.1.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002184/bookpart.pdf, 9] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'LEG,
The leg is active in 9 signs (3%) in the database. The leg is the sole
articulator in one sign, FOOTBALL-2. In 5 other signs, the legs co-articulate
with the hands, namely in FOOTBALL-1, INSULT-2, WALK-1, WALK-2, and
WALK-3.
The leg activity is clearly phonetic in signs located on the leg, as in
those cases in which the leg has to be pulled up for the hand to be able to
reach its location, e.g. in SLIPPERS, SHOES-1, BOOTS or in the name sign
NKOFI (not included in the database). The latter sign consists of an S hand
contacting the knee, referring to a characteristic feature of the legs of that
person. In the sign language literature, the leg as an articulator has not
generally been described as occurring in sign languages of large Deaf
communities.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002184/bookpart.pdf, 9] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'PUNKTERO,
* McsEngl.lagSgn'punctuation@cptCore986,
Punctuation is used to emphazize points; however, facial expression and gestures often replace it. For example, when asking a question, the sign for a question mark can be used at the end of the sentence. The alternative is making a questioning facial expression. When doing this, the last sign is held for a longer period than usual.
[http://library.thinkquest.org/10202/learnasl_text.html] 2007-07-04
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SIMULTANEITY,
Spatial grammar and simultaneity
Sign languages exploit the unique features of the visual medium. Oral language is linear. Only one sound can be made or received at a time. Sign language, on the other hand, is visual; hence a whole scene can be taken in at once. Information can be loaded into several channels and expressed simultaneously. As an illustration, in English one could utter the phrase, "I drove here". To add information about the drive, one would have to make a longer phrase or even add a second, such as, "I drove here along a winding road," or "I drove here. It was a nice drive." However, in American Sign Language, information about the shape of the road or the pleasing nature of the drive can be conveyed simultaneously with the verb 'drive' by inflecting the motion of the hand, or by taking advantage of non-manual signals such as body posture and facial expression, at the same time that the verb 'drive' is being signed. Therefore, whereas in English the phrase "I drove here and it was very pleasant" is longer than "I drove here", in American Sign Language the two may be the same length.
In fact, in terms of syntax, ASL shares more with spoken Japanese than it does with English.(Karen Nakamura,1995)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_language] 2007-06-22
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SEQUENTIALITY,
Until the descriptions outlined by Liddell, the sequential nature of the sign was not given much attention in sign language research. Liddell (1984) introduced a theoretical model of sign structure which segments signs on the basis of movement sequences. The segment types are divided into broad categories: M (movement), where the hand/s move/s along a path, and H (hold), where the hand/s remain/s stationary. Liddell (1984:381) explains that, for example, the sign THINK in ASL was traditionally viewed as a simple sign consisting only of a single handshape (articulator), a single location for contact (place of articulation), and one motion (articulation). Liddell argues, that the sign
THINK requires two activities to be carried out in sequence. First, the hand must move towards the forehead [movement - M.M.]. Second, it must come to a brief stop [hold - M.M.]. The motion without the stop is not sufficient for the sign to be well-formed; but these two activities cannot possibly be regarded as simultaneous.
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/structure.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Verb,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.5,
* McsEngl.verb-of-sign'language@cptCore986.5,
_DESCRIPTION:
There are three kinds of verbs in ASL which take both a subject and an object. The first kind, plain verbs function similarly to English verbs in that both the subject and the object are signed separately from the verb.
The second kind of verb can inflect for the object but not the subject.
A third kind includes both the subject and the object in their agreement. The verb "know" is a plain verb in ASL, and the signer must sign separately, "I", "know" and "you", but to sign "I will help you" involves only two signed lexical items, "I" and "help-you." Furthermore, "I say 'no' to you" involves only one lexical item, the verb "say (or answer) 'no'" inflected for both subject and object.
ASL verbs also inflect for temporality. Different movements can be applied to a base form of any verb to signify the temporal aspect. For example, whereas in English one would say, "He studied for a long period of time," in ASL two lexical items would suffice: "he" and an inflected form of the verb "studied"(Valli and Lucas 1992: 106).
[Amy Rosenberg Thesis University Kansas www.signwriting.org/forums/research/ 4]
Verbs are another common concept in all natural languages. They allow us to explain what it is we are doing. In fact, without verbs, language would cease to exist. Verbs in ASL come in three types: plain, inflecting, and spatial.
Plain Verbs
A plain verb is a normal verb in ASL. When using plain verbs the signer must designate the subject and the object. Examples of plain verbs in ASL are PLAY, RUN, JUMP, and SING.
Inflecting Verbs
Inflecting verbs allow the signer to incorporate the subject and object into the verb in one fluid motion. Examples of inflecting verbs in ASL are I-GIVE-YOU, HE-GIVE-ME, and I-TELL-THEM.
Spatial Verbs
The last type of verb is a spatial verb. These just allow the signer to specify where things are or how he or she moved them around. Examples of spatial verbs in ASL are PUT-UP and PUT-BELOW.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar] 2007-07-04
locating of the past in front of the signer and the future behind, like Japanese Sign Language and in contrast to sign languages of European origin, including American Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. Kyle and Woll (1985) speculate that this is represents a world view of the past as something visible, and the future as unknowable.
...
Conditional and imperative grammatical moods are marked by non-manual features such as a widening of the eyes and tensing of facial muscles.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urub%C3%BA_Sign_Language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'verbero'TENSE,
ASL:
Tenses (past, present and future) are indicated by the position of the sign in front of the body. Present tense signs are made in front of the body. Past tense signs move backward. Future tense signs move forward away from the body.
[http://library.thinkquest.org/10202/learnasl_text.html] 2007-07-04
ASL verbs also inflect for temporality. Different movements can be applied to a base form of any verb to signify the temporal aspect. For example, whereas in English one would say, "He studied for a long period of time," in ASL two lexical items would suffice: "he" and an inflected form of the verb "studied"(Valli and Lucas 1992: 106).
[http://www.signwriting.org/forums/research/rese014.html] 2007-07-05
Table 1 shows some examples of ASL time signs, grouped by the tenses, which are familiar in English.
Present Past Future Recent
NOW ONE-DAY-PAST FEW-DAY-FUTURE RECENTLY
TODAY FEW-DAY-PAST WILL
UP-TILL-NOW PAST FUTURE
EARLY-MORNING LONG-TIME-AGO DISTANT-FUTURE
ONCE-UPON-A-TIME ONE-YEAR-FUTURE
[http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/ctiphd/ctirs99/online/alkoby.html] 2007-07-04
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'verbero.PERSON,
SPESIFEPTO:
* FIRST PERSON,
* NONFIRST PERSON,
there is no grammatical distinction between second and third person (Meier 1990).
[http://mmm.lingue.unibo.it/mmm-proc/MMM4/235-250-Rathmann-Mathur-MMM4.pdf, 2] 2007-07-05
Instead of a three person system, Meier (1990) argued that the pronominal system of ASL is best described in terms of a first/non-first person distinction and that there is no evidence for a grammatical distinction in ASL between second and third person.
Meier, Richard. 1990. Person Deixis in ASL, in S. Fischer and P. Siple, eds.,
Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research: Vol.1: Linguistics. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 175-190.
[http://www.bultreebank.org/HPSG06/paper13.pdf] 2007-07-05
Modal Verbs
The concept of modal verbs is essentially the same in ASL and English. In ASL the modal always comes after the other verbs in the sentence. However, in English it is the very first verb.
English: I can go to the store for you.
ASL: FOR YOU, STORE I GO CAN
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar]
Modals in ASL include CAN, MUST, SHOULD and HAVE-TO.
[http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/ctiphd/ctirs99/online/alkoby.html] 2007-07-04
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.vocabulary,
* McsEngl.terminology-of-slng@cptCore986,
_DESCRIPTION:
A living language evolves to meet the ever changing needs of the people who use it. Lexicography, (the making of dictionaries), is like painting sunsets. By the time the paint dries the subject has changed. American Sign Language is constantly adapting to the needs of Deaf people, our families, and our associates.
[http://www.lifeprint.com/dictionary.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'MOTION-EXPRESSION,
Chapter 5 describes expressions of motion. A structure that seems to
be common in almost any large sign language is the so-called classifierconstruction.
Whereas handle classifier constructions typically express
externally controlled motion, entity classifier constructions typically express
internally controlled motion. AdaSL rarely uses handle classifier
constructions to express externally controlled movements. Moreover, AdaSL appears not to make use of a system of entity classifiers.
In AdaSL the usual way to indicate movement is through ΄directionals΄.
These movement signs (which can be spatially modified) each express a
basic movement pattern of movement regarding the cause of the movement
e.g. TOWARDS or ENTER. They may occur in a series with a sign expressing manipulation (e.g. TAKE) or expressing a way of moving (such as RUN), thus specifying the Cause of the movement.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf, 2] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'NAME-SIGN,
Many deafies, as well as some hearies, have their name signs. There are two styles of name signs: initialized and SL name signs. Initialized name signs are common in Canada and America probably because of the influence by S.E.E., a manual English system, in the 1970s. On the other hand, name signs in other countries and sometimes in North America are usually non-initialized. Some deafies don't have or choose not to have name signs; thus, their names have to be fingerspelled. Unlike birth names, a sign name may be changed once or a few times in a person's lifetime or it may remain the same since its first naming. New name signs are often mutually agreed between a person and hir deaf school peers, family, or group.
[http://www.handspeak.com]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'NUMERAL-SYSTEM,
Katseff (2004) describes the development of the numeral system in Nicaraguan Sign Language as moving from being two-handed and iconic to being one-handed and more arbitrary.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002185/bookpart.pdf, 14] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'SIZE-AND-SHAPE-SPECIFIER,
* McsEngl.sass@cptCore986,
In the sign language literature, the term Size and Shape Specifier (abbreviated as SASS) is used to refer both to sublexical size and shape elements as well as to full signs.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002186/bookpart.pdf, 1] 2007-07-03
Chapter 4 describes various ways of expressing form and size in
AdaSL. In a number of ways AdaSL diverts significantly from what is
common in the large sign languages so far studied. This is particularly
notable in the use of so called measure stick signs. These measure stick signs are also used by hearing people in Ghana and other parts of Africa.
Moreover AdaSL has standard signs to indicate a relative size which do not,
as seems to be the case in other sign languages, adapt to the absolute size of the entity in question.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf, 2] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'lingo.Word,
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'sign,
DEFINETRO:
Sign languages consist of signs which, when combined, form sentences and longer text entities. Such combination is done following the grammatical structures of each sign language. Signs have also been compared with the words in spoken languages; signs have the same task in sign languages as words have in spoken languages.
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf]
_GENERIC:
* YORDERO#cptCore59.9# (free-used-lektero)
WHOLE:
* KONSEPTESRO#ql:slang'konseptero#
The structural parts of a sign can be divided in two main categories: manual and non-manual structural parts. The manual parts are hand configuration, place of articulation, movement and orientation. Non-manual parts are generally the mouth movements connected to the sign and the movements of the cheeks and body. Looking at the structural parts of signs helps the learner to visualise and remember signs.
Although one structural part does not usually carry a meaning, changing one structural part into another can change the meaning of the sign.
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf, 18]
Handshapes are one of the five fundamental building blocks of a sign: Handshape, movement, location, orientation, and nonmanual markers. Nonmanual markers include those aspects of body language that do not involve the hands such as shoulder movements, head tilts, and facial expressions. The handshape is literally the shape in which we form our hand during the production of a sign.
[ASL http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/classifiers.htm]
However, many signs in various sign languages also resemble to each other due to their iconicity. This kind of similarity (about 40 per cent of all signs) makes the message to a large extent understandable to deaf people of different nationalities and facilitates the communication between them.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Sign_Language]
Signs can be observed and classified in different ways:
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf]
1. One-handed or two-handed sign
2. Fixed sign or productively structured sign
Fixed sign
With a fixed sign, we mean a sign which is generally used; it has a citation form and limited number of meanings. The Basic Dictionary of Finnish Sign Language consists of fixed signs.
For example:
HEVONEN (horse;632)
LUKEA (to read; 44)
YSTΔVΔ (friend; 332)
The fixed sign is composed of a hand configuration, movement, location, orientation, and non-manual structural parts. None of the structural parts of the fixed sign alone carries a meaning. The meaning of the sign is conveyed only when all the structural parts are combined.
[http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf, 15]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'CLASSIFIER,
The movement or shape of certain signs can be modified in such a way as to include information about a referent's type, size, shape, movement, or extent. Those signs which have this ability are "classifiers."
It might be more accurate to call them "potential classifiers" since whether or not these "potential classifiers" become actual classifiers depends on how they are used in context.
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/classifiers.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'sign.INITIALIZED,
Initialization is the process of using the ASL fingerspelled letter that represents the first letter of an English word as the handshape for a sign.
[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/initialization.htm]
Katie Beaman & Bill Vicars
April 22, 2003
Borrowed Language:
It is a well known fact that languages borrow from other languages they come in contact with. English uses words like guru (Hindi), weekend (French), and taco (Spanish). This is a natural phenomenon that cannot be escaped.
American Sign Language (ASL) also borrows from other languages. “Loan signs” are signs that are borrowed from other countries. Some of ASL is actually French Sign Language, introduced to American Deaf through Laurent Clerc. However, did you know that ASL borrows from English? Many signs use “initialization” to clarify a meaning. Sometimes initialized signs are created for a sign system, but many signs use the first letter (derived from English) to show an exact meaning. (For example, many colors in ASL like blue, green, and yellow are signed using the first letter of the word.)
Are these signs really English and not ASL? Of course not! These are natural ASL signs that are accepted by the Deaf community. Initialization of American Sign Language signs is a natural occurrence in ASL that won’t fade any time soon.
A partial list of widely accepted initialized signs:
Colors
Blue
Green
Yellow
Pink
Purple
Brown
Silver
Foreign countries
Foreign
Asia
Europe
Africa (on the face)
France
Mexico (old sign)
Hispanic
Italy (old sign)
Israel
Food
Vegetable
Fruit
French fries
Pizza
Chocolate
Vanilla
Lemon
Water
Beer
Wine
Dr. Pepper
Categories
Family
Agency/association
Class
Department
Group
Organization
Society
Team
Workshop
Religion
Religion
Church
Muslim
Temple
Missionary
Government
Government
Politics
Law
Congress
Legislature
State
Constitution
Will (last will)
Faculty
Testament
Staff
Vice president
Mayor
Federal
Agenda
Policy/Principle
Ethics
Code of Ethics
Cities/States
Texas
Dallas
Beaumont
Houston
Washington State
Chicago
New Orleans
St. Louis
Boston
Washington, D.C.
Philadelphia
Baltimore
Arizona
Hawaii
Medical
Medical
Hospital
Patient
Nurse
Client
Doctor
Penis
Toilet
Restroom
Infection
Insurance
Freedom
Free/freedom
Liberty
Save/safe
Independence
Directions
North
South
East
West
Left
Right
Holidays
Halloween (mask H)
Christmas
Easter
Retire
Thoughts
Imagine
Idea
Theory
Hypothesis
Fantasy
Philosophy
Opinion
Concept
Reason
Paranoid
Math
Math
Algebra
Geometry
Trigonometry
Calculus
Interest (related to money)
Rent
Ruler
Science
Chemistry
Biology
Weather
Winter
Season
School Signs
History
Language
University
Project
Program
Permission
Computer
Review
Resources
Results
Graduate
Grade
Principal
Grammar
Personal
Personal/personality
Attitude
Character
Nature (person’s nature)
Noble (“nature” with proud face)
Day signs
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Day
Yesterday
World
World
International
Globe
Universe
Theatre
Character
Role
Role model
Name signs
Arbitrary name signs with initials are the U.S. norm (few are descriptive -more common in Europe and Asia)
Life
Life/live
Address
Health
Physical
Environment
Environment
Situation
Atmosphere
Culture
“Shoulder-to-hip” signs
Bosnia
King
Queen
Prince/princess
Christian
Lord
Royal
Messiah
“Chin” signs
Cafeteria
Restaurant
Twin
Nutrition
“Wrist” signs
Use
Business
Internship/intern
Function
doctor
nurse
Emotions
Emotion
Honest
“ILY” (I love you)
Jealous
Location signs
Place
Museum
Country
Visit
People signs
Gay
Lesbian
People
Communicate
Music signs
Music
Poetry
Concert/choir
Gambling signs
Bet
Chance
Ante
Miscellaneous
Island
Professional
Train (for a job)
Ready
Hurry
Office
Room
Videotape
Divorce
Appointment
Culture
Hard of Hearing
Quality
Producer (relating to movies)
McDonalds
Let
Try
Bell
Diamond (ring)
Cousin
Idiot
Note: You can find even more signs by going through a large sign language dictionary and looking for specific "letter" handshapes: For example under "N" you will find signs like:
"N" signs
Natural/nation/normal
Negotiate
Neutral
Nephew
Niece
Nominate
No
Nun
Nurse
North
Various other initialized signs:
Identify
Interview
Time (era)
Semester
Respect
Honor
Faith
http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/initialization.htm
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'resourceInfHmn,
"American Sign Language Concise Dictionary"
http://www.multicom.com/catalog/page/signlang.html
http://www.handspeak.com:
Brief History
Welcome to the visual Sign Language dictionary on the Web! HandSpeak, formerly known as Sign Language Dictionary Online, became an independent "offspring" web site from the Deaf World Web in April 2000. It was developed in April 1996 when finance was viable.
Both HandSpeak and Deaf World Web are personal, volunteer work. It is currently in the infant stage. Unlike books, the Web sites can be launched at any time while they are being developed, edited or updated without being re-printed. That is one of the advantages about the Web!
Hope you will find this Web site useful and fun. If you have any questions, suggestions, or feedback, email to DWW-SL. Enjoy it! :-)
Who uses HandSpeak?
Based on emails, the backgrounds of users are various, such as:
sign language students Deaf people parents of deaf children parents of hearing babies police officers firefighters scuba divers teenagers audiologists doctors sign language instructors who are curious
Aims of HandSpeak
introducing parents, prospective sign language students and others to sign language. beneficial for sign language students to self-tutor or review. for the benefits of deaf children and deaf adults to learn vocabulary. useful for firefighters, scuba divers, and such to communicate in signs during working. researchers and others to communicate in signs with animals (eg. apes). some signs used for owners of deaf pets. for hearing people to use signs in addition to voice for a wholistic communication. for families and babies to sign before babies can speak (Baby Sign). for Deaf foreigners to communicate in International Sign.
SIGN LANGUAGE STRUCTURE:
He says his 1960 Sign Language Structure was "originally written to bring the language used by several hundred thousand Americans to the attention of language scientists, who had ignored or misunderstood it" (Stokoe 1978 i).
[Joe Martin A Linguistic Comparison www.signwriting.org]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn'BIBLIOGRAPHY,
Brentari, D. (in press). Modality as a Typological Factor in Word Segmentation. (PDF). In S. Anderson , L. Goldstein, and C. Best, eds., Papers in Laboratory Phonology VIII. Cambridge University Press.
http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/g.morgan/labphon8_brentari.pdf, 2007-07-02
Morgan, G. (2007). The first signs of language: phonological development in British Sign Language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 3-22
http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/g.morgan/Morgan%20BSL%20first%20signs%20final.pdf, 2007-07-02
Nyst, Victoria. (2007). A Descriptive Analysis of Adamorobe Sign Language (Ghana)
LOT Dissertation Series 151
http://www.lotpublications.nl/index3.html, 2007-07-02
Vivolin-Karιn, R. Alanne, K. (2003). DRAFT CURRICULUM AND STRUCTURE OF FINNISH SIGN LANGUAGE. The Finnish Association of the Deaf
translation Raili Ojala-Signell and Liz Scott Gibson
http://www.kl-deaf.fi/File/66fbe96f-9231-43f2-844d-ef5b765d8b0a/Draft_curriculum_FSL.pdf
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.specific,
_SPECIFIC: lagHmnSgn.ALPHABETICALLY:
* AMERICAN SL#cptCore395#
* BODY LANGUAGE
* BRITISH SL
* DEAF SL
* DEAFBLIND SL
* GERMAN SIGN-LANGUAGE
* GREEK SL#cptCore441#
* INTERNATIONAL SIGN-LANGUAGE
* ITALIAN SIGN-LANGUAGE#cptCore382#
* NEATHERLAND
* NORTH-AMERICAN-PLAIN-SL
* PARALANGUAGE
* PLAIN NORTH AMERICAN SL
* VISUAL SL
* WARLPIRI SL
===
* HOME SL
* LARGE SL
* RURAL SL
* EMERGING SL
* OLD SL
* YOUNG SL
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.ADAMOROBE-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.AdaSL@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
Adamorobe Sign Language is the sign language used in the village of
Adamorobe in Ghana. This sign language has evolved as a result of the high hereditary deafness incidence in this village. Adamorobe has approximately 1400 inhabitants, more than 30 of whom are deaf. The main spoken language in the village is Akan, a Kwa language.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf, 1] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.BRITISH-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.bsl@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
British Sign Language (BSL) is the sign language used in the United Kingdom (UK), and is the first or preferred language of an unknown number of Deaf people in the UK (published estimates range from 30,000 to 250,000 but it is likely that the lower figures are more accurate). The language makes use of space and involves movement of the hands, body, face and head. Many thousands of people who are not Deaf also use BSL, as hearing relatives of Deaf people, sign language interpreters or as a result of other contact with the British Deaf community.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Sign_Language] 2007-06-24
Relationships with other sign languages
Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as the predominant spoken language, British Sign Language is quite distinct from American Sign Language (ASL). BSL fingerspelling is also different from ASL as it uses two hands whereas ASL uses one. BSL is also distinct from Irish Sign Language (ISL) (ISG in the ISO system) which is more closely related to French Sign Language (LSF) and ASL. Northern Ireland Sign Language (NISL) has BSL as one of its two mother languages. Both NISL and ISL are used in Northern Ireland.
It is also distinct from Signed English, a manually coded method expressed to represent the English language.
The sign languages used in Australia and New Zealand, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language, respectively, evolved largely from 19th Century BSL, and all retain the same manual alphabet, grammar, and similar lexicon. BSL, Auslan and NZSL together may be called BANZSL. Makaton, a communication system for people with cognitive impairments or other communication difficulties, was originally developed with signs borrowed from British Sign Language.
BSL users campaigned to have BSL recognised on a similar level to Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish. BSL was recognised as a language in its own right by the UK government on 18 March 2003, but it has no legal protection, so therefore is not an official language of the United Kingdom.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Sign_Language] 2007-06-24
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.ESTONIAN-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
Miljan, Merilin. (2000). The noun phrase in Estonian Sign Language from the typological perspective. B. A. Thesis. Estonian Institute of Humanities
Supervisor: Lumme Erilt, Lecturer in Linguistics. Tallinn.
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.GESTUNO,
* McsEngl.gestuno@cptCore986,
As it appears, contrary to the common belief, there is no universal sign language. Although a sign form called Gestuno was developed by the World Federation of the Deaf for use at international conferences of deaf people, it is more a vocabulary of signs than a language (Nakamura 1999:1-2, BDA 1975).
[http://sinine.ehi.ee/ehi/oppetool/lopetajad/merilin/sign.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.HOME,
* McsEngl.home-sign-language@cptCore986,
DEFINETRO:
Home sign languages - sign languages of deaf people who do not regularly communicate with other deaf people.
[http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002190/bookpart.pdf, 1] 2007-07-03
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.INTERNATIONAL-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.1,
* McsEngl.international'sign'language@cptCore986.1,
* McsEngl.gestuno@cptCore986.1,
Another way of communication is the International Sign Language (previously known as old term, "Gestuno") which is an artificially devised sign language. Gestuno is to Deaf as Esperanto is to Hearing. It is often used to communicate among Deaf officials, as well as a small number of Deaf individuals, at some international level meetings, conventions and such. It's highly unlike that International SL will ever replace natural foreign sign languages.
As it appears, contrary to the common belief, there is no universal sign language. Although a sign form called Gestuno was developed by the World Federation of the Deaf for use at international conferences of deaf people, it is more a vocabulary of signs than a language (Nakamura 1999:1-2, BDA 1975). In Europe, a lingua franca under the name of the International Sign Language has been developed, but the attitudes of the deaf to using it are controversial (Nakamura 1999:1-2).
[\INFORMATION\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\SIGN LANGUAGE\The Noun Phrase in Estonian Sign Language - 5 What is sign language.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.PLAIN-NORTH-AMERICAN,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.2,
One of the best-known sign languages is that developed by the Plains peoples of North America as a means of communication between tribes that did not share the same language. In many respects it forms a manual counterpart to the Native American system of pictographs painted on buckskin or birchbark. The manual signs represent things in nature, ideas, emotions, and sensations. For example, the sign for a white person is made by drawing the fingers across the forehead, indicating a hat; special signs exist also for each tribe and for particular rivers, mountains, and other natural features. The sensation of cold is indicated by a shivering motion of the hands in front of the body; the same sign is used for winter and for year, because Native Americans counted years in terms of winters. The Native American sign language is so elaborate that a detailed conversation is possible using gestures alone.
"Sign Language," Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 97 Encyclopedia. (c) 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.TACTILE-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.conceptCore986.6,
* McsEngl.tactile'sign'language@cptCore986.6,
* McsElln.ΝΟΗΜΑΤΙΚΗ'ΓΛΩΣΣΑ'ΑΦΗΣ@cptCore986.6,
Tactile signing is a common means of communication used by people with both a sight and hearing impairment (see Deafblindness), which is based on a standard system of Deaf manual signs.
...
Tactile sign language vs visual sign language
Little data exists on the specifics of variation between visual and tactile sign language use. However, what studies there are suggest a significant degree of difference. In hand-over-hand signing, elements of deaf sign languages known as 'non-manual features’ (such as facial expression) will not be received, and will need to be substituted with supplementary information produced manually. Common non-manual features used in Deaf Sign languages that are absent in tactile signing include raised eyebrows as a question marker and a shaking head as a negation.
Tactile signing is also contained within a smaller space than is typical in visual sign language. Signs that touch the body may be moved forward into a more neutral space. Other signs which are usually produced in an ‘out of range’ location (such as the leg) may be modified (either spelled or a variant sign used).
Different rules govern turn taking, greetings and goodbyes.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_signing] 2007-06-22
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.MANUALLY-CODED-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.Signed'modes-of-spoken'language,
* McsEngl.Manually'Coded'Language,
DEFINETRO:
Manually Coded Languages (MCLs) are representations of spoken languages in a gestural-visual form; that is, "sign language" versions of spoken languages. Unlike the sign languages that have evolved naturally in Deaf communities, which have distinct spatial structures, Manually Coded Languages are the invention of hearing people, and mostly follow the grammar of the spoken language — or, more precisely, of the written form of the spoken language. They have been mainly used in deaf education and by sign language interpreters, although they have had some influence on Deaf sign languages where their implementation was widespread.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manually_Coded_Languages] 2007-06-23
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.NETHERLANDS-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.netherlands'sign'language@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.ngt@cptCore986,
I will abbreviate the name Sign Language of the Netherlands as
NGT that is derived from the official name of this language Nederlandse
Gebarentaal.
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.VISUAL-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
* McsEngl.deaf'sign'language@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.visual'sign'language@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.gesture-language,
* McsEngl.gesture'language@cptCore986,
* McsEngl.language.gesture@cptCore986,
* McsElln.ΧΕΙΡΟΝΟΜΙΩΝ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmnSgn.WARLPIRI-SIGN-LANGUAGE,
Warlpiri Sign Language is a sign language used by the Warlpiri, an Aboriginal community in the central desert region of Australia. It is one of the most elaborate, and certainly the most studied, of all Australian Aboriginal sign languages.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlpiri_Sign_Language] 2007-06-23
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.SOUND.NO,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.LANGUAGE'WITHOUT'SOUND,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.SYNTHETIC,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.36,
* McsEngl.conceptCore646,
* McsEngl.synthetic-language@cptCore646,
* McsEngl.synthetic'language@cptCore646,
* McsEngl.language.synthetic@cptCore646,
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΗ@cptCore646,
_DESCRIPTION:
A synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-per-word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage classifications (such as fusional, agglutinative, etc.) although there is a common tendency for agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic properties.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language]
===
ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
===
"ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΟΠΟΥ ΠΟΛΛΕΣ ΣΥΝΤΑΧΤΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΕΣ ΕΝΣΩΜΑΤΩΝΟΝΤΑΙ ΜΕΣΑ ΣΤΙΣ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ ΜΕ ΤΗ ΜΟΡΦΗ ΚΛΙΤΙΚΩΝ ΜΟΡΦΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΛΕΓΟΝΤΑΙ "ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΕΣ" ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ. ΣΥΝΗΘΩΣ ΣΕ ΤΕΤΟΙΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΟΙ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ ΑΛΛΑΖΟΥΝ ΜΟΡΦΗ ΓΙΑΝΑ ΔΗΛΩΘΟΥΝ ΔΙΑΦΟΡΕΤΙΚΕΣ ΣΥΝΤΑΧΤΙΚΕΣ ΣΧΕΣΕΙΣ, ΚΑΙ ΔΕΝ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΕΥΚΟΛΟ ΝΑ ΞΕΧΩΡΙΣΟΥΝ ΛΕΞΙΛΟΓΙΚΑ ΚΑΙ ΚΛΙΤΙΚΑ ΜΟΡΦΗΜΑΤΑ, ΧΩΡΙΣ ΠΑΝΤΩΣ ΤΟ ΤΕΛΕΥΤΑΙΟ ΝΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΓΕΝΙΚΗ ΚΑΤΑΣΤΑΣΗ, ΠΧ ΣΤΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΑΡΚΕΤΑ ΠΙΟ ΕΥΚΟΛΟ ΑΠΟ ΟΤΙ ΣΤΑ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ ΝΑ ΓΙΝΕΙ ΤΕΤΟΙΟ ΞΕΧΩΡΙΣΜΑ, ΠΑΡΟΛΟ ΠΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΤΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΣΕ ΜΕΓΑΛΟ ΒΑΘΜΟ ΣΥΝΘΕΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ."
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 79#cptResource191#]
_SPECIFIC: langSyn.Alphabetically:
* agglutinative
* GERMAN
* GREEK
* inflecting
* ITALIAN
* LATIN
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.1,
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.1,
* McsEngl.agglutinative-language@cptCore646.1,
* McsEngl.lng.AGGLUTINATIVE,
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΣΥΓΚΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ@cptCore648,
* McsElln.ΣΥΓΚΟΛΛΗΤΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
_DESCRIPTION:
An agglutinative language is a language which uses agglutination extensively: most words are formed by joining morphemes together. This term was introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in 1836 to classify languages from a morphological point of view. It was derived from the Latin verb agglutinare, which means "to glue together."
An agglutinative language is a form of synthetic language where each affix typically represents one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive," "past tense," "plural," etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). Additionally, and most importantly, in an agglutinative language affixes do not become fused with others, and do not change form conditioned by others.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language]
===
German is an agglutinative language, which forms compound words like Lebensversicherungsgesellschaftsangestellter (life insurance company employee). Old English was an agglutinative language like German, but as it evolved into modern English, it became almost as analytic as Chinese.
===
ΣΥΓΚΟΛΛΗΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
===
ΟΙ ΣΥΓΚΟΛΛΗΤΙΚΕΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΣΥΝΔΥΑΖΟΥΝ ΤΗΝ ΑΥΤΟΤΕΛΕΙΑ ΤΩΝ ΚΛΙΤΙΚΩΝ ΜΟΡΦΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΜΕ ΤΗ ΔΥΝΑΤΟΤΗΤΑ ΕΝΣΩΜΑΤΩΣΗΣ ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΩΝ ΜΕΣΑ ΣΤΗ ΛΕΞΗ.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 80#cptResource191#]
_SPECIFIC:
ΜΟΓΚΟΛΕΖΙΚΑ,
ΟΥΓΚΑΡΕΖΙΚΑ,
ΣΟΥΑΧΙΛΙ (ΑΝ. ΑΦΡΙΚΗ)
ΤΟΥΡΚΙΚΑ,
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.2,
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.2,
* McsEngl.inflecting-language@cptCore646.2,
* McsEngl.fusional-language@cptCore646.2,
_DESCRIPTION:
A fusional language (also called inflecting language) is a type of synthetic language, distinguished from agglutinative languages by its tendency to "squish together" many morphemes in a way which can be difficult to segment.
The canonical examples of fusional languages are Latin and German; in general, all conservative Indo-European languages are fusional. Another notable group of fusional languages is the Semitic languages group.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecting_language]
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.3,
* McsEngl.conceptCore646.3,
* McsEngl.language.polysynthetic@cptCore646.3,
* McsEngl.polysynthetic-language@cptCore646.3,
In linguistic typology, polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, i.e., languages in which words are composed of many morphemes. Whereas isolating languages have a low morpheme-to-word ratio, polysynthetic languages have extremely high morpheme-to-word ratios.
Not all languages can be easily classified as being completely polysynthetic. Morpheme and word boundaries are not always clear cut, and languages may be highly synthetic in one area but less synthetic in other areas (compare verbs and nouns in Southern Athabaskan languages).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysynthetic_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.text.CUNEIFORM,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.67,
* McsEngl.cuneiform-script@cptCore93.67, {2012-09-24} /kkuneiform/
* McsEngl.cuneiform-writing@cptCore93.67, {2012-09-24}
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.σφηνοειδής-γραφή@cptCore93.67, {2012-09-24}
_DESCRIPTION:
Cuneiform script[1] is one of the earliest known forms of written expression. Emerging in Sumer around the 30th century BC, with predecessors reaching into the late 4th millennium (the Uruk IV period), cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. In the three millennia the script spanned, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use also grew gradually smaller, from about 1,000 unique characters in the Early Bronze Age to about 400 unique characters in Late Bronze Age (Hittite cuneiform).
The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Luwian, Hattic, Hurrian, and Urartian languages, and it inspired the Ugaritic and Old Persian alphabets. Cuneiform writing was gradually replaced by the Phoenician alphabet during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and by the 2nd century AD, the script had become extinct.
Cuneiform documents were written on clay tablets, by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. The impressions left by the stylus were wedge shaped, thus giving rise to the name cuneiform ("wedge shaped", from the Latin cuneus, meaning "wedge").
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform'EVOLUTION,
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-cuneiform,
{time.bce1800}:
Hittite cuneiform is an adaptation of the Old Assyrian cuneiform of ca. 1800 BC to the Hittite language. When the cuneiform script was adapted to writing Hittite, a layer of Akkadian logographic spellings was added to the script, thus the pronunciations of many Hittite words which were conventionally written by logograms are now unknown.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script]
{time.75}:
The last known cuneiform inscription, an astronomical text, was written in 75 AD.[4]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform'Unicode,
Unicode (as of version 6.0) assigns to the Cuneiform script the following ranges:
U+12000–U+123FF (879 assigned characters) "Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform"
U+12400–U+1247F (103 assigned characters) "Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation"
The final proposal for Unicode encoding of the script was submitted by two cuneiform scholars working with an experienced Unicode proposal writer in June 2004.[14] The base character inventory is derived from the list of Ur III signs compiled by the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative of UCLA based on the inventories of Miguel Civil, Rykle Borger (2003), and Robert Englund. Rather than opting for a direct ordering by glyph shape and complexity, according to the numbering of an existing catalogue, the Unicode order of glyphs was based on the Latin alphabetic order of their "last" Sumerian transliteration as a practical approximation.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform'Unit,
The Sumerian cuneiform script had on the order of 1,000 distinct signs (or about 1,500 if variants are included). This number was reduced to about 600 by the 24th century BC and the beginning of Akkadian records. Not all Sumerian signs are used in Akkadian texts, and not all Akkadian signs are used in Hittite.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform.AKKADIAN,
_DESCRIPTION:
The archaic cuneiform script was adopted by the Akkadians from ca. 2500 BC, and by 2000 BC had evolved into Old Assyrian cuneiform, with many modifications to Sumerian orthography. The Semitic equivalents for many signs became distorted or abbreviated to form new "phonetic" values, because the syllabic nature of the script as refined by the Sumerians was unintuitive to Semitic speakers.
At this stage, the former pictograms were reduced to a high level of abstraction, and were composed of only five basic wedge shapes: horizontal, vertical, two diagonals and the Winkelhaken impressed vertically by the tip of the stylus. The signs exemplary of these basic wedges are
A� (B001, U+12038) ??: horizontal;
DI� (B748, U+12079) ??: vertical;
GE23, DI� tenϋ (B575, U+12039) ??: downward diagonal;
GE22 (B647, U+1203A) ??: upward diagonal;
U (B661, U+1230B) ??: the Winkelhaken.
Except for the Winkelhaken which is tail-less, the length of the wedges' tails could vary as required for sign composition.
Signs tilted by (ca.) 45 degrees are called tenϋ in Akkadian, thus DI� is a vertical wedge and DI� tenϋ a diagonal one. Signs modified with additional wedges are called gunϋ, and signs crosshatched with additional Winkelhaken are called �e�ig.
"Typical" signs have usually in the range of about five to ten wedges, while complex ligatures can consist of twenty or more (although it is not always clear if a ligature should be considered a single sign or two collated but still distinct signs); the ligature KAxGUR7 consists of 31 strokes.
Most later adaptations of Sumerian cuneiform preserved at least some aspects of the Sumerian script. Written Akkadian included phonetic symbols from the Sumerian syllabary, together with logograms that were read as whole words. Many signs in the script were polyvalent, having both a syllabic and logographic meaning. The complexity of the system bears a resemblance to old Japanese, written in a Chinese-derived script, where some of these Sinograms were used as logograms, and others as phonetic characters.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform.OLD-PERSIAN,
The complexity of the system prompted the development of a number of simplified versions of the script. Old Persian was written in a subset of simplified cuneiform characters known today as Old Persian cuneiform. It formed a semi-alphabetic syllabary, using far fewer wedge strokes than Assyrian used, together with a handful of logograms for frequently occurring words like "god" and "king". The Ugaritic language was written using the Ugaritic alphabet, a standard Semitic style alphabet (an abjad) written using the cuneiform method.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script]
Old Persian cuneiform is a semi-alphabetic cuneiform script that was the primary script for the Old Persian language. Texts written in this cuneiform were found in Persepolis, Susa, Hamadan, Armenia, and along the Suez Canal.[1] They were mostly inscriptions from the time period of Darius the Great and his son Xerxes. Later kings down to Artaxerxes III used corrupted forms of the language classified as “pre-Middle Persian”.[1]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform]
name::
* McsEngl.cuneiform.UGARITIC,
_DESCRIPTION:
The Ugaritic script is a cuneiform (wedge-shaped) abjad used from around either the fifteenth century BCE[1] or 1300 BCE[2] for Ugaritic, an extinct Northwest Semitic language, and discovered in Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra), Syria, in 1928. It has 30 letters. Other languages (particularly Hurrian) were occasionally written in the Ugaritic script in the area around Ugarit, although not elsewhere.
Clay tablets written in Ugaritic provide the earliest evidence of both the West and South Semitic orders of the alphabet, which gave rise to the alphabetic orders of Arabic (in earlier order of its abjad), the reduced Hebrew, and more distantly Greek, and Latin alphabets on the one hand, and of the Ge'ez alphabet on the other. Arabic and Old South Arabian are the only other Semitic alphabets which have letters for all or almost all of the 29 commonly-reconstructed proto-Semitic consonant phonemes. According to Dietrich and Loretz in Handbook of Ugaritic Studies (ed. Watson and Wyatt, 1999): "The language they [the 30 signs] represented could be described as an idiom which in terms of content seemed to be comparable to Canaanite texts, but from a phonological perspective, however, was more like Arabic."
The script was written from left to right. Although cuneiform and pressed into clay, it was unrelated to Akkadian cuneiform.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.text.IDEOGRAPHY,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.68,
* McsEngl.ideography@cptCore93.68, {2012-09-25}
* McsEngl.logographic-system@cptCore93.68, {2012-09-25}
* McsEngl.logographic-writing@cptCore93.68, {2012-09-25}
* McsEngl.logography@cptCore93.68, {2012-09-24}
_DESCRIPTION:
Logographic systems, or logographies, include the earliest true writing systems; the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, China, and Central America used some form of logographic writing.
A purely logographic script would be impractical for most languages, and none is known apart from one devised for the artificial language Toki Pona, a purposely limited language with only 120 morphemes. A more recent attempt is Zlango, intended for use in text messaging, currently including around 300 "icons". All logographic scripts ever used for natural languages rely on the rebus principle to extend a relatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the phonetic domain is the syllable. In both Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and in Chinese, there has been the additional development of fusing such phonetic elements with determinatives; such "radical and phonetic" characters make up the bulk of the script, and both languages relegated simple rebuses to the spelling of foreign loan words and words from non-standard dialects.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logography]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.TONE,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.20,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.Tone,
* McsEngl.tone-language@cptCore93.20, {2012-08-17}
_DESCRIPTION:
As explained in the section on tone, some languages make use of tone for distinguishing word meanings, or, in some cases, for indicating different aspects of grammar. It is probably the case that most of the people in the world speak a tone language as their native language, and the peripheral role assigned to the subject of tone by European-language-speaking phoneticians and phonologists shows a regrettable bias that has only recently begun to be corrected. It is conventional (though not strictly accurate) to divide tone languages into contour languages (where the most important distinguishing characteristic of tones is the shape of their pitch contour) and register languages where the height of the pitch is the most important thing. Chinese, and other languages of south-east Asia are said to be contour languages while most African tone languages (mainly in the South and West of Africa) are classed as register languages. The Amerindian languages of Central and South America seem to be difficult to fit into this classification.
Pitch is not the only determining factor in tone: some languages use voice quality differences in a similar way. North Vietnamese, for example, has "creaky" or "glottalized" tones.
[Peter Roach Encyc 2000]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.URALIC,
* McsEngl.uralian-languages,
* McsEngl.uralic-languages,
_DESCRIPTION:
The Uralic languages /j?'rζl?k/ (sometimes called Uralian /j?'re?li?n/ languages) constitute a language family of some 38[2] languages spoken by approximately 25 million people. The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian, which are official languages of Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, respectively, and of the European Union. Other Uralic languages with significant numbers of speakers are Erzya, Moksha, Mari, Udmurt, and Komi, which are officially recognized languages in various regions of Russia.
The name "Uralic" derives from the fact that the family's original homeland (Urheimat) is commonly hypothesized to lie in the vicinity of the Ural Mountains.
Finno-Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages.[3]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.USAGE,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.usage,
What Is the Most Commonly Spoken Language in the World?
Mandarin Chinese is most commonly spoken language in the world.
Mandarin Chinese is the most commonly spoken language around the world,
with over 955 million speakers. It is one of six official languages in the
United Nations along with Arabic, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
Mandarin is one of many Chinese dialects, and is largely spoken in China,
Taiwan, and Singapore. In 1932 the Mandarin dialect, from the area of
Beijing, was selected by Chinese officials in order to create a standard
national language. While Mandarin is now the common language of China and
taught in schools across the world, many Chinese continue to speak in their
regional dialects.
Read More: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-most-commonly-spoken-language-in-the-world.htm?m, {2014-11-24}
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.VARIETY,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.25,
* McsEngl.variety-of-language@cptCore93.25, {2012-08-21}
_DESCRIPTION:
In sociolinguistics a variety, also called a lect, is a specific form of a language or language cluster. This may include languages, dialects, accents, registers, styles or other sociolinguistic variation, as well as the standard variety itself.[1] "Variety" avoids the terms language, which many people associate only with the standard language, and dialect, which is associated with non-standard varieties thought of as less prestigious or "correct" than the standard.[2] Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard varieties. "Lect" avoids the problem in ambiguous cases of deciding whether or not two varieties are distinct languages or dialects of a single language.
Variation at the level of the lexicon, such as slang and argot, is often considered in relation to particular styles or levels of formality (also called registers), but such uses are sometimes discussed as varieties themselves.[1]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.VERBAL,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.verbal,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.VERBAL.NO,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.verbalNo,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.generic.BODY,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.body,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are,
_DESCRIPTION:
Body language is a broad term for forms of communication using body movements or gestures instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of communication. It forms part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal language.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language] 2007-06-22
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.GENERIC.NO,
* McsEngl.conceptCore93.21,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.INDIVIDEPO,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.instance,
_SPECIFIC:
* Esperanto#cptCore711#
* langoko#cptCore683#
===
* Arabic#cptCore946#
* English#cptCore569#
* French#cptCore42#
* German#cptCore41#
* Greek#cptCore570#
* Indian#cptCore951#
* Italian#cptCore44#
* Japanese#cptCore876#
* Latin#cptCore15#
* Russian#cptCore45#
* Spanish#cptCore43#
Afar;
Afghan Persian (Dari);
African languages;
Afrikaans;
Akan;
Albanian#cptCore344#
Alemannic dialect;
Alsatian;
Altaic;
Amerindian dialects;
Amharic;
Aramaic;
Armenian;
Assamese;
Assyrian;
Austronesian language
Aymara;
Bahasa;
Baloch;
Balochi;
Bambara;
Bandjabi;
Bangla;
Bantu dialects;
Bantu;
Bapounou;
Basque;
Bateke;
Bengali;
Berber dialects;
Bhoqpuri;
Bichelama;
Bislama
Bojpoori;
Breton;
Bubi;
Bulgarian;
Burmese;
Cakchiquel;
Cantonese;
Carib;
Carolinian;
Castilian Spanish;
Castilian;
Catalan;
Caucasian;
Chamorro;
Chichewa;
Chinese;
Circassian;
Corsican;
Creole patois;
Creole;
Criolo;
Crioulo;
Czech;
Dagomba;
Danish;
Diola;
Dioula;
diplomacy;
Divehi;
Djerma;
Dutch;
Dzongkha;
Eschira;
Eskimo dialects;
Ewe;
Fang;
Faroese;
Farsi;
Fijian;
Finnish;
Flemish;
Fon;
French patois;
Fula;
Fulani;
Fuzhou;
Ga;
Gaelic
Galician;
Gan;
Garifuna;
Gilbertese;
Greenlandic;
Guarani;
Gujarati;
Hakka dialects;
Hakka;
Hasaniya Arabic;
Hassaniya Arabic;
Hausa;
Hebrew;
Hindi;
Hindustani;
Hokkien-Taiwanese;
Hungarian;
Hunsa;
Ibo;
Icelandic;
Indo-European;
Irish (Gaelic);
Kabye;
Kannada;
Kashmiri;
Kekchi;
Khalkha Mongol
Khmer;
Kikongo;
Kingwana;
Kinyarwanda;
Kirundi;
Kiswahili
Korean;
Kosrean;
Krio
Kurdish;
Latin#cptCore369#
Lao;
Lapp;
Lingala;
Luganda;
Luri;
Luxembourgish;
Macedonian
Malagasy;
Malay;
Malayalam;
Malayo-Polynesian;
Maltese;
Mandarin;
Mandingo;
Mandinka;
Maori;
Marathi;
Marshallese dialects
Maya;
Melanesian pidgin
Mende
Mina
Minbei;
Minnan;
Mon-Khmer;
Monegasque;
Moroccan Arabic;
Moshi-Dagomba;
Motu
Myene;
Nahua;
native languages;
Nauruan;
Ndebele;
Nepalese dialects;
Nepali;
Niger-Congo language group;
Nilo-Hamitic;
Nilotic languages;
Nilotic;
North;
Norwegian;
Nubian;
Palauan
Papiamento;
Pashtu;
Persian dialects;
Persian;
pidgin English;
Pilipino
Pohnpeian;
Polish;
political;
Polynesian languages;
Polynesian;
Portuguese;
predominantly English;
Provencal;
Pulaar;
Punjabi;
Putonghua;
regional dialects;
Romanian;
Romansch;
Sabah;
Samoan
Sangho;
Sango;
Sanskrit/ΣΑΝΣΚΡΙΤΙΚΗ
Sara;
Sarakole;
Sarawak;
Scottish
Serbo-Croatian;
Sesotho
Setswana;
Shaafi Islam;
Shanghainese;
Shona;
Sindhi;
Sinhala;
siSwati;
Slavic group;
Slovak;
Slovene;
Somali;
South Sotho;
Sranan Tongo
Sudanic languages;
Sudanic family;
Suriname;
Surinamese;
Swahili;
Swedish;
Ta Bedawie;
Tagalog;
Tahitian;
Taiwanese;
Taki-Taki;
Tamil;
Telgu;
Temne
Thai;
Tibetan dialects;
Tigrinya;
Tongan;
Tosk;
Toucouleur;
tribal languages
tribal languages;
tribal dialects;
Trukese;
Tshiluba;
Tswana;
Turkic dialects;
Turkic languages
Turkic;
Turkish;
Turkmen;
Tuvaluan;
vernacular languages;
Vietnamese;
Warlpiri, a native abirigine language of australia
Welsh
Wolof;
Wu;
Xhosa;
Xiang;
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.genericNo.INDIVIDUAL,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.individual,
_DESCRIPTION:
"... using Hinman's language ..."
[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3326244]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.genericNo.ALBANIAN (lagAlb),
* McsEngl.conceptCore344,
* McsEngl.lagAlb,
* McsEngl.lhn.albanian,
* McsEngl.lagHmnAlb,
* McsEngl.lango.albano@cptCore344,
* McsEngl.albanian-language@cptCore344,
Albanian (gjuha shqipe IPA /??u?ha ??ci?p?/) is a language spoken by about 6 million people, primarily in Albania, Serbia (Kosovo), Montenegro, and Macedonia but also in other parts of the Balkans, along the eastern coast of Italy and in Sicily, as well as by a significant diaspora in Scandinavia, Germany, the United Kingdom, Egypt, Australia, Turkey, and the United States. The language forms its own distinct branch of the Indo-European language family.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language]
name::
* McsEngl.alb'LETERO,
* McsEngl.alphabet.Albanian,
* McsEngl.lagAlb'alphabet,
In Albanian, every sound has its own letter and every letter has its own sound. There is a one-to-one relationship between sounds and letters, and reading and writing Albanian is relatively easy.
[http://www.argjiro.net/albi/green/?book=2&chapter=0&subchapter=0]
name::
* McsEngl.alb'LETETRO (no w),
Alphabet-pronunciation#pl:\DATA\INFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\ALBANIAN\SOUND\Albanian_alphabet.ogg#:
Albanian has been written with many different alphabets since the 15th century. The earliest written Albanian records come from the Gheg area in makeshift spellings based on Italian or Greek and sometimes in Turko-Arabic characters. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written with the Greek alphabet and the Gheg dialect was written with the Latin alphabet. They have both also been written with the Ottoman Turkish version of the Arabic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet, and some local alphabets.
In 1909 an official, standardized Albanian spelling was developed, based on a southern Gheg dialect and employing the Latin alphabet with the addition of the letters e", c,, and nine digraphs. After World War II the official language changed in that it adopted the northern Tosk dialect as its model.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language]
Albanian alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, and consists of 36 letters:
Letters: A B C C, D Dh E E" F G Gj H I J K L Ll M N Nj O P Q R Rr S Sh T Th U V X Xh Y Z Zh
IPA: a b ts t? d ? ? ? f g ? h i j k l ? m n ? ? p c ? r s ? t θ u v dz d? y z ?
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.alb'letetro'CONSONANT,
alb'B'letetro:
b as b* in Boston
alb'C'letetro:
c as ts* in curtsy
alb'CW'letetro (c with , underneeth):
c as ch* in church
'c,' is also seen in French, however Albanians pronounce it very differently. Albanian 'c,' sounds like 'ch' in 'child' (or like German 'tsch').
alb'D'letetro:
d as d* in Denver
alb'DH'letetro:
dh as th* in they
'dh' sounds like 'th' in the English word 'that'.
alb'F'letetro:
f as f* in free
alb'G'letetro:
g as hard g* in go
'g' is always pronounced like 'g' in 'great' (never like 'g' in 'digit'!).
alb'GJ'letetro:
gj as dg* in dodge
'gj' does not have a counterpart in English. It is produced by the merger of Albanian sounds 'd' and 'j' (see below). 'gj' sounds like the beginning of the word 'during', but you have to go a step further and merge the first two sounds completely. It is a palatal sound, i.e., it is pronounced with the tongue touching the palate. Alternatively, you can pronounce this sound like the rest of foreigners who learn Albanian, i.e., like 'j' in 'joy'. Albanians from Kosova often pronounce it this way as well.
alb'K'letetro:
k as k* in king
alb'L'letetro:
l as liquid l* in alien
alb'LL'letetro:
ll as ll* in all
alb'NJ'letetro:
nj as ni* in union
alb'P'letetro:
p as p* in pencil
alb'Q'letetro:
q as ch* in chair
alb'R'letetro:
r as r* in roar
alb'RR'letetro:
rr as highly trilled rr* ..in Spanish burro
'rr' is a rough sound. During its pronunciation the tongue should not be rolled back. There is no similar sound in English, except perhaps in Scotland.
alb'SH'letetro:
sh as sh* in she
alb'TH'letetro:
th as th* in three
alb'V'letetro:
v as v* in value
alb'X'letetro:
x as dz* in adze
alb'XH'letetro:
xh as j* in jester
'xh' is like the English 'j' in 'joy'
alb'Z'letetro:
z as z* in zone
alb'ZH'letetro:
zh as si* in vision
'zh' is pronounced like French 'j' or like the English 's' in 'measure'.
name::
* McsEngl.alb'letetro'vowel,
The vowels.
Albanian has seven vowels. Two of them are described above ('e"' and 'y'). The other five are described below.
'a' is a vowel and is pronounced like 'a' in 'farm'.
'e' is a vowel and is pronounced like 'e' in 'tell'.
'i' ia a vowel and is pronounced like 'ee' in 'sheep', or like 'i' in 'hit'.
'o' is a vowel and is pronounced like 'o' in 'top'.
'u' is a vowel and is pronounced like 'oo' in 'foot', or like 'u' in 'put'.
'e"' sounds like 'u' in 'nurse' or in 'purse'. When in the end of a word, Albanians usually ignore it (they do not pronounce it).
In everyday writing, Albanians often tend to replace 'e"' with 'e' and 'c,' with 'c'. However, they pronounce them correctly. This may present some difficulties during communication (e.g. by email). The problem is exacerbated by the scarcity of Albanian keyboards. Please keep this in mind.
'y' is a vowel in Albanian. It is like French 'u' or German 'u"'. To pronounce it say 'ee' (as in sheep) and then round and pull forward your lips, sort of like whistling.
[http://www.argjiro.net/albi/green/?book=2&chapter=0&subchapter=0]
Pronounciation of the Albanian Alphabet.
a as a* in father
e as e* in set
e as e* in term
i as i* in machine
j as y* in year
o as o* in oak
u as oo* in loom
y as Y* in German FYhrer
or u* in French du, mur
[http://learnalbanianlanguage.com/History.aspx]
Nouns
* three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter;
* two numbers: singular and plural;
* 4 declensions;
* 6 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative); the vocative case occurs with only a few nouns.
* definite articles are attached to the end of nouns (as in Romanian and Greek), e.g., zog "bird," zogu "the bird," shte"pi "house," shte"pia "the house."
* Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify and agree with it in gender, number and case.
* .adjectives require a particle preceding them that agrees with the noun they modify, e.g., in nje" burre" i madh "a big man," the noun burre" "man" is modified by madh "big," which is preceded by i, which agrees with burre" "man."
[http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/albanian.html#stru]
name::
* McsEngl.alb'SENTENSERO,
Subordinate clauses are divided into subject, object and attributive clauses with a further division into temporal, causal, conditional, modal, subordinate concessive, purposive, and comparative clauses. Each type of clause is introduced by a number of different particles.
[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=36&menu=004]
name::
* McsEngl.alb'Resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://aboutworldlanguages.com/albanian,
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language:
* http.albanian.DICTIONARY: english <==> albanian::http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor/: http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor/
The verb system is extremely complex due to the large number of moods, each of which has several tenses. Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number.
* three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd;
* two numbers: singular, plural;
* six moods: indicative, subjunctive, admirative, conditional, optative, imperative;
* each mood has several tenses: Indicative - 8; subjunctive - 4, admirative - 4, conditional - 2, optative - 2, imperative - 1.
* verbs have two forms, e.g., laj "'I wash', and lahem "'I am washed," or "I wash myself."
* An unusual feature of the verb phrase is that when a definite noun is the direct object of the sentence, a pronoun in the objective case that repeats this information is inserted in the verb phrase; e.g., i-a dhash‘ librin atij is literally "him it I gave the book to him."
[http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/albanian.html#stru]
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore946,
* McsEngl.arabic-language@cptCore946,
* McsElln.ΑΡΑΒΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.αραβική-γλώσσα@cptCore946,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΑΡΑΒΙΚΗ@cptCore946,
Ανήκει στην οικογένεια των ΣΗΜΙΤΙΚΩΝ ΓΛΩΣΣΩΝ, που μιλιούνταν απο τους λαούς που θεωρούνται απόγονοι του Σημ, γιου του Νώε.
Συγγενεύει με την ΕΒΡΑΙΚΗ, την ΑΡΑΜΑΙΚΗ και τη ΦΟΙΝΙΚΙΚΗ, οι δύο τελευταίες είναι νεκρές.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 568#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'DIALECT,
Παρουσιάζει πολλές διαλέκτους από τις οποίες κυριότερες είναι:
αιγύπτου,
συρίας,
παλαιστίνης,
αλγερίου,
σουδάν,
μάλτας,
νιγηρίας,
τύνιδας,
κλπ.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 568#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'Grammar,
Arabic grammar (Arabic: ??? ????? na?w ?arabi or ????? ????? ??????? qawa?id al-lugah al-?arabiyyah) is the grammar of the Arabic language. Arabic is a Semitic language and its grammar has many similarities with the grammar of other Semitic languages.
The article focuses both on the grammar of Literary Arabic (i.e. Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, which have largely the same grammar) and of the colloquial spoken varieties of Arabic. The grammar of the two types is largely similar in its particulars. Generally, the grammar of Classical Arabic is described first, followed by the areas in which the colloquial variants tend to differ (note that not all colloquial variants have the same grammar). The largest differences between the two systems are the loss of grammatical case; the loss of the previous system of grammatical mood, along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the inflected passive voice, except in a few relic varieties; and restriction in the use of the dual number.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'LETERO,
* McsEngl.alphabet.Arabic,
* McsEngl.lagArb'alphabet,
* http://arabicquick.com/learn_arabic_alphabet/
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'LETEPRO,
In the Arabic alphabet, we have 29 letters three of which are long vowels. The rest of the letters are consonants. Each letter is given a name which contains the letter itself.
[http://www.shariahprogram.ca/Arabic-alphabet.shtml]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'Resource,
http.ARABIC:
* http://www.shariahprogram.ca/Arabic-alphabet.shtml: http://www.shariahprogram.ca/Arabic-alphabet.shtml: problem in sound.
* http://www.syrianarabic.com/: FREE book.
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb'structure,
Αποτελείται 13.000.000 λέξεις.
Το αραβικο ΑΛΦΑΒΗΤΟ έχει 28 γράμματα, που όλα είναι σύμφωνα.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 568#cptResource12#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb.EGYPTIAL-ARABIC,
* McsEngl.egyptian-arabic,
Egyptian Arabic is the language spoken by contemporary Egyptians. It is more commonly known locally as the Egyptian colloquial language or Egyptian dialect. Look below for local namings.
Egyptian Arabic is a variety of the Arabic languages of the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. It originated in the Nile Delta in Lower Egypt around the capital Cairo. Descended from the spoken Arabic brought to Egypt during the seventh-century AD Muslim conquest, its development was influenced by the indigenous Coptic of pre-Islamic Egypt,[3][4][5] and later by other languages such as Turkish/Ottoman Turkish, Italian, French and English. The 80 million Egyptians speak a continuum of dialects, among which Cairene is the most prominent. It is also understood across most of the Arab World due to the predominance of Egyptian media, making it the most widely spoken and one of the most widely studied varieties of Arabic.[citation needed]
While it is essentially a spoken language, it is encountered in written form in novels, plays, poems (vernacular literature), as well as in comics, advertising, some newspapers, and transcriptions of popular songs. In most other written media and in television news reporting, Literary Arabic is used. Literary Arabic is a standardized language based on the language of the Quran, i.e. Classical Arabic. The Egyptian vernacular is almost universally written in the Arabic alphabet for local consumption, although it is commonly transcribed into Latin letters or in the International Phonetic Alphabet in linguistics text and textbooks aimed at teaching non-native learners. Also, it is written in ASCII Latin alphabet mainly online and in SMSs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic]
name::
* McsEngl.lagArb.MODERN-STANDARD-ARABIC,
* McsEngl.modern-standard-arabic,
* McsEngl.MSA,
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA; Arabic: ????? ??????? ??????? al-lugatu l-?arabiyyatu l-fu??a "the most eloquent Arabic language"), Standard Arabic, or Literary Arabic is the standard and literary variety of Arabic used in writing and in most formal speech.
Most western scholars distinguish two standard (al-)fu??a (??????) varieties of the Arabic language: the Classical Arabic (CA) (????? ??????? ????????) of the Qur'an and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature, and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) (????? ??????? ????????? ???????), the standard language in use today. The modern standard language is based on the Classical language. Most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of one language, although the two registers can be described in Arabic as ???? ????? fu??a l-?a?r (MSA) and ???? ?????? fu??a t-tura? (CA).[2]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic]
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore800,
* McsEngl.chinese@cptCore800,
* McsEngl.chinese-language@cptCore800,
* McsEngl.language.chinese@cptCore800,
* McsEngl.lagZho@cptCore800, {2012-08-23} ISO.639-2
* McsEngl.lagZhon,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΚΙΝΕΖΙΚΗ@cptCore800,
* McsElln.ΚΙΝΕΖΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
====== lagoCHINESE:
* McsEngl.zhong1wen2 = chinese language,
Η κινέζικη γλώσσα είναι ΜΟΝΟΦΘΟΓΓΗ και οι λέξεις της είναι μονοσύλλαβες. Κάποτε γίνονται και συνθέσεις. Ανάλογα με τη φωνή ή τον τόνο που προφέρεται η μονοσύλλαβη λέξη παίρνει διαφορετική σημασία. Γραμματική δεν υπάρχει. Για το σχηματισμό των προτάσεων βοηθεί η θέση των λέξεων και μερικές ειδικές λέξεις.
Η κινέζικη ΓΡΑΦΗ στηρίζεται σε 214 ρίζες ή κλειδιά. Οταν υπάρχει σένα σημείο η ρίζα δείχνει την κατηγορία των ιδεών και των πραγμάτων, δηλαδή την ορισμένη σημασία τους.
[Ο ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΝΕΩΝ, 1966, 4-16#cptResource12#]
The Chinese term for grammar yufa is more transparent in meaning. Yu is language and fa is law. So grammar is the laws of language. The laws are not artificially imposed but rather natural ones (similar to the laws of nature and the laws of physics). Whether we are conscious of them or not (more likely not for native speakers), we have to follow certain rules when speaking a language in order to be understood. Otherwise, we would be babbling and talking gibberish.
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/nogrammar.html]
_GENERIC:
* language.human#cptCore93#
Mandarin, belongs to an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. This includes several major subfamilies: Tibetan, spoken in Tibet; Lolo-Burmese, in Burma, and in discontinuous parts of southern China, etc.; and Karen, in lower Burma. Tibetan, Lolo-Burmese, and Karen are more closely related than the Chinese languages/dialects are to any of the other subfamily members.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Character-encoding,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'GB,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Guobiao'code,
Guobiao code (Chinese: ??, Pinyin: guo' bia-o) is a collective term for the national standard character encodings of the People's Republic of China.
In computer contexts, "GB" alone is often used to mention GB 2312-80 issued in 1981, GBK, or GB 18030-2000 issued in 2000. These are encoding standards for Chinese characters.
These character encoding methods are used to code for Simplified Chinese characters, which are used in Mainland China and South East Asia.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guobiao_code]
lagZhon'GB2312-80:
There are 6763 Chinese characters in the GB 2312-80 codeset, versus 13053 in the Big5 codeset. Some other symbols, such as punctuations, full-width Latin alphabets, Greek alphabets, Russian Cyrillic alphabets and Japanese Hiragana and Katakana are also included in GB 2312.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Big5,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'BigFive,
Taiwan, Hong Kong S.A.R. and Macau S.A.R., which use Traditional Chinese characters, have Big5 as their standard.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guobiao_code]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'ConceptLingo,
_GENERIC:
* entity.attribute.node.nodSysStree.nodSstwpe.nodLogo.nameLingo#cptCore453#
_DESCRIPTION:
One of the exciting aspect of Chinese is that you do not have strict word categories, such as verb, noun, preposition,… as in Western languages. For instance, the word gei can have the function of a verb, meaning to give but also of a preposition meaning for. The word to say to arrive will be the same as the preposition from, and to be can also mean at. An adjective can become a verb, thus big can also mean is big and by adding an adverb to grow up. In some Chinese sentences, it becomes difficult for a Western mind to determine where is the main verb. But you don't care, as you can instinctively understand.
[http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/languages/mandarin-chinese/syntax.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'VERB,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'dong4ci2,
_DEFINETRO:
There are two different forms of verbs in the Chinese language. The static, indicating state, and the dynamic, indicating action. The sentence changes with the different forms of verbs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
Once you begin studying Chinese grammar, you'll notice that verbs are not inflected in Chinese.
In addition to using adverbs, many of the linguistic operations which English performs by changing the form of the verb, or by using possessive pronouns, are accomplished in Chinese by adding a particle to the sentence. Particles typically occur in the neutral tone.
[chinese-outpost]
CONJUGATION (INFLECTION):
Chinese verbs do not conjugate like the verbs of most Indo-European languages such as English or Spanish. ...
In other words, Chinese does not express these differences through inflectional suffixes.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.DYNAMIC,
_DEFINETRO:
There are two different forms of verbs in the Chinese language. The static, indicating state, and the dynamic, indicating action. The sentence changes with the different forms of verbs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.STATIC,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'static'verb@cptCore800,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'stative'verb@cptCore800,
_DEFINETRO:
There are two different forms of verbs in the Chinese language. The static, indicating state, and the dynamic, indicating action. The sentence changes with the different forms of verbs.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
* Adjectives in Chinese (??? xi'ng ro'ng ci' ) are somewhat different from those in English in that they can be used as verbs (for example ??? tia-n he-i le "The sky has darkened") and thus linguists sometimes prefer to use the terms static or stative verb to describe them. In most dictionaries ??? (often abbreviated ?) is used to identify this part of speech.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_adjectives]
* A stative verb expresses quality or conditions. In Chinese a stative verb is used where in English one would use the verb ‘to be’ with an adjective. For instance, in ta1 he3n ma2ng = he is very busy, ma2ng is a stative verb and means to be busy.
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.AUXILIARY,
Verbs that "help" other verbs to express necessity, possibility and willingness are called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are often used to modify verbs or adjectives. A noun cannot immediately follow them. They are negated by bu4.
Auxiliary verbs include the following kinds:
1. Those expressing capability:
2. Those expressing possibility:
3. Those expressing necessity by reason:
4. Those expressing obligation:
5. Those expressing willingness:
[http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/index.php?lid=3&cid=1]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.PAST,
The Past
The simplest way of expressing past tense is to use adverbs such as "yesterday." For example: "zuo'tia-n wo( chi- ji-" (?????, literally: yesterday I eat chicken) is equal to saying "Yesterday I ate chicken". Another way of expressing past tense is to use the aspect particles "guo`" (?) or "le" (?) , which cannot stand by themselves but can express completed actions when placed after verbs. The distinction between these and other particles can be difficult for learners to grasp.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.PROGRESSION,
The particle "zhe" is suffixed to a verb to show a progressive action or continuous state. For example:
??????? We are having classes.
????? The door is opening.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'verb.NEGATION,
Negation of Chinese Verbs
Negation of Chinese verbs is accomplished by inserting bu4, which can be interpreted roughly as "not", between before the verb to be negated. For example: "wo( bu` chi- ji-" (????, literally: I not eat chicken) is equal to saying "I don't eat chicken". Serial verbs and verbal complements complicate matters.
There is one exception to this rule, however. The verb "yo(u" (? to have) is negated with the particle "mei2" (?).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'KORELATERO,
Auxiliary words: There are mainly three kinds of auxiliary words in Chinese:
Structural Auxiliaries: used between terms ( including terms and other linguistic units) to show grammatical relationship, e.g.
"" shows that the term ( or other linguistic units) before it is attributive.
"" shows that the term ( or other linguistic units) before it is adverbial.
"" shows that the term ( or other linguistic units) before it is complement.
"" is an auxiliary used in front of verbs, e.g. ""(what were said), here (all) and the verb (say) are the attributive of the noun (word).
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'korelatero.INSTANCE,
lagZhon'BA:
* The particle ? ba is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate suggestion.
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm]
lagZhon'DE:
* Indicate possession: noun|pron de noun:
One of the particles used most is (de). Added to a noun or pronoun, this structural particle performs the same function as the English possessive "apostrophe s" ('s), or creates the equivalent of possessive pronouns, like his, her, their, and so on.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/030703.shtml]
Using the Chinese personal pronouns possessively is also very easy compared to most other languages, just append the determiner particle ? (de) to the pronoun, as the following example will illustrate. The thing that is being determined will appear after this particle, and the thing that determines it (the possessive adjective/pronoun in western grammar) will appear in front of it:
· _stxZhon: wo3 de da4xue2 => my university
[http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Expressing_Personal_Possession_in_Mandarin_Chinese]
Indicate possession
One of the particles used most is (de). Added to a noun or pronoun, this structural particle performs the same function as the English possessive "apostrophe s" ('s), or creates the equivalent of possessive pronouns, like his, her, their, and so on.
[chinese-outpost]
* adjective de noun:
· _stxZhon: qi2guai4 de ren2 => "strange person"
lagZhon'MA:
Create a question
Adding the interrogative particle (ma) to the end of a declarative statement turns the sentence into a question.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/030703.shtml]
lagZhon'zai4:
is one of the few words in Chinese that corresponds to an English preposition. It takes the places of all the English prepositions describing location: "at, above, below, in, on, out, around, etc." "zai4" always requires an object corresponding to a location. (This can be a place like a country or a building, or an object.)
[http://www.chinese-lessons.com/mandarin/grammarL4Zai.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'PREPOSITION,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'jie4ci2,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'coverb,
Whether prepositions exist in Chinese is sometimes considered an open question. The role of prepositions in Chinese is fulfilled by localizers appearing as postpositions, and by coverbs. For this reason, coverbs are often referred to as prepositions because they appear before the noun phrase they modify.
In Chinese, both prepositions and coverbs are referred to as ?? (pinyin: jie` ci').
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb]
Preposition: introduce nouns, pronouns or other linguistic units to verbs or adjectives and show the relationship between time, space, objects or methods.
(at), (from), (to), (to), (to), (along): show direction or place.
(from), (from), (when), (at), (at): show time.
(for), (for): show purpose.
(for), (about), (for), (to), (like), (about): show subject or relationship.
(by), (let), (tell): show passive voice
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
_QUANTITY:
The economical use of the preposition in Chinese
The number of prepositions in Chinese is much fewer than that in English. In many cases, people do not use any preposition, but let the meaning go without saying, e.g.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060712/071053.shtml]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'CONJUNCTION,
Conjunction: connect words, phrases or sentences. e.g.
(and), (and), (in addition), (but), (however), (because), (if), (even if), etc.
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
A conjunction is used for connecting words, phrases or sentences, expressing a certain logic relationship, as in English, e.g.
?(and)?(with) ?(while)?/??(or)??(not only)??(but also)
?/??(though)?/??(but)??(yet)?/??(because)??(therefore)
?/??(if)??(only if)??(so long as)??(in order to)
2.2. Parataxis
In Chinese, conjunctions are not so often used as in English. Ordinarily, if a connective meaning between words, phrases or clauses is clear without saying, Chinese people tend not to use any conjunction, especially in colloquial language, e.g.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060712/071349.shtml]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'POSTPOSITION,
Prepositions and Postpositions
Another difference between Chinese and English has to do with the ordering between noun phrases and prepositions. As the term suggests, prepositions in English occur before noun phrases (hence pre-position), as in 'on the table' and 'in the park'. In Chinese, however, in addition to prepositions, there are also postpositions, which occur after noun phrases. The prepositions and postpositions in Chinese occur sometimes in conjunction with each other, sometimes independent of each other, as the following examples show:
Preposition in conjunction with postposition: Wo zai yuanzi li wan. 'lit. I at yard in play.'
Only preposition: Wo zai jia chifan. 'lit. I at home eat'
Only postposition: Zhuozi shang you qian. 'lit.table on there-is money.'
There is a further difference between Chinese and English with respect to prepositions. In English, prepositions are distinct from verbs; in Chinese, however, many prepositions can be verbs as well. For this reason, they are also called Coverbs. The following pairs of examples illustrate the dual functions of the preposition zai:
Zai as verb: Wo zai jia. 'lit. I am at home'
Zai as coverb: Wo zai jia chifan. 'lit. I at home eat'
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/wordorder.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'ADNOUNERO,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'adjective@cptCore800,
DEFINETRO: Adjectives in Chinese (??? xi'ng ro'ng ci' ) are somewhat different from those in English in that they can be used as verbs (for example ??? tia-n he-i le "The sky has darkened") and thus linguists sometimes prefer to use the terms static or stative verb to describe them. In most dictionaries ??? (often abbreviated ?) is used to identify this part of speech.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_adjectives]
Before nouns:
When describing a noun with an adjective composed of multiple characters, ? de is used between the adjective and noun (for example ????? ga-o xi`ng de ha'i zi "happy child"). It is not used with single-character adjectives (?? xi-n che- "new car"). Some examples:
* ?(he-i) ?(tia-n) - "dark sky"
* ?(huài) ?(rén) - "bad person"
· _stxZhon: qi2guai4 de ren2 => "strange person"
* ?(ke() ?(ài) ?(de) ?(xio'ng) ?(ma-o) - "cute panda"
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_adjectives]
After nouns:
First pattern:
· _stxZhon: ta1 piao4liang => she is beautiful.
Second pattern
Most adjectives fit the above pattern, but some do not. They are often things that describe mutually exclusive states of being, such as gender or color. These adjectives follow the pattern Noun + ? shi` + Adj + ? de. For example:
· _stxZhon: ta1 shi4 nan2 de => He is male.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'ADVERBERO,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'adverb@cptCore800,
Adverbs! Instead of inflecting verbs, the Chinese language relies heavily on the use of adverbs to communicate what English and many other languages do with different verb tenses.
[chinese-outpost]
QUANTITY:
The number of adverbs in Chinese is much fewer than that in English, because many Chinese adjectives, verbs or even nouns ending with character "?" and functioning as adverbs remain to be regarded as adjectives, verbs or nouns respectively according to the Chinese grammar, unlike in English whose adjectives may be turned into adverbs by adding suffix "ly". So, all "inhabitants" in the class of Chinese adverbs are "original" --- No “immigrates” from other word classes.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060712/070830.shtml]
Adverb: used in front of verbs or adjectives to show degree, extent, time or negation, etc., e.g. Degree: (very), (very), (extremely), (extrordinarily),
Extent: (all), (only)
Time: (already), (ever), (just), (at the moment), (immediately), (often)
Negation: (not), (no), (not)
Positive: (surely), (sure)
Repetition or continuity: (again), (again), (again)
Mood: (however), , , (even)
In Chinese the adverbs can be used only in front of the verbs or adjectives while in English they may appear after. Another difference is that English adverbs, like adjectives, also have comparative degree and superlative degree while in Chinese we have the same words to show them as in the case of adjectives.
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'NOUN,
* McsEngl.mi2ng-ci2,
_DEFINETRO:
* A word denoting the name of a person or a thing is called a noun. Generally a noun can be preceded by a numeral-measure word combination, but can't be modified by adverbs.
[http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/index.php?lid=1&cid=1]
AS ADVERBS:
* Time nouns (nouns indicating date, times of the clock, seasons, etc.) and nouns of locality (nouns showing direction an location) can also serve as adverbial adjuncts, whereas nouns of other kinds cannot.
[http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/index.php?lid=1&cid=1]
* Another special feature about Chinese parts of speech is the nouns. In Chinese you have “time word” nouns performing the function of English adverbs. For example, “today” as in the English sentence “I went shopping today” is an adverb. In Chinese ?? is a noun. The same goes for other time words like ??, ??, ??, ??, etc.
[http://www.sinosplice.com/life/archives/2006/03/20/chinese-parts-of-speech]
Nouns of locality:
A noun of locality is the word indicating direction or position, e.g.
?(west) ?(center) ?(inside) ?(upper)*
??(bellow)* ??(to the left)* ??(back) ??(above)*
??(below)* ??(above and below)* ??(front and rear) ??(southeast)
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060712/064245.shtml]
* If you can handle all this craziness I will give you yet another example. In English we use prepositions to explain physical spatial relations, but Chinese uses “nouns of locality.” So while we would use the prepositional phrases “on top,” “in the middle,” or “to the east,” the Chinese would use the nouns ????????.
[http://www.sinosplice.com/life/archives/2006/03/20/chinese-parts-of-speech]
_DEFINITNESS:
La'i rén le.
Come person LE (=aspect particle indicating completion/change)
‘Some /person people have come.’
Rén la'i le.
Person come LE
‘The person/people (whoever we are expecting) have come.’
The interesting thing is that the difference in meaning between the two sentences, i.e., definiteness versus indefiniteness of the noun phrases (some person/people versus the person/people) is not expressed by having different words (definite and indefinite articles in English) but by changing the ordering between words.
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/wordorder.html]
* Chinese nouns do not have articles, such as "the" and "a" in English, nor do they have a plural form.
So the word ?? (dàxué) can any of the following mean:
* a university
* the university
* the universities
* universities
The context usually makes clear which is meant. There are however ways to stress what is meant:
* ???? (yi- suo( dàxué) - Literal: one [MW] university - One university
* ??/?? ?? (zhe`xie-/nàxie- dàxué) - these/those universities
[http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Basic_Sentences:_Articles_and_Plural_in_Mandarin_Chinese]
http.chinese.noun:
* http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/index.php?lid=1&cid=1:
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'PRONOUN,
Pronoun: replace nouns or numerals.
Personal pronouns: to replace the names of persons or things, e.g. (me), (you), (he), (she), (it), etc.
Interrogative pronouns: to inquire the unknown things, actions, natures, etc. e.g. (what), (how), (who)
Indicative pronouns: to distinguish things, actions or natures, e.g.
(this),(that) : indicate known things.
(here), (here), (there), (at the moment), (at that moment): indicate place or time.
(like this), (in this way), (in that way): indicate the nature of known things or actions.
(these), (those): indicate known sums or amounts.
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'pronoun.PERSONAL,
The chinese personal pronouns are very straightforward and have the same form regardless of being subject, object, indirect object, etc...
* First person singular: ? (wo() - I, me
* Second person singular: ? (ni() - you
* Third person singular, masculine: ? (ta-) - he, him
* Third person singular, feminine: ? (ta-) - she, her
The plural forms are derived from the singular forms by adding the plural marker ? (men).
* First person plural: ?? (wo(men) - we, us
* Second person plural: ?? (ni(men) - you(-all)
* Third person plural, masculine or mixed: ?? (ta-men) - they, them
* Third person plural, feminine: ?? (ta-men) - they, them
[http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Referring_to_Persons_in_Mandarin_Chinese]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Mapping-relation,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'mapeelo.LOKO,
lagZhon'loko.DEFINITE:
* ABSOLUTE:
* HERE:
* THERE:
* FROM HERE:
* FROM THERE:
* TO HERE:
* TO THERE:
* RELATIVE:
* IN:
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'mapeelo.ATRIBEINO,
NOUN ADJECTIVE:
· _stxZhon: ta1 piao4liang => she is beautiful.
NOUN shi4 ADJECTIVE de:
· _stxZhon: ta1 shi4 nan2 de => He is male.
ADJECTIVE de NOUN:
· _stxZhon: qi2guai4 de ren2 => "strange person"
NOUN|PRONOUN de NOUN:
· _stxZhon: Ta1 de ming2zi shi4 Jin1ni2. => Her name is Ginny.
SUBJECTshi4 SUBJECT-COMPLEMENT:
The linking verb ? shi` is used to link nouns or pronouns, as in ? ? ? ? ta- shi` la(oshi- he is a teacher and
· _stxZhon: wo3 shi4 xue2sheng => I am a student.
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'mapeelo.KVINTEINO,
Generally a noun can be preceded by a numeral-measure word combination, but can't be modified by adverbs.
Some monosyllabic nouns can be reduplicated to express the meaning of "every". For example, "??" (every one), "??" (every day) and so on.
The suffix "men (plural marker for pronouns and a few animate nouns)" can be added to a personal noun to express the plural. For example, "???" (teachers). However, if before the noun there are numeral-measure words or other words implying the plural, the suffix "?" can't be added to the noun. For example, we can't say "?????", but should say "????" (five teachers).
[http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/index.php?lid=1&cid=1]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'NUMBER,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'numeral,
Arabic numerals are used in mathematics in China. The Chinese numbers are mainly used in writings. The numbers are often combined with other Chinese characters to form words.
[http://chineseculture.about.com/library/extra/character/bls_numbers.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'COUNTER,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'measure'word,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'classifier,
In Chinese, simple numerals cannot quantify a noun by itself; instead, the language relies on what are known as measure words or, to a lesser extent, classifiers. There are two types of such classifiers, nominal and verbal, with the latter being used in quantifying verbs and the amount of time which they take precedence.
...
Some measure words are true units, which all languages must have in order to measure things, e.g. kilometres. These are displayed first, then other nominal classifiers, and finally verbal classifiers.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_counters]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'mapeelo.POZESEINO,
Possessive ? de [1]
This construction indicates that the noun after ? de belongs to the noun that comes before ? de, as in
· _stxZhon: Xiao3 Wang2 de you2piao4 => Xiao Wang’s stamp.
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Naun-structure,
Modifier before the modified
Chinese partly part company with English in how modifiers are ordered with respect to what they modify.
In Chinese, the modified element always follows the modifier, no matter what kind of modifier it is and how long the modifier is. The following two examples contain two modifiers, one short, one long, to the same noun:
Wo de shu
I DE book (DE precedes a noun and follows a nominal modifier)
‘My book’
Wo zai shudian mai de shu
I at bookstore buy DE book
‘the book I bought at the bookstore’
As can be seen, the noun shu in Chinese always occurs at the end of the noun phrase. But in the English glosses, the noun book occurs at the end of the short noun phrase, but at the beginning of the noun phrase when it contains a long modifier, in this case a relative clause.
The difference between Chinese and English with respect to the ordering between modifiers and what they modify can be seen also in verbal modifiers. In Chinese all the adverbs and adverbials, which are modifiers for verbs and verb phrases respectively, occur before verbs and verb phrases. But in English, they can occur either before or after verbs or verb phrases. The contrast between English and Chinese can be seen in the possible ways to construct sentences with adverbs and adverbials expressing the same meaning. First, the Chinese version:
Wo zuotian zaijia yonggongde xuexi.
I yesterday at home conscientiously study
Sub. Time adv. Place adv. Manner adv. Verb
Zuotian wo zaijia yonggongde xuexi.
*Wo zuotian zaijia xuexi yonggongde. (*=impossible sentence)
*Wo zaijia yonggongde xuexi zuotian.
*Wo zuotian yonggongde xuexi zaijia.
The only two possible sentences both have adverb(ials) modifiers before what they modify. But the same sentence in English can be said in quite a few more ways:
I studied conscientiously at home yesterday.
I conscientiously studied at home yesterday.
Yesterday I studied conscientiously at home.
Yesterday at home I studied conscientiously.
Yesterday I conscientiously studied at home.
Yesterday at home I conscientiously studied.
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/wordorder.html]
Run-on sentences with stacked modifiers
An interesting consequence of the difference between Chinese and English is with respect to run-on sentences with stacked modifiers. In English, after a noun you can add infinitely many modifiers of the phrasal or relative clauses variety. The results are the so-called run-on sentences:
The man in the house in the forest by the mountain ….
This is the cheese that is eaten by the mouse that is chased by the cat that is …..
But since in Chinese the noun occurs last, if you want to have infinitely many modifiers before the noun, you may not get to say the noun at all! This is why run-on sentences do not exist in Chinese.
In practical terms, the difference between Chinese and English has consequences for speech planning. Speakers of English can improvise while speaking, i.e., to think about what modifiers to add after they uttered the noun or verb. Chinese speakers, however, need to do careful pre-planning, i.e., to think about all the modifiers and say them before saying the noun or verb.
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/wordorder.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Segmentation,
Segmentation of Chinese Text
Various approaches to the problems of separating the components of a sentence
TOM EMERSON
According to a recent report by the Gartner Dataquest group, the number of Internet subscribers in Mainland China is expected to grow almost 37 percent a year through 2004 to 51 million (“Gartner Dataquest,” ZDNetAsia, 2000). Given the huge growth potential, many non-Asian companies are attempting to migrate their on-line offerings into China, Japan and Korea, as well as the smaller (but growing) markets in Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia. Users in most East Asian countries prefer and are coming to expect that Internet content be localized to their languages.
While all of these countries have their own barriers to entry, China as a whole (Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Macau) presents several difficult issues that have to be addressed before a company moves into the region. These include a myriad of conflicting character sets and character encodings, a number of languages and dialects and a disparate set of regions with different geopolitical alliances and user bases. One thing almost every application does is process text, and this task is especially difficult for Chinese.
Many text processing applications need to know where the words are in a line of text. For many languages, this is a relatively “easy” task: words are separated by white space and punctuation. There are some complicated cases, such as how to treat punctuation used after (or in) an abbreviation (“Dear Mr. Emerson, we at A.C.M.E. brand ...”) and single quotes (“He said, ‘I don’t know’”), but generally these problems are tractable.
Chinese, in comparison, is written without any separation between words. White space serves little or no purpose. You are as likely to find spaces between every character as you are to find no spaces at all. Lines can be broken anywhere, even in the middle of a number.
What kinds of applications require word recognition?
Search engines (including Internet search engines such as Google and Lycos and general-purpose full-text search engines such as the Verity™ K2 Toolkit) often create indices based on the important words in a document.
In word processors, users expect to be able to navigate through a sentence by word, instead of being limited to moving by character or sentence.
Chinese spell-checkers need to know where the word boundaries are in order to correctly determine whether a particular word is misspelled in its context.
Speech recognition and speech generation applications need to know the word boundaries so they can correctly pronounce or transcribe an utterance.
For natural language processing (NLP) applications, such as automatic translation systems, the first phase is to find the words, as these are often the fundamental unit processed in an NLP application.
The problem of finding the words in a sentence, the “word segmentation problem,” is an area of active research in industry and academia. This article describes the issues faced when attacking this problem, as well as the approaches that have been used.
Word Segmentation
The problem sounds deceptively simple: given a sentence with no spaces, break it into words. The fundamental problem is this: where is a word in a sentence?
The first definition that might come to a Western mind is “a group of letters having meaning separated by spaces in the sentence.” Of course, this definition doesn’t work for Chinese, since white space is inconsequential. Is the word a single Chinese character? Not necessarily. Is it the smallest set of characters that can have meaning by themselves? Maybe. Is it the longest set of characters that can have meaning by themselves? Perhaps.
Even within Western linguistics there are several notions of what a word actually is. Does Chinese even have a notion of word in the Western sense? At least one respected Chinese linguist, Chao Yuen Ren, has argued at length that there are languages, like Chinese, which do not have a notion of “word-hood” like that in Western linguistics. However, this view is not now widely accepted.
Entire books have been written about the question of “word-hood” in Chinese: what is a word, what are the processes involved in word formation, and how have these evolved over time? I cannot answer these questions here. However, having a sound definition is vital when designing, implementing and testing a word-segmentation system.
Consider the following sentence:
??????
"I am not Chinese."
This sentence contains six characters, each of which is a dictionary word: ? (wo, I), ? (bu, not), ? (shi, be), ? (zhong, middle), ? (guo, country) and ? (ren, person). Yet no Chinese speaker would actually view the sentence as six separate words. Depending on your dictionary, ?? (not be) may be listed as a word. In addition, ??? can be broken into four different words by using a dictionary:
? (middle), ? (country) and ? (person)
? (middle) and ?? (compatriot)
?? (China) and ? (person)
??? (Chinese)
The correct segmentation is the last one. The second and third interpretations illustrate a common type of ambiguity faced when trying to segment sentences: ABC can be segmented as either A+BC or AB+C.
Regardless of the method used to segment a sentence, there are some constructions that can cause problems: transliterated foreign words and names, abbreviations, and personal, organization and company names. These often comprise the “interesting” parts of a sentence (from an information retrieval perspective); hence, correctly recognizing and segmenting these is vital.
Foreign names are written in Chinese by transliterating them using Chinese characters for their sound value only. The meaning of each character is irrelevant and cannot be relied on. Each Chinese-speaking region will often transliterate the same name differently: Kennedy is transcribed as ??? (Kennidi) in Mainland China but ??? (Gannaidi) in Taiwan. Fortunately, each region uses a relatively small and consistent set of characters when transliterating.
Abbreviations are another source of complication. In Chinese, abbreviations are formed by taking a character from each word in the phrase being abbreviated. Sometimes it is the first character in each, sometimes the second. For example, Beijing University, ????, is abbreviated ??. As another example, you could write ?? instead of ???? for Chinese-American or Sino-American. The complication arises over the fact that virtually any phrase can be abbreviated by taking on a character from each component, and these characters usually have no independent relation to each other. Further, these cannot be enumerated in a dictionary because it is impossible to enumerate every possible abbreviation.
Chinese proper names are extremely difficult to recognize since they can be created from almost any combination of characters. While some characters are considered bad luck or inappropriate for a name, most characters are fair game. A Chinese name is formed by a single-character surname (though two- and three-character surnames are sometimes seen, particularly in Singapore) with a one- or two-character given name. There are approximately 100 common surnames, but the number of given names is huge. It is often difficult to determine gender based solely on the name. Some names related to beauty, flowers and such are generally used for girls. However, others are asexual. I’ve known both males and females named Yuen, for example. The complication lies in the fact that the same characters are names that are used in “regular” words and may even be words in some situations (compare with English names such as “Dawn White”).
Another interesting, though not necessarily complicating, issue in written Chinese is the various ways you can write numbers. For example, the number two hundred can be written several different ways, including 200, 2?, ??, ??, 200, ?00 and 2??, all of which are valid. This complicates number parsing slightly and is something you need to be aware of when working with Chinese text.
Approaches to Segmentation
So, how do you go about breaking a sentence into its constituents? At a high level, three approaches are available: statistical techniques, dictionary-based techniques and a hybrid approach using a combination of these. Each has its supporters and detractors, and each has its advantages and disadvantages.
Statistical Approaches
The basic idea of all the statistical approaches is the recognition that certain characters have a stronger affinity for some characters than others. For example, in English the pair th is far more likely to occur than the pair td. If you have a large enough (tens of megabytes) text sample, you can build a statistical “language model” that can be used to break a sequence of characters into segments. The break is placed at the point you have a minimum affinity value between characters.
There are two parameters to consider in a statistical model: how many consecutive characters are examined, and what statistical method is used to build the model?
The more characters that are included in the model, the more complex it becomes. Using an example once again from English, assume that we have twenty-six letters (ignoring case distinction). Starting with a single character, there are twenty-six possible characters appearing after it, and twenty-six possible characters appearing after that. So, for a three-character sequence, there are 676 possible following characters. Some are more probable than others: t+h is far more probable than t+d, and th+e is considerably more probable than th+v. For Chinese these factors are much greater: there are approximately 6,000 characters in common use in Mainland China, so looking at a three-character sequence means that there are over 36 million possibilities at any point in the input.
The statistical method used varies, and the most common is a first-order hidden Markov model. A Markov model is a description of a sequence of random variables over time. The value of a particular variable at time t+1 is dependent only on the state of the variable at time t. In the context of segmentation, the Markov model describes the probability that the character at position p+1 is part of a word depends on the character at position p. The order of the model describes the number of previous states considered at each position. A Markov model is “visible” if all of the information needed to compute the probabilities is available to the model. A model is “hidden” if some of the information is outside the scope of the model. For example, in a language model grammatical information exists outside the model but can affect the adjacency of characters. Higher order hidden Markov models (third and higher) are computationally intractable and are rarely used.
The disadvantage of statistical approaches is called the “data-sparseness problem”: a language model is only as comprehensive as the data that is used to train it. The type of language differs greatly between newspaper articles, government documents and romance novels, and a model trained on one may not work well on another. Another problem with these is that there are certain characters which appear with high frequency but only have grammatical meaning, such as ? (de) and ? (le). This can dilute the probabilities.
Dictionary-Based Approaches
The dictionary-based techniques can be divided into two varieties:
- strict dictionary approaches and
- a combination of dictionary and linguistic knowledge.
The idea is straightforward: use a dictionary to find the words in the sentence. Several methods have used this theme.
Starting on the left and moving to the right, find the longest word that exists in the dictionary, until you get to the end of the sentence. This technique, called forward maximum match, is based on the hypothesis that a longer word is more specific and probably correct in the given context.
Alternatively, start at the right and work your way to the left, finding the longest match. This is called backward maximum match. The maximum match strategy, while conceptually simple, does quite well in practice, as long as the dictionary is comprehensive.
Both methods are often used together, since the combination can detect certain ambiguities. For example, a string ABC may be segmented as either A+BC, or AB+C. By segmenting in both directions, you can determine whether such an ambiguity exists: the right-to-left will find the former, and the left-to-right the latter.
There are limitations with the pure dictionary methods. The size and quality of the dictionary (or dictionaries) used are of paramount importance. By the nature of language, no dictionary can ever be complete: new words are constantly being coined, so a dictionary is constantly out-of-date. Different text domains have different vocabularies, which require domain-appropriate dictionaries to even attempt a correct segmentation. In general, once the language model is created, a probabilistic segmenter will run faster than a dictionary-based segmenter.
A pure maximal match strategy also has its limitations. The method is inherently greedy, which can cause missegmentations. Say you have the string ABC, where A, AB, C and BC are all in the dictionary. If the correct segmentation is A+BC, the forward maximal match will incorrectly find AB+C.
A variation of maximal match is to find all of the matches at each point in the sentence and have some method for picking the right one. For example, in the example in the previous paragraph, both segmentations would be generated and the correct one (hopefully) selected. As a more concrete example, recall the example given earlier, ??????. This has four components:
? + ? + ? + ???
It is possible to treat ?? as a single word, yielding
? + ?? + ???
And as we saw earlier, ??? has a number of possible segmentations:
? + ? + ?
? + ??
?? + ?
So you need a way to choose the correct one. This is when making use of other knowledge — morphology and grammar — comes into play. The word ? (person), for example, is a very productive word that can be combined with country, city and other place names to create a word referring to a person of or from that place. So, one can code a rule that states, “When a country name is followed by ?, join them to create a new word.” By creating a number of generalized rules like this based on Chinese morphology, you can correctly segment many cases that are not handled by a dictionary alone.
Grammatical knowledge can be used to aid in disambiguation. If two segments have conflicting parts of speech, then you can reject those segments. For example, an adjective and an adverb cannot appear together. There are also characters that cannot stand in isolation, but must be part of a larger word. Using this knowledge allows a dictionary-based system to handle words that are not explicitly encoded in the dictionary.
There are some linguistic features that you can take advantage of to simplify the segmentation task. Any type of punctuation can be used as a stopping point; an entire sentence does not need to be processed. Similarly, when you see an Arabic numeral, you know that a new word will follow it, which allows you again to limit the number of characters that need to be considered. There are also features that can be used as a pivot when examining a sentence. For example, grammatical particles like ? (de) and ? (le) and measure words like ? (ge) can be used as a possible transition point since a segment probably ended just before them. Similar methods can be used with longer segments that are easily recognized, such as numbers and date expressions.
Word frequency information can also be taken into account when trying to select the correct segmentation. In contemporary Chinese the average word length is around 2.5 characters, so a two-character segment AB, which is quite frequent, is probably correct while A+B, where A and B are very rare, is incorrect.
The hybrid systems have their disadvantages. They require a dictionary with part-of-speech and word frequency information. They also require you to develop, test and maintain the set of grammatical and morphological rules that are used in the disambiguation process. All of the computation involved in disambiguating the segmentation means that these systems can be quite slow. However, the accuracy can be quite good.
Basis Technology’s CMA
Basis Technology develops Asian linguistic technologies targeted at search engine providers, including Google, Lycos, and Verity. There are some design and implementation decisions that went into the Basis Technology Chinese Morphological Analyzer (CMA), a high-performance segmentation engine designed for information retrieval applications.
CMA is a dictionary-based segmentation system that makes use of part-of-speech information, grammatical and syntactic knowledge, and word frequency information to aid in the disambiguation of ambiguous sentences. Unicode is used throughout the analyzer, allowing it to be agnostic with regard to character encoding.
CMA uses a dictionary containing more than 1.2 million entries, each including part-of-speech and frequency information. Entries range from single characters to phrases containing twelve or more characters. The dictionary also contains thousands of proper nouns, including place names, organizations and companies. The dictionaries are updated several times a year to stay current. They include vocabulary from all Chinese locales. Users are also able to supply their own dictionaries to provide domain-specific vocabularies to the segmenter.
CMA moves left to right generating all possible segmentations for a string of Chinese characters, using various heuristics to “prune” improbable segmentations and favor others. Such pruning is absolutely necessary. The number of possible segmentations can grow logarithmically with the length of the string. Some of these heuristics include favoring longer segments such as maximum match; disfavoring rare, that is, low-frequency, single-character words; disfavoring pairs of segments with incompatible parts of speech, such as an adverb and a noun do not go together; and joining compatible segments (new words can be created by combining compatible segments based on grammatical rules).
The analyzer also has knowledge of how some types of words are formed, such as numeric expressions and “reduplicative phrases” (in Chinese some words can be repeated in various patterns for certain purposes) which it uses to recognize larger units in the text.
CMA is under constant development in an aim to improve its handling of various constructs, including proper names, abbreviations and transliterated foreign words. globe3.gif
For Further Reference
Chao Yuen Ren. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. University of California Press, 1968.
Packard, Jerome L., ed. New Approaches to Chinese Word Formation: Morphology, Phonology and the Lexicon in Modern and Ancient Chinese. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997.
ZDNetAsia. “Gartner Dataquest Predicts Soaring Internet Growth in Asia Pacific.” 18 December 2000. [On-line] Available at <http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/dailynews/story/0,2000010021,20166470,00.htm>
Tom Emerson is a senior software engineer at Basis Technology Corp. in Cambridge, MA. He can be reached at tree@basistech.com
This article reprinted from#38 Volume 12 Issue 2 of MultiLingual Computing & Technology published by MultiLingual Computing, Inc., 319 North First Ave., Sandpoint, Idaho, USA, 208-263-8178, Fax: 208-263-6310.
Basis Technology Corp. 150 CambridgePark Drive, Cambridge, MA 02140-2322 USA, 617-386-2000, 800-697-2062, Fax: 617-386-2020, e-mail: info@basistech.com, Web: http://www.basistech.com
[http://www.multilingual.com/FMPro?-db=archives&-format=ad%2fselected%5fresults.html&-lay=cgi&-sortfield=magazine%20number&-sortorder=descend&-op=eq&Ad%20Type=reprint&-max=1817529521&-recid=33266&-token=%5bFMP-currenttoken%5d&-find=,#2007-01-05]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Sentence,
1. What is a sentence?
A sentence is a grammatically self-contained speech unit that expresses a statement, a question, a command or an exclamation. In speaking it is phonetically distinguished by various patterns of stress, pitch, and pauses; and in writing it concludes with appropriate end punctuation, such as a period, a question mark or an exclamation mark.
2. Sentence elements
The parts of a sentence include subject, predicate, object, complement, attribute and adverbial. They may be a word or a group of words (i.e. phrase).
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060718/085707.shtml]
* 4. Sentence - ??
Sentence is a the grammatical unit that is used to express a complete idea. It usually has a certain intonation and a pause at the end.
It is the intonation and mood instead of the numbers of syllables that classify sentence from word and phrase. Some words and phrases can make sentences if they are used to express a complete idea and with certain mood and intonation.
Same as in English, punctuation symbols like ' ? ' or ' ! ' are used at the end of the sentences in written Chinese to express the pause and different moods.
For example:
????( How do you do? )
??!( Halt! )
??????. ( I like study Chinese. )
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/114315.shtml]
The word order for Mandarin Chinese (in basic sentences) is "SVO" (subject-verb-object), much like English. Thus the sentence: "wo( chi- ji-" (???, I eat chicken) has exact equivalents in the English sentence ("wo(": I, "chi-": eat, and "ji-": chicken).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
* The default word order in Chinese is Subject - Verb - Object (SVO). Various other types of word order appear in more complicated constructions.
???? (ni( kànjiàn wo() - You see me
[http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Basic_Sentences:_Word_Order_in_Mandarin_Chinese]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'sentensero.PART,
Generally speaking, there are 8 kinds of sentence elements in modern Chinese sentences structure. They are: Subject, Predicate, Adnex, Object, Attributive, Adverbial, Complement,and head.
[http://www.learn-chinese-language-online.com/chinese-sentences-structure.html]
Basic Grammatical Structures
The basic grammatical structures of the modern Chinese include the following categories:
* subject-predicate: This kind of structure means that the organised characters or other grammatical units form a relationship of subject and predicate. The subject is stated by the predicate, e.g. in (red east), (red) is the object stated and serves as subject while (red) states it and seves as predicate.
* related structure: This means that the organised characters or other grammatical units have an "equal position", there is no "subordination", e.g. in (Beijing and Shanghai), (Beijing) and (Shanghai) are in an "equal" position.
* subordinated sructure: On the contrary, in this kind of structures the organised characters or other grammatical units do have subordinations, e.g. in (study over again), (repeatedly) decorate and limit (study) and thus it subordinates to the latter.
* complementary structure: Similarly, in this kind of structures the organised characters or other grammatical units also have subordinations and they form a complementary relationship, e.g. in (say clearly), (clear/learly) serves as a conplementary part to show the effect of (say). This kind of structure is different from the above one in that the complementary part always appears after the main part (the verb here).
* predicate-object sructure: This kind of structure means that the organised characters or other grammatical units form a dorminate (predicate) and dorminated (object) relationship, e.g. in (study a language), (study) is the verb who "dominates" the object (language) which is the concerned the thing.
* appositive structure: This kind of structure means that the organised characters or other grammatical units refer to the same thing and form an inter-explanatory relationship, e.g. in (president Jing Zemin), both (Jing Zemin) and (president) refer to the same thing.
Some Chinese syntactical structures are simple and others are complicated. But even the most complicated structures are the combination of the above basic ones. So it is very important to master the basic ones.
[http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf-e/sun/staf15/cgrammar/cgrammer.html]
Sentences in Chinese Language
In Modern Chinese grammar, the Chinese sentences structure is basically the same as the structure of a phrase, every phrase can make a sentence when it is added by a certain intonation.
A sentence can be divided into several different parts. Sentence elements are the parts that play different grammatical roles in a sentence.
Generally speaking, there are 8 kinds of sentence elements in modern Chinese sentences structure. They are: Subject, Predicate, Adnex, Object, Attributive, Adverbial, Complement,and head.
1. Subject
Most subjects are at the beginning of a sentence followed by the predicate part; it is the theme of a statement.
???? ( I love reading books ) - ? is the subject in this sentence.
2. Predicate
The predicate part is the part that states the subject. In the following sentences, the underlined part is predicate.
??? ( she writes ) - ? is the predicate in this sentence.
3. Object
The object is the element controlled by or related with the predicate prior to it.
In the above examples, ? and ? are both object.
4. Adnex
The adnex is the element that can be followed by an object, it is usually acted by a verb or verbal phrase.
??????? ( I bought a suit ) - ?? is an Adnex in this sentence to describe object ??(suit).
5. Attributive
Attributive is used to modify a noun or a nounal phrase that is usually acting as the subject or object in a sentence.
??????????( Beijing is a beautiful city ) - ??? is an Attributive to describe object ?? (city).
6. Adverbial
Adverbial is the modifying element prior to the predicate, or in some cases, at the beginning of a sentence.
???????( he left quickly ) - ???(quickly) is the Adverbial in this sentence to modify predicate ??(left).
7. Complement
Complement is the complemental description element following a verbal or adjective phrase.
???????( her English is very well ) - ??( very ) is the complement element to describe verb ?( well ).
8. Head
Head is the part that being modified or postmodified. The head can be grouped as modified by attributive, by adverbial and by complement.
??????????????( Our Language Institute has recruited a group of new students ) - ???? ( Language Institute ) is the head part; ??( recruited ) )is the predicate head part; ???( new students ) is the object head part.
As you can see, Chinese sentences structure can be a bit hard to get at the beginning, but with a little practice will come more easily.
[http://www.learn-chinese-language-online.com/chinese-sentences-structure.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'TOPIC,
DEFINETRO:
* Chinese is considered to be a topic-prominent language, where the topic of the sentence (defined as "old" information whereupon the sentence is based) takes precedence in the sentence.
· _stxZhon: yuan4 zi li ting2 zhe yi1 liang4 che1 =>#topic:In the courtyard _stxVrb:is parked _stxSbj:a car. (A car is parked in the courtyard.)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_grammar]
Topic [5]
The object of a sentence is called a topic if it is placed before the verb. It can be a noun, or a noun-functioned phrase in list form. The subject of a sentence in this pattern can be placed either before the topic or before the verb.
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'WORD'ORDER,
Mandarin is often classified as an SVO language, but Mandarin also has many characteristics of SOV languages like Turkish. For example, it relies heavily on postpositions rather than prepositions,
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_grammar]
IMPORTANCE:
The word order
There are no big grammar difficulties in Mandarin but as there are no flexions, everything is based on word order. If you miss the precise word order, your sentence has no sense.
[http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/languages/mandarin-chinese/faq/main-difficulties.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Syntax,
In Japanese, verbs come at the end of a sentence; in Chinese they come in the middle.
[The Chinese Language: Myths and Facts Article written by Timothy Light for the Asia Society's Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3, Asian Languages, pp. 18-23, Spring 1982. Copyright AskAsia, 1996. ]
In Chinese, however, only one form of each verb exists. While this makes memorizing "conjugation tables" unnecessary, it does mean that special attention must be paid to word order in Chinese sentences. Word order is often the only indication in Chinese to tell, so to speak, who is doing what to whom.
[chinese-outpost]
The syntax is rather simple and uncomplicated but unusual from the standpoint of English. Notions such as subject, direct and indirect object play no significant role. Serial verb constructions in expressing subordinate relationships such as purpose are the norm and there are no overt markers for indicating subordination or coordination. The distinction between active and passive voice is often left unmarked but there are prepositions which can be used to indicate agents. Indirect objects in most cases are marked by a preposition and precede the verb. Pronouns are remarkable in how infrequently they are used.
Word order, particles, prepositions and discourse--rather than a system of affixes attached to nouns or verbs--indicate grammatical relations, that is, how the various constituents of a sentence interrelate.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Resource,
name::
* McsEngl.internet'source.CHINESE,
http.CHINESE:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language:
http.CHINESE.DICTIONARY:
* http://www.mandarintools.com/worddict.html: at MadarinTools, pronunciation, pinyin, traditional, simplified.
* http://www.tigernt.com/dict.shtml: By H. Xin
* http://www.comrite.com/dict/: http://www.comrite.com/dict/
Comrite Dictionary Free Online Chinese-English, English-Chinese Dictionary with online Chinese PinYin input method, support Simplified and Traditional Chinese characters. Commercial site with advertising.
* http://babel.altavista.com/: http://babel.altavista.com/
http.CHINESE.LESSON:
* http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/ccol/content.htm:
http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/ccol/content.htm
* http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/online.htm:
* http://www.learn-chinese-language-online.com/index.html:
- That's the Easiest And Best Way
- At Your Own Pace - Achieve The Best Results!
http://www.learn-chinese-language-online.com/index.html
* http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/Chinesefiles.html:
http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/Chinesefiles.html
* http://www.zapchinese.com/: http://www.zapchinese.com/ with audio and video of writing.
* http://www.chinese-lessons.com/mandarin/: http://www.chinese-lessons.com/mandarin/: lot of audio.
http.CHINESE.SPOKEN:
*** http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/index.htm: very good sound.
** http://www2.ups.edu/faculty/perry/chin101/home.htm: with sound.
* http://www.corgilabs.com/flashcards/:
* http://www.elgin.free-online.co.uk/chin_chart_nn.htm: all the syllables in many transcriptions.
* http://www.chinapage.org/sound/index.html:
* http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/PCR/PCR%20index.htm: in chinese.
http.CHINESE.GRAMMAR:
* http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/: http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/
* http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~rsimmon/chingram/: http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~rsimmon/chingram/:
in gif format.
* http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm: http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Chinese/grammarlist.htm
* http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/list.php: http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar/list.php
* http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Chinese_Grammar: http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Chinese_Grammar
http.CHINESE.MISC:
* http://www.chinese-tools.com/: Lesson with audio files:
* http://www.mandarintools.com/: http://www.mandarintools.com/
* http://www.chinesecomputing.com/: http://www.chinesecomputing.com/
Welcome to ChineseComputing.com! This site answers your questions about viewing and using Chinese on computers, and has related explanations, links, and sample programs.
* http://www.chinese-outpost.com/: madarin-tutorial by Mark Baker.
* http://www.pinyin.info/index.html: http://www.pinyin.info/index.html:
http.CHINESE.BOOK:
* http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_%28Mandarin%29: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_%28Mandarin%29
From Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Thinking-and-language,
The most troublesome myth to deal with is the one that maintains that, because their language is structured differently from ours, the Chinese necessarily think differently from Westerners. One of the silliest versions of this myth that I have heard is the claim that science cannot be practiced in Chinese because that language is not "scientific." (Since all languages are about equal in their inconsistencies and irregularities, it is difficult to know what the word "scientific" means when applied to a language.)
The idea that Chinese and Westerners think differently because of linguistic differences is, in my opinion, unconvincing. Indeed I find very little hard evidence to prove that language and thought are intertwined in any culture. Certainly, our individual thoughts and the specific language in which we express them are inseparable. But that does not mean that what we say in our own language may not have direct equivalents in another language if what we say happens to be spoken by someone with our same aims.
Some implausible assertions about the way the Chinese language makes the Chinese people think include: the Chinese do not distinguish between one and many because their words are not marked for singular and plural; the Chinese do not know the difference between definite and indefinite because their language lacks articles; the Chinese do not always understand the differences between past, present, and future because their verbs are marked for change and completion rather than directly for time reference; the Chinese do not clearly understand the difference between counterfactual statements and possible ones (e.g., "If I were you, I would . . ." vs. "If I go, I will . . ." because their language does not have any formal ways to distinguish the two. If any of these assertions were true, it is unlikely that the Chinese race would have survived three or four millennia, since they would be always in the wrong place with the wrong objects and quite uncertain about whether they were there or not.
Most such misunderstandings come naturally from an inadequate understanding on the part of non-Chinese who are attempting to analyze Chinese. Some of it also comes from Chinese speakers who inadequately comprehend Western languages.
There is, however, one relationship between thought and language which is not myth. That relationship is exemplified in Chinese by the tendency of ordinary Chinese to understate, or to convey meaning indirectly.
[The Chinese Language: Myths and Facts Article written by Timothy Light for the Asia Society's Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3, Asian Languages, pp. 18-23, Spring 1982. Copyright AskAsia, 1996. ]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Unit,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Character,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'character,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'LETETRO,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'sinograph,
_DESCRIPTION:
In Chinese tradition, each character corresponds to a single syllable. Most words in all modern varieties of Chinese are polysyllabic and thus require two or more characters to write. ...
The loose relationship between phonetics and characters has thus made it possible for them to be used to write very different and probably unrelated languages.
Chinese characters are also known as sinographs, and the Chinese writing system as sinography.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_character]
lagZhon'character'STRUCTURE:
Just as most words are composed of two or more characters, most characters are composed of two or more roots.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_written_language]
ORTHOGRAPHY
Mandarin is written in traditional Chinese characters, a system that developed over 4,000 years ago. It utilizes a set of logographs of several types: pictographs, ideographs, compound ideographs, loan characters, and phonetic compounds. The latter forms over 90 percent of the total set of as many as 40,000 characters (Li and Thompson 1979, 1987). There is also an official romanization called Pinyin. There are other systems but Pinyin, developed in the 1950s, has become widespread throughout China, and has received official encouragement.
There is little connection between the written and spoken language: the Chinese system of writing, for the most part, does not symbolize the spoken language. Because it is ideographic, speakers of all Chinese languages/dialects, regardless of the similarity of spoken form, can read and understand Chinese writing and literature (for further information see the Cantonese Profile).
lagZhon'character'QUANTITY:
Number of characters in Chinese dictionaries[8]
Date Name of dictionary Number of characters
100 Shuowen Jiezi 9,353
543? Yupian 12,158
601 Qieyun 16,917
1011 Guangyun 26,194
1039 Jiyun 53,525
1615 Zihui 33,179
1716 Kangxi Zidian 47,035
1916 Zhonghua Da Zidian 48,000
1989 Hanyu Da Zidian 54,000
1994 Zhonghua Zihai 85,568
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_character]
Traditional vs. Simplified Characters
In the 1950s, the government of Mainland China "simplified" the written forms of many "traditional" characters in order to make learning to read and write the language easier for its then largely illiterate population.
These characters are often less pleasant to look at; however, the project did succeed in making a more literate society. Whatever your opinion of the simplification project, this historical fact means we now have in print and on the internet two sets of Chinese characters to deal with.
Limiting yourself to just one set is not advisable. Just as with systems of romanizing Chinese pronunciation, learning both traditional and simplified characters will open up that many more resources for you.
Keep in mind too that not every character has been simplified, only some of the more complicated forms. Plus, this simplification of characters did follow some logical principles. Therefore, learning simplified characters alongside their traditional counterparts is not too difficult. For comparison, here is a list of examples. Traditional forms are on the left, followed by their simplified forms, pinyin pronunciation, and English equivalents.
With the exception of the simplified character examples shown here, traditional characters are used throughout the rest of this site for two reasons.
First, Mainland China now interacts more and more with other Chinese-speaking regions where only traditional forms are used. As a result, Mainland Chinese professionals are increasingly willing and able to work with traditional characters, or fan ti zi.
Second, they just look really nice, don't they?
[chinese-outpost]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'RADICAL,
DEFINETRO:
Each character has a part of it designated a primary root, called the "radical." There is an index of 214 distinct radicals, sorted by stroke count, and originally selected so that each character in the Chinese written system would contain at least one radical. And indeed, every written character does contain at least one of the 214 radicals. Some characters contain more than one radical, but even in these cases, one particular radical is designated as the primary radical for that character.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_written_language]
A radical (from Latin radix, meaning "root") is the semantic root (i.e., portion bearing the meaning) of an inflected European word. Early Western sinologists borrowed this term to refer to the semantic component(s) of Chinese character (Hanzi). Later, the term was also borrowed for a second meaning, the ?? (Pinyin: bu`sho(u, Japanese bushu, Korean busu), literally meaning "section header", under which a character is listed in the dictionary.
For example, in the character ? ma- or “mother” (pictured right), the left part ? (pronounced nu"( in Mandarin Chinese) happens to be the semantic component and also the section header under which dictionaries list the graph. However, not all section headers function in a particular character as the semantic component; some are based on phonetics, while others are merely chosen for convenience, and play neither a semantic nor a phonetic role. These two meanings of “radical” are not synonymous, though they may coincide in a particular example, causing a great deal of confusion. (For clarity, both semantic component and section header terms are used here).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_%28Chinese_character%29]
Radicals and Dictionaries
With some basic understanding of Chinese characters under your belt, let's now get a little more technical by talking about radicals. And please, no Abbey Hoffman jokes.
Radicals are the 214 character elements (189 in the simplified system) around which the Chinese writing system is organized. Some of these elements can stand alone as individual characters; others function only when combined with additional character elements.
The important point, however, is that every Chinese character either is a radical or contains a radical. This makes using radicals the most sensible basis for organizing entries in a Chinese dictionary.
And that's not just my own good idea. Characters in Chinese dictionaries are in fact classified according by which parts scholars have declared to be the radicals.
Using a Chinese-English Dictionary
To look up the meaning of a character in a Chinese-English dictionary, you must first know which element in it is the radical. At first this may require some guesswork. Most radicals appear on the left side of the character, but you may also find them on the top, on the bottom, or in the middle. Looking at the following characters, though, a person who is literate in Chinese will know that (ren) is the radical in each.
Suppose you see the character "" for the first time and want to look up its meaning and pronunciation. Here's what you do:
First, go to the front of the dictionary where you'll find a table listing all radicals in groups by the number of strokes in each. That is, all the one-stroke radicals are listed first, then the two-stroke radicals, and so on. Since (ren) contains two strokes, look in the two-stroke section to find that has been assigned number 19.
Next, go to a table immediately following the first, find the section labeled "#19" and there find a complete list of characters containing the radical (ren). Scan the list for "" and see beside it xin. Now use the half of the dictionary organized according to pinyin spelling to look up. Find the right entry by making sure the character "" is beside it, and read that (xin) means letter, the kind you send by mail. The process has a few steps, but looking up the meaning of a new Chinese character is not as difficult as you might guess.
[chines-outpost]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'char'resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/ideographic_myth.html,
* https://www.yellowbridge.com/chinese/radicals.php,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Phoneme (PRONUNCIATION),
* McsEngl.lagZhon'pronunciation,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'diktesro,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'LETEPRO,
Quick and Dirty Guide.
Say pinyin "x" halfway between English "s" and "sh".
Say pinyin "q" halfway between English "ch" and "ts".
Say pinyin "c" (when immediately followed by a vowel) as English "ts". Pronounce "chi", "ri", "shi" and "zhi" as "chrrr", "rrr", "shrrr" and "jrrr" respectively — those "r" sound just buzzed, never rolled. Pronounce "ci", "si", "zi" as "tsszz", "sszz" and "dzzz" respectively. There you go.
Full Guide.
Here is a more comprehensive guide. If you take all this in, and practice a little, you'll have a good Chinese accent — good enough that you'll get a smile and a compliment from a Chinese person who's just heard you pronounce his/her name properly. This is good ice-breaking stuff.
Consonants.
b-p, d-t, g-k etc. Most English consonants can be paired off like this, one member of the pair being "voiced", the other "unvoiced" (or "voiceless"). "Voiced" means this: If you put your finger to your Adam's apple while making the sound, you can feel your voice-box vibrate. If you try this with English "z" you will feel the vibration. Try it with "s" — no vibration. These two sounds are otherwise pretty identical: the lips, tongue etc. are in the same position for both. The difference is in the voicing. For "z" the vocal chords are making a contribution to the sound; for "s" they are not — the entire sound comes from the friction of air hissing through a narrow gap (in this case, between tongue and palate). Similar remarks apply to English "v-f", to "j-ch", to the "th" in "this" versus the "th" in "thanks", and so on. (That last example shows that spelling is no guide. Both of the "s" sounds in "houses" are voiced.)
Chinese does not "cut" consonants this way. There are no voiced consonants in Chinese. (This is not strictly true, but a good enough approximation for present purposes.) Most Chinese consonants come in pairs, too, but the pairs are differently defined. What distinguishes a Chinese "b" from a Chinese "p" is not voicing, but aspiration — that is, a puff of air, a little "h", following the sound. Chinese "b" and "p" are both unvoiced, but the first is made with no aspiration, the second with a strong aspiration: "p-hhhh".
This is true for all the following pairs of Chinese consonants: b-p, z-c, d-t, g-k, j-q, zh-ch.
z-c. The "z-c" pair sounds, to an English ear, like "dz-ts". As in many Eastern European languages (Hungarian, for example), the "c" is read as a "ts", with strong aspiration: "ts-hhhh". The common Chinese surname "Cao", for example, is pronounced "ts-hhhow". Chinese "z" is the un-aspirated version of "c": Chinese "zei" (a bandit) sounds like "dzay". Because English ears are not used to hearing a "ts" un-aspirated at the beginning of a word (which is where it always occurs in Chinese), we tend to hear it as a voiced sound "dz". It's not voiced, though; it's unvoiced and unaspirated.
j-q. A Chinese "q" is pronounced roughly halfway between an English "ch" and "ts". Do a "ch", then do a "ts," then try to get a sound in between the two. This sound is strongly aspirated. Chinese "j" is the unaspirated version, pronounced halfway between an English "j" and a "dz". For the same reasons as with "z", it is heard by English-trained ears as a voiced sound close to English "j". People who pronounce "Beijing" with a French "j" sound are pronouncing it wrongly. The French "j" sound does not occur in Chinese. An English "j" is much closer.
x. English has two unvoiced sounds of the type popularly called "sibilants" (not a word phoneticists like much): "s" and "sh". We also, of course, have the voiced equivalents: "z" and the first consonant in "usual", for which English spelling has no letter. (When we need to write it, we generally use "zh". When we need to talk about it, we generally call it "the French 'j'".) Chinese has three sounds in this zone: "s", "sh" and "x". Chinese "s" can be done just like an English "s". Chinese "x" is about halfway between an English "s" and an English "sh". Chinese "sh" is a retroflex consonant....
The retroflexes: sh, ch-zh, r. These are the trickiest consonants in Chinese. "Retroflex" means "bend backwards". The thing that is being bent backwards in this case is your tongue. Curl the tip of the tongue up and back against your palate, as far back as it will go. Then, with the tongue in that unfamiliar position, make an English "sh", "ch" (with lots of aspiration: "ch-hhhh") and "r". Those are your basic Chinese retroflexes. Chinese "zh" is the unaspirated version of Chinese "ch". It is not a French "j". However, you will notice when you make a retroflex "r" that it has a sort of French-"j" sound to it unavoidably. This is probably the strangest of all Chinese consonants, to an English ear. Pinyin writes it as "r", but the old Wade-Giles system wrote it as "j"! That's how tricky this sound is. If you hold your tongue in the retroflex position and strive for an English "r" sound, though, you'll pretty much get it right.
Vowels
u. Only three Chinese vowels are tricky: "u", which has two different sounds depending on what precedes it, "e" likewise, and "i", which can have three utterly different sounds. Chinese "u" is a regular long "oo" sound, as in English "fool" everywhere except immediately after "j", "q", "x" and "y". Then it is the sound heard in French "lune" or German "Glu"ck". So pinyin "chu" is pronounced "ch-hhhoo" (with the retroflex "ch", of course), but "qu" is pronounced "ch-hhhu"" (no retroflex, the "ch" moved halfway towards "ts"). After "l" and "n", the letter "u" can take either value. In these cases, the ordinary "oo" is written plain "u", the French/German sound is written "u"". "Lu"" is quite a common Chinese surname.
e. When it appears alone — the Chinese word "e" has a number of meanings, depending on tone (see below) and context: "hungry", "goose", "Russian", "evil" etc. — this vowel is pronounced something like the English "ugh!" of disgust. No kidding. It is also pronounced this way when alone after a consonant ("ge", "zhe"). When alone between two consonants ("hen", "cheng") you can soften it a bit to sound like the vowel in English "but", though a bit more drawn out. When there is no following consonant though, don't hold back; give it a good strong "ugh!" sound. In diphthongs, however, "e" is a different sound, like the English "e" in "bet", but more drawn out. The Chinese word for "moon" is "yue", pronounced "y-u"-e", with a definite short "e" at the end. The diphthong "ei" is pronounced like the so-called "long 'a'" in English "late". The diphthong "ie" is pronounced "ee-e," a long "e" followed by a short one (something like the diphthong in the ballet term "plie'").
i. After a retroflex ("ch", "sh", "r" or "zh") the pinyin "i" is pronounced as a retroflex "r". The tongue stays in the retroflex position. Chinese "shi" thus sound to English ears a bit like "shrrr", though the whole thing is retroflexed. Chinese "ri" sounds like this: "rrrrr" (but retroflexed, not rolled — not far from a drawn-out French "j"). In the pinyin words "ci", "si" and "zi," the "i" sounds like no vowel at all. To an English-trained ear, these words sound like "tsszz", "sszz" and "dzzz", approximately. Everywhere else — in diphthongs ("ia", "ie", "ai", "uai", "iao" etc.) and after "b", "d", "j", "l", "m", "n", "p", "q", "t", "x" and "y" — pinyin "i" is a "continental 'i'" sound, like a long English "ee". Chinese "xi" (meaning "west") sounds close to "shee".
o. Chinese "o" is not particularly tricky, but note the following. When any consonant-sound is followed by just "-o" or "-uo," the "o" has the "continental" value, a bit like English "-aw". Chinese "po," for example, which means "granny," sounds a bit like English "paw". The common surname "Guo" sounds somewhat like "Gwaw". Chinese "dong" (meaning "east") is pronounced "doong," with a vowel like the one in English "book" but a wee bit longer. Diphthongs "ao" and "ou" are pronounced "ow" and "oh" respectively.
Tones
"Tone" means "a combination of pitch (low, middle, high) and contour (falling, rising, level)". Standard Chinese has four tones: High pitch with a level contour, middle-to-high pitch on a rising contour, low pitch with a rise at the end, high-to-middle on a falling contour. There is a way to mark these over a Chinese syllable, but it is hardly ever used. (An exception is the Lonely Planet Guide to China, which marks tones on all Chinese words.) Tones are essential to the meanings of words, so if you plan to learn Chinese, you have to master the little devils with all their tricks. (A tone changes subtly — and sometimes un-subtly — depending on which tone precedes and follows it.) I'm not teaching you Chinese, though, just trying to get you through a diplomatic encounter with grace and style. I'm therefore going to say nothing about tones.
[http://www.olimu.com/Notes/ChinesePronunciation.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'phoneme'resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* https://www.chinesepod.com/tools/pronunciation/,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'INITIAL,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'consonant,
SPECIFEFINO-PINYIN:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'B: http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/gsimple.htm = (π)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ba1.aif# english p in hop (no aspiration)
lagZhon'P: p = (πχ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\pa1.aif# english first p in pop (aspiration)
"\Program Files\Winamp\winamp.exe" "\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\pa1.aif"
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'D: d = (τ) english t in haunt (no aspiration)
lagZhon'T: t = (τχ) english t in tardy (aspiration)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'G: g = (κ) english k in book (no aspiration)
lagZhon'K: k = (κχ) english c in carry (aspirated)
==============================================
lagZhon'Z: http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/gmore.htm (τσ), za1#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\za1.aif#, english ts in bats (no aspiration)
- like dz or the ds in kids
lagZhon'C: c = (τσχ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ca1.aif# no english word, but pronounce ts in tsunami (aspiration!!!).
- like ts in rats
z-c. The "z-c" pair sounds, to an English ear, like "dz-ts". As in many Eastern European languages (Hungarian, for example), the "c" is read as a "ts", with strong aspiration: "ts-hhhh". The common Chinese surname "Cao", for example, is pronounced "ts-hhhow". Chinese "z" is the un-aspirated version of "c": Chinese "zei" (a bandit) sounds like "dzay". Because English ears are not used to hearing a "ts" un-aspirated at the beginning of a word (which is where it always occurs in Chinese), we tend to hear it as a voiced sound "dz". It's not voiced, though; it's unvoiced and unaspirated. [http://www.olimu.com/Notes/ChinesePronunciation.htm]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'J: j = (ΤΣ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ju1.aif# no english equivalent, but like a light tch in batch (NO aspiration)
lagZhon'Q: q = (ΤΣχ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\qu1.aif# no english equivalent, but the same as above but aspirated!
- is like ch in cheese with tongue forward
- Say pinyin "q" halfway between English "ch" and "ts".
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'ZH: zh = (ΤΣ|ΤΖ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\zha1.aif# similar to english tch in batch (no aspiration)
- is like j in jerk with tongue back
lagZhon'CH: ch = (ΤΣχ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\cha1.aif# similar to english ch in chance (aspiration)
============================================
lagZhon'M: M
lagZhon'F: F
lagZhon'N: N,
lagZhon'L: L, la1#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\la1.aif#, la2, la3, la4#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\la4.aif#,
lagZhon'H: H#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ha1.aif#,
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'S: S#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\sa1.aif#,
lagZhon'X: X#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\xu1.aif# = Say pinyin "x" halfway between English "s" and "sh".
- is like sh in sheet with tongue forward
lagZhon'SH: Sh = (Σ)#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\sha1.aif#,
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'R: R, ru1, ru2#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ru2.aif#, ru3#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ru3.aif#, ru4#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ru4.aif#,
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
lagZhon'Y: Y, ya1#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ya1.aif#, ya2, ya3, ya4#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\ya4.aif#,
lagZhon'W: W, wa1#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\wa1.aif#, wa2, wa3, wa4#pl:\data1\dataINFO\NERVOUS SYSTEM\LANGUAGE\chinese\SOUND\wa4.aif#
Initials and Finals In speech,
Chinese words are created using just 21 beginning sounds called initials, and 37 ending sounds called finals. Initials and finals, of course, combine to create the basic sounds of Chinese.
For example, consider Beijing.
bei: b is an initial, and ei is a final.
jing: j is an initial, and ing is a final
Bear in mind, however, that not all combinations of initials and finals are possible. As well, some finals may stand alone without an initial, such as an and ai. In many of these cases, pinyin rules will add "placeholder" initial consonants, so that "un" becomes "yun," and "u" becomes "wu." Strictly speaking, however, "y" and "w" are not initials.
The link at the bottom of the black column will take you pages on this site where you can view of the complete tables of initials and finals, but the following table gives you some examples using just six of each.
a ei ong ia iong uan
b ba bei . . . .
d da dei dong . . .
zh zha . zhong . . zhuan
r . . rong . . ruan
j . . . jia jiong .
g ga gei gong . . guan
[chinese-outpost]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'FINAL,
DEFINETRO:
* Chinese syllables start with a consonant, called the initial or initial consonant, and anything remaining in that syllable beyond the initial consonant is then called the final.
[http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~pinyin/pinyintro.html]
http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/gcompound.htm:
e. When it appears alone — the Chinese word "e" has a number of meanings, depending on tone (see below) and context: "hungry", "goose", "Russian", "evil" etc. — this vowel is pronounced something like the English "ugh!" of disgust. No kidding. It is also pronounced this way when alone after a consonant ("ge", "zhe"). When alone between two consonants ("hen", "cheng") you can soften it a bit to sound like the vowel in English "but", though a bit more drawn out. When there is no following consonant though, don't hold back; give it a good strong "ugh!" sound. In diphthongs, however, "e" is a different sound, like the English "e" in "bet", but more drawn out. The Chinese word for "moon" is "yue", pronounced "y-u"-e", with a definite short "e" at the end. The diphthong "ei" is pronounced like the so-called "long 'a'" in English "late". The diphthong "ie" is pronounced "ee-e," a long "e" followed by a short one (something like the diphthong in the ballet term "plié").
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Syllable,
Structure of a Syllable:
Tone
------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial | Final
------------------------------------------------------------------
| (Medial) http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/gsimple.htm (Ending)
------------------------------------------------------------------
(Consonant) | i, u, u" a, o, e i, u, u" n, ng
[http://chinesestudies.ucsd.edu/cpp/gstructure.htm]
* A syllable in Chinese is composed of an initial, wich is a consonant that begins the syllable, and a final, wich covers the rest of the syllable.
[http://www.chinese-tools.com/learn/chinese/01-phonetics-hello/print_1.html]
QUANTITY:
Altogether, Mandarin has 22 initial consonants (including something Chinese linguists call the zero initial, which means nothing more than the fact that there is no consonant in syllable-initial position) and 36 different finals. Together they combine to form 411 possible syllable types.
[http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~pinyin/pinyintro.html]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Tone,
What are tones?
In English, words are sometimes spoken with a certain intonation. Rising intonation indicates a question: He left. [stating a fact; voice is flat] He left? [asking a question; voice rises] In Chinese, intonation is much more fundamental: it's part of a word's pronunciation. If your voice rises when it should have fallen, you can end up saying a completely different word (with embarrassing consequences). Linguists call Chinese a tonal language. A classic example is
"Ma1 ma4 ma3 ma2#pl:\TechInfo\LANGUAGE\CHINESE\SOUND\ma.ogg#?", which means
"does mother curse the horse?" (but only if you say it right!).
Getting tones right is pretty tricky for English speakers learning Chinese, but it's important.
Mandarin is a tone language in which each stressed syllable has a significant contrastive pitch which is an integral part of the syllable. All Chinese languages/dialects have tone, but Mandarin has one of the simplest systems, consisting of four basic tones (
1 -) high level,
2 ΄) high rising,
3`΄) dipping/falling,
4 `) high falling
) in contrast to Cantonese, for example, with nine contrastive tones.
#img.tone.bmp#
The 2nd tone is "like" to ask in english and the 4th like affirmation.
[hmnSngo.2008-08-13_HokoYono]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Word,
_STATISTICS:
Finally, I will end this entry with part of speech statistics “top 4” from my syntax professor. I tried to get the source out of him, but he just told me “structuralist lingustics.”
* In modern Chinese, “normal” nouns (i.e. not “time words” or “nouns of locality”) make up 45% of all vocabulary
* Verbs make up 30% of all vocabulary
* Adjectives make up 10% of all vocabulary
* Measure words make up a little over 1% of all vocabulary.
* All other parts of speech make up less of a chunk than measure words.
Conclusion? Chinese grammar is wacky!
[http://www.sinosplice.com/life/archives/2006/03/20/chinese-parts-of-speech]
2. Word - ?
In Moder Chinese Grammar a Word is the smallest unit that can be used independently in a sentence. Depending on the syllable numbers a word has, it can be divided into three groups:
Monosyllabic words: a word that has only one syllable.
For example: ? ( snake ), ? ( north ), ? ( tall ), ? ( stop )
Disyllabic words: a word that has two syllables.
For example: ?? ( Beijing ), ?? ( beauty ), ?? ( Great Wall )
Polysyllabic words: the word that has 3 or more syllables, it includes:
Triple: ??? ( radio ), ??? ( television ), ??? ( sofa bed )
Quadruple: ???? ( radio station ), ???? ( Communist )
Quintuple and more: ????? ( Culture Revolution ), ?????? ( Community Development Project)
In modern Chinese, more than 70 percent of words are disyllabic words.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/114315.shtml]
Chinese is predominantly an isolating language, meaning that for the most part it is devoid of inflection, which characterizes many European languages including English.
Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest building blocks, of the language. Some of these single-syllable morphemes can stand alone as individual words, but contrary to what is often claimed, Chinese is not a monosyllabic language. Most words in the modern Chinese spoken varieties are in fact multisyllabic, consisting of more than one morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language]
Compared to other languages, word structure is also simple and uncomplicated, with words consisting of one or two morphemes, and there are few inflectional morphemes, such as those in other languages that indicate, for example, tense, person, number, gender, and case.
There is some morphological complexity. Definite nouns may be overtly marked by various modifiers but usually any sentential constituents before the verb are considered as definite. Number also can be expressed by a suffix but only for nouns indicating human beings and also obligatorily for personal pronouns; otherwise it is ignored or shown by lexical means, e.g. a numeral. Modifiers precede nouns.
Verbs can occur in compounds in which the second element indicates result or direction. Tense is not indicated in verb phrases; instead there are particles which are suffixed to the verb to indicate certain aspects, such as perfect, durative, inchoative, and experiential.
INFLECTION:
One key feature of Chinese grammar is that all words have only one grammatical form, as the language lacks conjugation, declension, or any other inflection (there are minor exceptions). Functions such as number in nouns or tense in verbs are expressed through word order or particles. In other words, where nouns might be distinguished by singular and plural ("woman" and "women") or verbs by number or person ("I go", "he goes"), Chinese lexemes are typically invariant.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_grammar]
SPESIFEPTO:
In classical Chinese philology, words are divided into two classes: the shizi (?? lit. "solid word") and the xuzi (?? lit. "empty word"). The former include what modern linguists call verbs, nouns, and adjectives, while the latter, also called yuzhu (?? lit. "speech helper"), zhuzi (?? lit. "helping word") or zhuci (??/?? lit. "helping term") includes what modern linguists call particles. Opinions differ as to which category pronouns and adverbs belong to.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_particles]
PART OF SPEECH:
To summarize, parts of speech in Chinese is actually more complicated than in English. Words are not marked explicitly for parts of speech and yet there are strict restrictions on whether a word can appear in a noun slot or a verb slot. Furthermore, the same word can be used as different parts of speech in different contexts. All this can contribute to the difficulty in the learning of the language.
[http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/partsofspeech.HTM]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'yuordero'EVOLUTEINO,
In the evolution towards the modern language, the lexicon has undergone a massive process of disyllabification:
whereas before 200 BC disyllabic words represented roughly 20% of the lexicon (at
least in the written style), in the modern language estimates are above 80% (Shi, 2002: 70-72),11 and the
disyllable is now regarded as the preferred word-form in the Modern Chinese lexicon. Given the fact
that, as said in section 3, the syllable in Chinese largely coincides with the morpheme, and, therefore,
almost all disyllables are made up of two lexical morphemes, it is not surprising that Chinese has been
defined as a “language of compound words”, as quoted in the introduction. However, I insist that disyllabification
and compounding are two distinct phenomena, albeit related and indeed interacting with
each other; we shall now examine the mechanisms which led to this peculiar configuration of the Chinese
lexicon.
[http://www.lingref.com/cpp/decemb/5/paper1617.pdf] 2008-08-11
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'MORPHEME,
1. Morpheme - ??
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language, it makes up the words.
Most of the morphemes in modern Chinese grammar are monosyllabic.
For example:
? ( good), ? ( small ), ? ( stand ), ? ( come ), ? ( go), ?( write )
Some morphemes are polysyllabic.
For example:
?? ( grape ), ?? ( ant ), ?? ( Parliament ), ?? ( nervous )
In the case of ??, ' ? ' is meaningless when it is separated from ' ?', the same with '?'. They mean ' grape ' only when they are combined together.
With Polysyllabic Morphemes, each single syllable is meaningless. Only when two or more syllables are combined together can they represent a certain concepts, to make either a morpheme or a word.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/114315.shtml]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'yuordero.SILABERO,
Modern Mandarin has only 405 syllables, which may be read in four tones13 (Lin, 2001: 27-29); among these, only 297 have a single meaning, and the rest of them have at least two separate meanings, often corresponding to different characters (Lin, 2001: 9 and 85)
[http://www.lingref.com/cpp/decemb/5/paper1617.pdf] 2008-08-11
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'yuordero.MESURE'WORD,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'classifier,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'quantifier,
1. What is a classifier?
A classifier is used together with a numeral to indicate in what unit a noun or an action is measured. Different classifiers have different usage and should be matched with different kinds of objects or actions that fit their meanings. So, we should learn the usage of every classifiers by heart.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060712/065833.shtml]
There are four kinds of measure words.
1. Measure words which are only used in Chinese but not in English.
2. Nouns which indicate certain kinds of non-standard measurements (but not standard measurements). These measure words are used in a similar way in English.
sa1n pi2ng jiu3
THREE BOTTLES WINE
3. Some Chinese nouns have "built-in" measure words, in other words they don't need additional measure words. They can be used just as they are in English (number word + noun). Not many nouns can be used in this way.
qi1 tia1n
Seven days.
4. The words in this category are used for standard measurements.
sa-n cu`n
THREE INCHES
[http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Grammar%20exercises/Measure%20words.htm]
lagZhon'ge4:
there are numerous Measure Words, each can be used with a specific category of words. Those will need to be learnt by heart. However, there is a measure word that Chinese people use when they conveniently forget the right one: ? (ge4).
[http://home.unilang.org/wiki3/index.php/Referring_to_things_in_Mandarin_Chinese]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'INSTANSERO,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'function'word,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'PARTICLE,
LITERATURE confuses instanseros and korelateros and call both particles.
[hmnSngo.2007-01-26_nikkas]
In classical Chinese philology, words are divided into two classes: the shizi (?? lit. "solid word") and the xuzi (?? lit. "empty word"). The former include what modern linguists call verbs, nouns, and adjectives, while the latter includes what modern linguists call particles. Opinions differ as to which category pronouns and adverbs belong to. Chinese particles are also known as yuzhu (??), zhuzi (??), zhuci (??/??), yunci (??) or simply ci (?).
The character for a Chinese particle is often used phonetically. The meaning of a Chinese particle depends on its position in the sentence, and the context. For example, the common particle qi (?), which etymologically means a "winnowing basket" (later written as ?), can have the following meanings:
character (pinyin) usage example
? (qi') third-person possesive adjective: his/her/its/their ?????,?????? A workman who wants to do his job well has to sharpen his tools first.
demonstrative adjective: that/those ?????,??????? Punish that person (someone) with his very own tricks.
suffix before adjective or verb ????,????? The northern wind is cool; the snow falls heavily.
to express doubt, uncertainty ?????I had better go.??????? You have to go to the riverside to make an inquiry, I'm afraid.
to express hope, command ?????????! Boy, don't ruin the accomplishment of your father!
to form a rhetorical question ????,????? How could we fail to find words, when we want to accuse someone?
[edit] Studies
The first book devoted to the studies of the Chinese particles is Speech Helpers (??) by Lu Yiwei (???) of the Yuan Dynasty. More important works concerning the particles followed, including Some Notes on the Helping Words (????) by Liu Qi (??) and Explanations of the Articles Found in the Classics (????) by Wang Yinzhi (???), both published during the Qing Dynasty. These works focus on the particles found in the Confucius classics, paying little attentions to the particles used in the vernacular literature. The Compilation and Explanations of the Special Terms Found in Classical Poetry and Dramas (???????) by Zhang Xiang (??), published posthumously in 1953, was the first work covering the particles found in the vernacular literature. In English, there is A Dictionary of the Chinese Particles by W. A. C. H. Dobson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_particles]
"Particles." Sounds like it could be Quantum Physics, I know, but it's not. It's still Grammar.
In addition to using adverbs, many of the linguistic operations which English performs by changing the form of the verb, or by using possessive pronouns, are accomplished in Chinese by adding a particle to the sentence. Particles typically occur in the neutral tone. The following examples introduce us to three different kinds of particles: structural, interrogative, and aspectual.
[http://www.china-fun.net/LearnCHS/Grammar/20060710/030703.shtml]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'instansero'INSTANCE,
lagZhon'bu4:
* NEGATION: bu4 VERB:
Negation of Chinese verbs is accomplished by inserting bu4, which can be interpreted roughly as "not", between before the verb to be negated. For example: "wo( bu` chi- ji-" (????, literally: I not eat chicken) is equal to saying "I don't eat chicken". Serial verbs and verbal complements complicate matters.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
* QUESTION: VERB bu4 VERB:
The "Verb-not-verb" Construction
This construction is an alternative to the above. It consists of taking the verb, putting "bu`" after it and then repeating the verb once more. For example:
"wo( chi- ji-" (???): "I eat chicken"
"wo( chi- bu` chi- ji-?" (??????)(literally: I eat not eat chicken?) "Do I eat chicken?"
Note that for the verb-not-verb construction "yo(u" (to have) must use "méi" (?) instead of "bu`" (?).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
lagZhon'ma: QUESTION
Create a question Adding the interrogative particle (ma) to the end of a declarative statement turns the sentence into a question.
[chinese-outpost]
lagZhon'me2: NEGATION OF HAVE.
There is one exception to this rule, however. The verb "yo(u" (? to have) is negated with the particle "méi" (?).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_verbs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon.specific,
There are between six and twelve main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most populous by far is Mandarin (c. 800 million), followed by Wu (c. 90 million), and Cantonese (c. 80 million).
The identification of the varieties of Chinese as "languages" or "dialects" is a controversial issue. If Chinese is classified as a single language rather than a group of languages, it is the most widely spoken language in the world.
The standardized form of spoken Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, a member of the Mandarin group; it is described in the article "Standard Mandarin." Standard Mandarin is the official language of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China or Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore (together with English, Malay, and Tamil). Chinese—de facto, Standard Mandarin—is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (alongside English, Arabic, French, Russian, and Spanish). Spoken in the form of Standard Cantonese, Chinese is one of the official languages of Hong Kong (together with English) and of Macau (together with Portuguese).
[wikipedia]
The major linguistic distinctions within Chinese are
- Mandarin,
- Wu,
- Min,
- Yue (commonly known as Cantonese), and
- Hakka (Kejia).
Wu, Min, Yue and Hakka are all spoken in the southern and southeastern provinces of China (Guangdong, Fujian, most of Hunan, Jianxi, and Zhejiang, and parts of Guangxi, Anhui, and Jiangsu) and on the islands of Taipei (Taiwan) and Hainan. Cantonese is more closely related to Min and Hakka; it is spoken in Guangdong and Guangzi provinces and in Hong Kong.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon.MANDARIN,
SYNONYMS:
* McsEngl.Beijinghua,
* McsEngl.Mandarin,
* McsEngl.Putonghua,
* McsEngl.Guoyu,
* McsEngl.Huayu,
Mandarin is the most widely spoken of all Chinese languages/dialects and is used by upwards of 720 million people in China, or 70 percent of the population of China (Grimes 1992). It is spoken in a huge area of the mainland running diagonally from the extreme southwest to Manchuria and also along the entire east coast north of Shanghai. To generalize, most of China with the exception of the southeastern provinces from Vietnam in the southwest to Shanghai in the northeast is Mandarin speaking. Other exceptional areas are in the far west. There are also non-Chinese speaking minorities in many areas of China.
Does Everyone in China Understand Mandarin?
In China, some 400 million people, or 30% of the population, can't speak Mandarin, the country's official language.
In China, Mandarin is known as Putonghua, which means "the common tongue."
But in reality, Mandarin is far from being universally spoken. A 2013
report from China's Education Ministry revealed that some 400 million
people -- about 30% of the country's population -- do not speak or
understand much Mandarin at all. Although Mandarin (also known as Standard
Chinese) is China's only official language, there are hundreds of other
languages and dialects spoken throughout the world's most populous (and
third-largest) country. Many Chinese dialects are mutually unintelligible.
For decades, the Chinese government has tried to promote Mandarin as a
unifying force throughout the large and diverse nation, but many regions
and ethic groups have maintained strong support for their own mother
tongues, such as Cantonese and Shanghainese.
Read More:
http://www.wisegeek.com/does-everyone-in-china-understand-mandarin.htm?m {2018-09-20}
LANGUAGE VARIATION
Several subgroups of dialects have been distinguished, including: Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern, and lower Yangtze River dialects. For the most part these are very homogeneous and there is a high level of mutual comprehension among all speakers of Mandarin dialects. The Beijing dialect provides the standard for the national language which is officially called Putonghua in China, Guoyu in Taiwan, and Huayu in Singapore. There are some minor differences between these three. Other names which have been used are Pei, Northern Chinese, Potinhua, and Beijinghua. Modern Standard Chinese also is used to refer to the Beijing-based standard.
Although this profile speaks of "Chinese languages/dialects" the Chinese themselves refer to all forms of spoken Chinese as "dialects" even though some of them are as different as Spanish and Italian and are not mutually intelligible. The fiction of a single Chinese language--despite the many historical forms, styles, and regional variants--persists because of a common writing system with deep historical roots and because of a common ideal of cultural unity.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon.SPOKEN,
* McsEngl.chinese'speeking'language,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'phonetics,
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'PHONETIC-TRANSCRIPTION,
Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries.
The Phagspa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciation of pre-modern forms of Chinese.
Zhuyin (??; also known as bopomofo) is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools. A comparison table of Zhuyin to Pinyin exists in the Zhuyin article. Syllables based on Pinyin and Zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:
* Pinyin table
* Zhuyin table
There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. Since the Dungan language is usually considered a dialect of Mandarin Chinese, the Dungan alphabet can also be considered a cyrillization of one dialect of the Chinese language, albeit one used in a very specific context.
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'ROMANIZATION,
Making Chinese "Roman" You mean, like, starring Jackie Chan as Maximus?
No, by "romanizing" Chinese, we mean using the letters of the Roman alphabet (you know, "A, B, C...") to spell out the sounds of the characters, like bei, nan, dong, and xi in place of , , , and . We have to do this because nothing in a Chinese character itself tells exactly how to pronounce it.
For instance, out of the blue, would you know how to say ""?
One source of confusion is the fact that several systems exist for spelling Chinese words with roman letters, and most people have no idea which they're seeing when they encounter one. The three most common systems are called Wade-Giles, Yale, and Pinyin.
The Wade-Giles system was developed in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Francis Wade, a British officer and diplomat who served in China, and was later modified by Cambridge professor Herbert Allen Giles. The Yale system was developed at Yale University in the late 1940's, originally for (according to some sources) teaching Mandarin and Cantonese Chinese to military and diplomatic personnel.
Pinyin, which is pronounced like peen-yeen and means literally "spell-sound," is the official system that the People's Republic of China began developing in the late 1950s to help fight the country's illiteracy problem. It is still used in Mainland China to teach elementary school students how to pronounce their native tongue.
As the People's Republic of China plays an increasingly important role in world affairs, Pinyin has emerged as the system used most in the Western world. It has been officially adopted by both the United Nations and the U.S. Government, and you'll find it used throughout the rest of this site.
Just the same, it will be to your advantage to make yourself familiar with all three of these romanization systems. That way, you can easily work with materials from most any romanized source.
For comparison, this table shows how Wade-Giles, Yale and Pinyin romanize this sentence, , which means "I am going to Beijing." (Note that this chart includes tone markers, which you'll read about later.)
System Romanization Wade-Giles wo3 ch`u4 pei3 ching1. Yale wo chyu bei jing. Pinyin wo qu bei jing.
As you see, the three systems have some things in common.
To give you just another look at how they compare, here are some well-known Chinese names you may recognize rendered in Wade-Giles, Yale, and Pinyin:
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'PINYIN,
DEFINETRO:
Pinyin is a system of romanization (phonemic notation and transcription to Roman script) for Standard Mandarin, where pin means "spell" and yin means "sound".
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin]
For a quick guide to pronunciation, here is.
The vowels are relatively self-explanatory:
a = a in father
e = can be e in bet or close to er in her
i/yi = ea in heat or i in bit
o = o in bone
u/wu = can be oo in boot or like the u umlaut in german
ui/wei = is like saying way
ao = ou in about
en = un in shun
eng = ung in hung
The rest of the vowel combinations are self-explanatory.
Now, for consonants*:
(*note: in Chinese, it matters if there's a puff of air [called aspiration] after certain consonants. There are voiced consonants in english (like b, d, g) and unvoiced consonants (consequently p, t, k). Pinyin uses these pairs and a few others to mark if there's a puff of air after or not. Aspiration in English is like the first p in pop, and no aspiration is the last p in pop. Can you hear the difference? The voiced letters denote no aspiration, while the unvoiced denote aspiration. so to write the word pop in pinyin, you'd write pab)
b = english p in hop (no aspiration)
p = english first p in pop (aspiration)
d = english t in haunt (no aspiration)
t = english t in tardy (aspiration)
g = english k in book (no aspiration)
k = english c in carry (aspirated)
j = no english equivalent, but like a light tch in batch (NO aspiration)
q = no english equivalent, but the same as above but aspirated!
zh = similar to english tch in batch (no aspiration)
ch = similar to english ch in chance (aspiration)
z = english ts in bats (no aspiration)
c = no english word, but pronounce ts in tsunami (aspiration!!!)
the rest of the consonants, like m, n, f, sh, s, l, and r are really pretty similar to english. h is a little heavier, like ch in loch. ng in Chinese is like english ng in hung, but never with an accompanying g sound like in finger.
The accent marks... they're tones, and there's 4 of them (besides neutral)
(pinyin also uses the numeric system, and a is an example vowel)
a- (ā a1) : highest tone, like yelling ha! to someone you beat at a game
a' (á a2): rising tone, like saying what?! to an outrageous allegation
a( (ǎ a3): falling and rising, like saying slowly huh? to jibberish
a` (à a4): falling, like saying oh. to something you realize you misunderstood
a (a): neutral, low tone, like saying hmm to yourself while thinking
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'WADE'GILES,
Perhaps the second-most common system of romanization for Mandarin is Wade-Giles. This system was probably the most common system of romanization for Mandarin before Hanyu Pinyin was developed. Wade-Giles is often found in academic use in the U.S., and until recently was widely used in Taiwan (Taipei city now officially uses Hanyu Pinyin and the rest of the island officially uses To-ngyo`ng Pinyin ????/????).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_written_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'VERNACULAR'CHINESE,
* McsEngl.vernacular'chinese@cptCore800,
* McsEngl.standard'written'chinese@cptCore800,
Vernacular Chinese is a style or register of the written Chinese language essentially modeled after the spoken language and associated with Standard Mandarin. This term is not to be confused with the various present-day vernacular spoken varieties of Chinese. Since the early 1920s, Vernacular Chinese has been the most popular style of writing for speakers of all varieties of spoken Chinese throughout China, succeeding Classical Chinese, the former written standard used in China since the time of Confucius. The term Standard Written Chinese now often refers to Vernacular Chinese.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'BOPOMOFO,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'zhuyin,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Zhuyin'fuhao,
Zhuyin fuhao (Traditional Chinese: ????; Simplified Chinese: ????; Hanyu Pinyin: Zhu`yi-n fu'hào; Tongyong Pinyin: Jhu`yin fu'hào; Wade-Giles: Chu-yin fu-hao), or "Symbols for Annotating Sounds", often abbreviated as Zhuyin, or known as Bopomofo (????) after the first four letters of this Chinese phonemic alphabet (bo po mo fo), is the national phonetic system of the Republic of China for teaching Chinese languages, especially Standard Mandarin, to people learning to read and write and/or to people learning to speak Mandarin. (See Uses). The system uses 37 special symbols to represent Mandarin sounds: 21 consonants and 16 vowels. Each symbol represents a group of sounds without much ambiguity.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bopomofo]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon'CLASSICAL'CHINESE,
* McsEngl.lagZhon'Literary'Chinese@cptCore800,
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of old forms of Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese. However, the distinction between Literary and Classical, Literary and Vernacular Chinese are blurry. Classical Chinese was once used for almost all formal correspondence before and during the beginning of the 20th century, not only in China but also (during various different periods) in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Among Chinese speakers, Classical Chinese has been largely replaced by Vernacular Chinese (??, ba'ihuà), a style of writing that is equal to modern spoken Mandarin Chinese, while speakers of non-Chinese languages have largely abandoned Classical Chinese in favor of local vernaculars.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese]
name::
* McsEngl.lagZhon.WRITTEN,
* McsEngl.chinese-written-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
Because Chinese is not alphabetic, its writing does not reflect differences and changes in speech. Even though two speakers of different Chinese languages cannot understand each other (and thus may have to resort to a foreign language such as English for oral communication), they can write to each other and thereby understand each other. The ways that they read aloud what they have written will differ almost completely, but the meaning of what has been written will be identically clear to each. Written Chinese reflects the vocabulary and grammar of the most broadly used Chinese oral language. Speakers of the nonstandard Chinese languages learn this vocabulary and grammar, often pronouncing the words in their own local ways, when they learn to read and write. In short, the written language of China is uniform despite China's actual language diversity and the mutual unintelligibility of the several Chinese languages.
[The Chinese Language: Myths and Facts Article written by Timothy Light for the Asia Society's Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3, Asian Languages, pp. 18-23, Spring 1982. Copyright AskAsia, 1996. ]
Education
In general, schools in Mainland China and Singapore use simplified characters exclusively, while schools in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan use traditional characters exclusively.
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore967,
* McsEngl.egyptian-language@cptCore967, {2012-09-24}
* McsEngl.lagEgy@cptCore967, {2012-09-24}
* McsElln.αιγυπτιακή-γλώσσα@cptCore967, {2012-09-24}
name::
* McsEngl.lagEgy'Grammar,
Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs was written by Alan Gardiner and first published in 1927 in London by the Clarendon Press. It has been reprinted several times since. The third edition published in 1957 is the most widely-used version for the subject. Through a series of thirty-three lessons, the book gives an extremely thorough overview of the language and writing system of Ancient Egypt. The focus of the book is the literary language of the Middle Kingdom. The creation of the book resulted in the development of an extremely accurate and detailed hieroglyphic typeset, (Gardiner's Sign List).
Gardiner’s work is considered to this day to be the most thorough textbook of the Egyptian language in existence, although subsequent developments have supplanted a number of aspects of Gardiner's understanding of Egyptian grammar, particularly with regard to the verbal system.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Grammar:_Being_an_Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Hieroglyphs]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEgy.COPTIC,
* McsEngl.coptic-language@cptCore967, {2012-08-17}
* McsEngl.lngCop@cptCore967, {2012-08-17}
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΚΟΠΤΙΚΗ@cptCore967, {2012-08-17}
* McsElln.ΚΟΠΤΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
_DESCRIPTION:
Coptic or Coptic Egyptian (??????`????? Met Remenkemi) is the current stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least the 17th century.[1] Egyptian began to be written using the Greek alphabet in the 1st century.[2] The new writing system became the Coptic script, an adapted Greek alphabet with the addition of six or seven signs from the demotic script to represent Egyptian sounds the Greek language did not have. Several distinct Coptic dialects are identified, the most prominent of which are Sahidic and Bohairic.
Coptic and Demotic are grammatically closely akin to Late Egyptian, which was written in the Hieroglyphic script. Coptic flourished as a literary language from the 2nd to 13th centuries, and its Bohairic dialect continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It was supplanted by Egyptian Arabic as a spoken language toward the early modern period, though revitalization efforts have been underway since the 19th century.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_language]
=== analytic
Είναι η δημώδης αιγυπτιακή γλώσσα με ελληνικό αλφάβητο και επτά επί πλέον γράμματα.
Οι κόπτες είναι οι αυθεντικοί αιγύπτιοι, απόγονοι του πανάρχαιου πολιτισμού. Σήμερα κόπτες ονομάζονται οι ορθόδοξοι Αιγύπτιοι χριστιανοί.
[ΚΑΘΗΜΕΡΙΝΗ, 17 ΑΠΡΙ 1994, 7ΜΕΡΕΣ 6]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEgy.DEMOTIC,
Demotic (from Greek: d?µ?t???? demotikσs, "popular") refers to either the ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic used in the Delta, or the stage of the Egyptian language following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic. The term was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus to distinguish it from hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts. By convention, the word "Demotic" is capitalized in order to distinguish it from demotic Greek.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEgy.HIERATIC,
Hieratic refers to a cursive writing system that was used in the provenance of the pharaohs in Egypt and Nubia that developed alongside the hieroglyphic system,[1] to which it is intimately related. It was primarily written in ink with a reed brush on papyrus, allowing scribes to write quickly without resorting to the time-consuming hieroglyphs.
In the 2nd century AD, the term hieratic was first used by Saint Clement of Alexandria.[2] It derives from the Greek phrase ???µµata ?e?at??? (grammata hieratika; literally "priestly writing"), as at that time hieratic was used only for religious texts, as had been the case for the previous thousand years.
Hieratic can also be an adjective meaning "[o]f or associated with sacred persons or offices; sacerdotal."[3]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEgy.HIEROGLYPH,
* McsEngl.conceptCore967.1,
* McsEngl.egyptian-hieroglyphs@cptCore967.1, {2012-09-24}
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.αιγυπτιακά-ιερογλυφικά@cptCore967.1, {2012-09-24}
* McsElln.ιερογλυφικά-αιγύπτου@cptCore967.1, {2012-09-24}
_DESCRIPTION:
Egyptian hieroglyphs ( /'ha??r.??gl?f/ hyr-o-glif, /'ha?.ro??gl?f/) hy-roh-glif) were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature on papyrus and wood. Less formal variations of the script, called hieratic and demotic, are technically not hieroglyphs.
Various scholars believe that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and ... probably [were]... invented under the influence of the latter ...",[1] although it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[2] (See further History of writing).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs]
name::
* McsEngl.Gardiner's-List,
Gardiner's Sign List is a list of common Egyptian hieroglyphs compiled by Sir Alan Gardiner. It is considered a standard reference in the study of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Gardiner lists only the common forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but he includes extensive subcategories, and also both vertical and horizontal forms for many hieroglyphs. He includes size-variation forms to aid with the reading of hieroglyphs in running blocks of text. (The Budge Reference has about 1000 hieroglyphs listed in 50 pages, but with no size varieties.)
Unfortunately he does not cross index signs, once put on the list, other significant uses may be overlooked. One example of this is G16, nbt?, the ideogram for The Two Ladies, goddesses Wadjet as cobra and Nekhbet as the white vulture. These are the protecting and patron goddesses of the separate Egyptian kingdoms that joined into Ancient Egypt, who were both then displayed on the uraeus of Wadjet when the unification occurred and afterward considered jointly to be the protectors of Egypt and the pharaohs. This ideogram is listed only on the bird list as G16, and overlooked on the deity list and the reptile list.
Other subcategories included by Gardiner are abbreviations and personalized forms, and also a complete subset, used on papyrus, specifically for the Book of the Dead.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hieroglyphs]
Late Egyptian is the stage of the Egyptian language that was written by the time of the New Kingdom around 1350 BC – the Amarna period. Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the Ramesside Period and later. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant Middle Egyptian as a literary language.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Egyptian]
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore569,
* McsEngl.lagEng,
* McsEngl.leng, {2017-02-18}
* McsEngl.lango.eng,
* McsEngl.lng.eng,
* McsEngl.eng,
* McsEngl.language.ENGLISH,
* McsEngl.en@cptCore569,
* McsEngl.english-language,
* McsEngl.language.english@cptCore569,
* McsEngl.lagEng@cptCore569, {2016-09-20} {2012-08-22}
* McsElln.ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.γλώσσα.αγγλική@cptCore569, {2012-08-22}
====== lagoESPERANTO:
* McsEngl.angla-lingvo@lagoEspo,
* McsEspo.angla-lingvo,
====== lagoJAPANESE:
* eigo,
ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a# ...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'ATTRIBUTE,
Attributes of english-language#ql:cptCore569# in this infobase.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'WholeNo-relation,
name::
* McsEngl.english LANGUAGE & FRENCH & GERMAN LANGUAGE@cptCore41,
Τα σημερινά αγγλικά παρόλο που είναι γερμανογενής γλώσα, μοιάζουν στη σύνταξη και στη μορφολογία περισότερο με τα σημερινά γαλικά παρά με τα γερμανικά.
Τα νεότερα αγγλικά γίνονται όλο και πιο ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΑ, πλησιάζονται έτσι προς τα κινέζικα.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 160#cptResource191#]
Υπολογίζεται ότι το μισό και περίπου λεξιλόγιό της προέρχεται άμεσα ή έμεσα απο τη Γαλλική.
[NA215 ΜΠΑΜΠΙΝΙΩΤΗΣ#cptResource215#, 1985, 39]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'accent,
* McsEngl.English-accent,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* The English Language In 24 Accents: http://www.videobash.com/video_show/someone-give-this-guy-a-voice-acting-job-already-340377,
How Different Are Regional Accents in the United Kingdom?
According to linguists, there is a distinct change in the local accent every 25 miles (40 km) in the United Kingdom.
If you've ever wanted to sit down to a spot of tea or tell someone your
name is "Bond. James Bond," you might have a yearning to speak with a
British accent, which seems to carry an elegance and authority all its own.
Well, bad news, guv: There's really no such thing as a British accent. Or,
more accurately, there are many different British accents. The inhabitants
of the United Kingdom speak in a wide variety of accents, mainly depending
on geography and social class. In fact, David Crystal of Bangor University
in Wales estimates that there is a noticeable change in the local accent
for every 25 miles (40 km) that one travels in the United Kingdom. And the
BBC reports that as many as one-third of workers change their regional
accent in the hopes of getting ahead in the workplace. In job interviews
and professional settings, many people attempt to adopt a more "posh"
accent, or even speak in something akin to "the Queen's English."
Read More:
http://www.wisegeek.com/how-different-are-regional-accents-in-the-united-kingdom.htm?m {2019-02-17}
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'ambiguity,
VERBERO+KORELATERO => VERBERO-DEZIGNEPTERO:
* When a korelatero creates with a verbero-nonimero a new verbero-nonimero, the korelatero stays in the same form. Then an ambiguity is created because from the logetro itself we don't know if this yordero forms a dezigneptero or it is a korelatero in the sentesetro. This ambiguity is resolved only by finding the mineto of the sentensetro.
[hmnSngo.2007-02-04_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'computer-program,
* McsEngl.English-tool,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'Grammarly,
_DESCRIPTION:
The World's Best Grammar Checker
Correct up to 10 times more mistakes than popular word processors.
Instant proofreading Instantly find and correct over 250 types of grammatical mistakes
Context-optimized vocabulary suggestions Improve word choice with context-optimized vocabulary suggestions
Plagiarism detectorAvoid plagiarism by checking your texts against over 8 billion web pages
Grammarly is an automated proofreader and your personal grammar coach.
Check your writing for grammar, punctuation, style and much more.
[http://www.grammarly.com/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'dialect,
* McsEngl.English-dialect,
_SPECIFIC:
* American English
* British English (BBC accent)
ΔΙΑΛΕΧΤΟΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΗΣ ΒΡΕΤΑΝΙΑΣ:
Μέσα στην ίδια την Αγγλία, εξαιτίας των παραδοσιακών ΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΚΏΝ ΔΙΑΚΡΙΣΕΩΝ, κύρος έχει η διάλεχτος και ιδιαίτερα η προφορά της διαλέχτου που ξεκίνησε απο την περιοχή του λονδίνου όπου βρίσκονται τα ανάχτορα, τα δικαστήρια, και γενικά το διοικητικό και πνευματικό κέντρο...Αλλά τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες με την ανάπτυξη τοπικιστικών αισθημάτων, ακόμη και στην ίδια την Αγγλία δε γίνεται παντού με ευμένεια δεχτός όποιος χρησιμοποιεί αυτή την προφορά.
[ΠΕΤΡΟΥΝΙΑΣ, 1984, 127#cptResource191#]
name::
* McsEngl.general-american-accent-569,
General American Accent:
DEFINEFINO: Often abbreviated as GA, this accent is usually held to be the "standard" accent of American English; it is interesting to note that the standard that was for a long time used in the description of British English pronunciation (Received Pronunciation, or RP) is only spoken by a tiny minority of the British population, whereas GA is the accent of the majority of Americans. It is traditionally identified as the accent spoken throughout the U.S.A. except in the north-east (roughly the Boston and New England area) and the south-eastern states.
[Peter Roach Encyc 2000]
name::
* McsEngl.RP-569,
* McsEngl.received-pronunciation-569,
* McsEngl.public-school-accent-of-British-English,
Received Pronunciation (RP):
RP was for many years the accent of British English usually chosen for the purposes of description and teaching, in spite of the fact that it is only spoken by a small minority of the population; it is also known as the "public school" accent, and as "BBC pronunciation". There are clear historical reasons for the adoption of RP as the model accent: in the first half of this century virtually any English person qualified to teach in a university and write textbooks would have been educated at private schools: RP was (and to a considerable extent still is) mainly the accent of the privately educated. It would therefore have been a bizarre decision at that time to choose to teach any other accent to foreign learners. It survived as the model accent for various reasons: one was its widespread use in "prestige" broadcasting, such as newsreading; secondly, it was claimed to belong to no particular region, being found in all parts of Britain (though in reality it was very much more widespread in London and the south-east of England than anywhere else); and thirdly, it became accepted as a common currency - an accent that (it was claimed) everyone in Britain knows and understands.
Some detailed descriptions of RP have suggested that it is possible to identify different varieties within RP, such as "advanced", or "conservative". Another suggestion is that there is an exaggerated version that can be called "hyper-RP". But these sub-species do not appear to be easy to identify reliably. My own opinion is that RP was a convenient fiction, but one which had regrettable associations with class and privilege. I prefer to treat the BBC accent as the best model for the description of English.
[Peter Roach Encycl 2000]
public school accent
Foreigners often find it difficult to grasp the fact that in Britain, so-called public schools are private schools, and are used almost exclusively to educate the children of the wealthy. They are one of the strongest forces for conservatism and the preservation of privilege in British society, and one of the ways in which they preserve traditional conventions is to encourage in their pupils the use of "Received Pronunciation" (RP). For this reason, RP is sometimes referred to as "public-school accent".
[Peter Roach Encycl 2000]
This term is used to describe varieties of English pronunciation in which the / r / phoneme is found in all phonological contexts. In BBC Pronunciation, / r / is only found before vowels (as in 'red' / +=$ /, 'around' / ?+!:1$ /), but never before consonants or before a pause. In rhotic accents, on the other hand, / r / may occur before consonants (as in 'cart' / 5D'+" /) and before a pause (as in 'car' / 5D'+ /). While BBC is non-rhotic, many accents of the British Isles are rhotic, including most of the south and west of England, much of Wales and all of Scotland and Ireland. Most speakers of American English speak with a rhotic accent, but there are non-rhotic areas including the Boston area, lower-class New York and the Deep South.
Foreign learners encounter a lot of difficulty in learning not to pronounce /r/ in the wrong places, and life would be easier for most learners of English if the model chosen were rhotic.
[Peter Roach Encyc 2000]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'dictionary,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://www.grammarly.com/words//
* http://www.grammarly.com/words//
* http://dictionary.reverso.net//
* http://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary//
There are over 500,000 words in the Oxford English Dictionary, and if we add all the current technical and scientific terms together with place, personal, and family names, this escalates to over 1,000,000 words.
[BYTE, Dec 1993, 302]
{time.1828, 1806}:
=== An American Dictionary of the English Language:
How Hard Was It to Put Together America’s First Dictionary?
Noah Webster learned 26 languages while working on “An American Dictionary of the English Language."
In 1806, Noah Webster published the first American dictionary, entitled A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. Soon after, he started work on An American Dictionary of the English Language, a book that would become the standard of lexicography. It was an authoritative guide to the English language, with some 70,000 entries. In order to research the origins of the American version of English, Webster learned 26 languages, including Anglo-Saxon, Aramaic, and Sanskrit. Webster finally published the work in 1828, at the age of 70.
Read More: http://www.wisegeek.com/how-hard-was-it-to-put-together-americas-first-dictionary.htm?m {2016-11-24}
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'EVOLUTION,
FORCAST: Komon-Language#cptCore683#
Because today english is the most used language, english is the MOST EVOLVING language.
[hmnSngo.2001-12-09_nikkas]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'HISTORY,
Η αγγλική γλώσσα λαλείται και γράφεται και διδάσκεται απο του 900 μχ και εξής και όμως αν και ουδέποτε εν τω μεταξύ εγένετο νεκρά γλώσα, η προφορά αυτής ήτο περί το 900 μχ σφόδρα διάφορος της σημερινής.
[NA195 ΧΑΤΖΙΔΑΚΗΣ#cptResource195#, 1967, 58]
Η Αγγλική υποδιαιρείται
α) στην αρχαία ή αγγλοσαξωνική 450-1100.
β) στη μεσαιωνική 1100-1500 και
γ) στη νεότερη αγγλική 1500-σήμερα.
[NA215 ΜΠΑΜΠΙΝΙΩΤΗΣ#cptResource215#, 1985, 39]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'expression.special,
* McsEngl.expression.english.special,
* McsEngl.English-special-expression,
* McsEngl.special-expression.english,
name::
* McsEngl.ad-hoc,
* McsEngl.expression.ad-hoc,
_ad_hoc:
Action taken for a particular reason or in a special situation, such as an ad hoc committee formed to consider a specific, urgent matter. Latin for, for this purpose.
Usage Example
After a significant drop in product sales, my manager created an ad hoc team to pinpoint out what wasn't working with the current marketing strategy and propose a new plan of attack.
[term.of.the.day@businessdictionary, 2014-07-30]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'Letter,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'LETEPRO,
* file:///\Data1TechInfo/LANGUAGE/SPOKEN-LANG/PHONEMES/ipa-American-English/HTML/english%20phonemes.html:
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'Syntax,
ΟΙ ΣΧΕΣΕΙΣ ΜΕΤΑΞΥ ΤΩΝ ΟΡΩΝ ΤΗΣ ΠΡΟΤΑΣΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΚΥΡΙΩΣ Η ΔΙΑΚΡΙΣΗ ΜΕΤΑΞΥ ΥΠΟΚΕΙΜΕΝΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΑΝΤΙΚΕΙΜΕΝΟΥ ΔΕΝ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΔΥΝΑΤΟ ΝΑ ΚΑΘΟΡΙΣΤΕΙ ΜΕ ΒΑΣΗ ΤΟΝ ΤΥΠΟ ΤΟΥ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΟΥ, ΔΗΛ. ΜΕ ΜΟΡΦΟΛΟΓΙΚΑ ΚΡΙΤΗΡΙΑ, ΓΙΑΤΙ ΟΙ ΠΕΡΙΣΣΟΤΕΡΕΣ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΔΕΝ ΕΧΟΥΝ ΚΑΤΑΛΗΞΕΙΣ.
Η ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΔΙΝΕΙ ΜΕΓΑΛΗ ΣΗΜΑΣΙΑΣ ΣΤΗ ΣΥΝΤΑΞΗ,
ΣΤΗ ΣΕΙΡΑ ΤΩΝ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ ΜΕΣΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΠΡΟΤΑΣΗ ΚΑΙ
ΣΤΑ ΣΥΜΦΡΑΖΟΜΕΝΑ ΜΕΣΑ ΣΤΑ ΟΠΟΙΑ ΣΥΝΑΝΤΩΝΤΑΙ ΟΙ ΔΙΑΦΟΡΟΙ ΜΟΡΦΟΛΟΓΙΚΟΙ ΤΥΠΟΙ.
[Close-et-al#cptResource338#, 1982, 30#cptResource338#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'Resource,
http.english.GRAMMAR:
* http://www.grammarly.com/handbook//
* http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm
* http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar,
http.english.YORDERO'CREATION:
* http://claweb.cla.unipd.it/home/mcanapero/wrdfrm.html: http://claweb.cla.unipd.it/home/mcanapero/wrdfrm.html
* http://www.bartleby.com/64/83.html: http://www.bartleby.com/64/83.html
name::
* McsEngl.English-error,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.txt,
Common Errors in English Usage by Paul Brians
paulbrians@gmail.com
http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/
(Brownie points to anyone who catches inconsistencies between the main
site and this version.)
Note that italics are deliberately omitted on this page.
What is an error in English?
The concept of language errors is a fuzzy one. I'll leave to linguists
the technical definitions. Here we're concerned only with deviations
from the standard use of English as judged by sophisticated users such
as professional writers, editors, teachers, and literate executives and
personnel officers. The aim of this site is to help you avoid low
grades, lost employment opportunities, lost business, and titters of
amusement at the way you write or speak.
But isn't one person's mistake another's standard usage?
Often enough, but if your standard usage causes other people to consider
you stupid or ignorant, you may want to consider changing it. You have
the right to express yourself in any manner you please, but if you wish
to communicate effectively you should use nonstandard English only when
you intend to, rather than fall into it because you don't know any
better.
I'm learning English as a second language. Will this site help me
improve my English?
Very likely, though it's really aimed at the most common errors of
native speakers. The errors others make in English differ according to
the characteristics of their first languages. Speakers of other
languages tend to make some specific errors that are uncommon among
native speakers, so you may also want to consult sites dealing
specifically with English as a second language (see
http://www.cln.org/subjects/esl_cur.html and
http://esl.about.com/education/adulted/esl/). There is also a Help Desk
for ESL students at Washington State University at
http://www.wsu.edu/~gordonl/ESL/. An outstanding book you may want to
order is Ann Raimes' Keys for Writers. This is not a
question-and-answer site for ESL.
Aren't some of these points awfully picky?
This is a relative matter. One person's gaffe is another's peccadillo.
Some common complaints about usage strike me as too persnickety, but I'm
just covering mistakes in English that happen to bother me. Feel free to
create your own page listing your own pet peeves, but I welcome
suggestions for additions to these pages.
What gives you the right to say what an error in English is?
I could take the easy way out and say I was a professor of English and
did this sort of thing for a living. True, but my Ph.D. is in
comparative literature, not composition or linguistics, and I taught
courses in the history of ideas rather than language as such. But I
admire good writing and tried to encourage it in my students.
I found a word you criticized in the dictionary!
You will find certain words or phrases criticized here listed in
dictionaries. Note carefully labels like "dial." (dialectal),
"nonstandard," and "obsolete" before assuming that the dictionary is
endorsing them. The primary job of a dictionary is to track how people
actually use language. Dictionaries differ among themselves on how much
guidance to usage they provide, but the goal of a usage guide like this
is substantially different: to protect you against patterns which are
regarded by substantial numbers of well-educated people as nonstandard.
Why do you discuss mainly American usage?
Because I'm an American, my readers are mostly American, most
English-speaking Web users are Americans, and American English is
quickly becoming an international standard. I often take note of
American deviations from standard British practice. However, the job is
complicated by the fact that Canadians, Australians, and many others
often follow patterns somewhere between the two. If the standard usage
where you are differs from what is described here, tell me about it, and
if I think it's important to do so, I'll note that fact. Meanwhile, just
assume that this site is primarily about American English.
If you write mainly about American English, why do you so often cite the
"Oxford English Dictionary'?
First of all, I do not write exclusively about American English. I
address UK usage in many entries on this site. Second, the OED strives
to cover both UK and US usage, and often notes words or expressions as
having either originated in or being used mainly in the US. It is by no
means an exclusively British dictionary. Third, the OED is the
recognized authority among linguists for etymology. It's not always the
last word in explanations of word origins and history, but it is the
first source to turn to. That's the main purpose for which I use the
OED. Fourth, because the OED tends to be more conservative than some
popular American dictionaries, when it accepts a controversial usage,
that's worth noting. If even the OED regards a usage as accepted in
modern English, then one should hesitate to argue that such usage is an
error. But because the OED is so conservative, and doesn't always note
when a formerly obsolete word is revived or changes in usage, it's not a
perfect guide to contemporary usage. It is particularly weak in noting
changes in spoken rather than written English.
Isn't it oppressive of immigrants and subjugated minorities to insist on
the use of standard English?
Language standards can certainly be used for oppressive purposes, but
most speakers and writers of all races and classes want to use language
in a way that will impress others. The fact is that the world is full of
teachers, employers, and other authorities who may penalize you for your
nonstandard use of the English language. Feel free to denounce these
people if you wish; but if you need their good opinion to get ahead,
you'd be wise to learn standard English. Note that I often suggest
differing usages as appropriate depending on the setting: spoken vs.
written, informal vs. formal; slang is often highly appropriate. In
fact, most of the errors discussed on this site are common in the
writing of privileged middle-class Americans, and some are
characteristic of people with advanced degrees and considerable
intellectual attainments. However you come down on this issue, note that
the great advantage of an open Web-based educational site like this is
that it's voluntary: take what you want and leave the rest. It's
interesting that I have received hundreds of messages from non-native
speakers thanking me for these pages and none from such people
complaining that my pages discriminate against them.
But you made a mistake yourself!
We all do, from time to time. Drop me a line if you think you've found
an error in my own writing. If I think you're right, I'll correct it;
but be prepared to be disagreed with. If you write me, please don't call
me "Brian." My given name is Paul.
For instructions on how to write me, see the bottom of this page.
This resource is copyrighted by Paul Brians. Permission is granted to
reprint or photocopy small numbers of it in its entirety or in part for
all local nonprofit, educational purposes provided that the author is
cited and the URL http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/ is included. As a
courtesy, please notify the author if you copy or link to this material.
Because the content changes frequently, and I need to maintain control
over the site, requests to create Web mirrors of the site are usually
declined.
Recommended in "Yahoo Internet Life Magazine," July, 1997, pp. 82-83 and
cited as a Yahoo "Site of the Week." It has also been recommended in the
pages of "The Weekend Australian," "The Bangkok Post," the "Los Angeles
Times," the "Seattle Times," the "Indianapolis Star-Tribune," the
"Halifax Chronicle-Herald," Ziff-Davis' "Inside the Internet"
newsletter, "Netsurfer Digest," and "The Web" magazine.
100's/hundreds
It looks cheesy to spell "hundreds" as "100's"; and it isn't really
logical because "100" doesn't mean "hundred"--it means specifically "one
hundred."
360 DEGREES/180 DEGREES
When you turn 360 degrees you've completed a circle and are back where
you started. So if you want to describe a position that's diametrically
opposed to another, the expression you want is not "360 degrees away"
but "180 degrees away."
A/AN
If the word following begins with a vowel sound, the word you want is
"an": "Have an apple, Adam." If the word following begins with a
consonant, but begins with a vowel sound, you still need "an": "An X-ray
will show whether there's a worm in it." It is nonstandard and often
considered sloppy speech to utter an "uh" sound in such cases.
The same rule applies to initialisms like "NGO" (for "non-governmental
organization"). Because the letter N is pronounced "en," it's "an NGO"
but when the phrase is spoken instead of the abbreviation, it's "a
non-governmental organization."
When the following word definitely begins with a consonant sound, you
need "a": "A snake told me apples enhance mental abilities."
Note that the letter Y can be either a vowel or a consonant. Although it
is sounded as a vowel in words like "pretty," at the beginning of words
it is usually sounded as a consonant, as in "a yolk."
Words beginning with the letter U which start with a Y consonant sound
like "university" and "utensil" also take an "a": "a university" and "a
utensil." But when an initial U has a vowel sound, the word is preceded
by "an": it's "an umpire," "an umbrella," and "an understanding."
See also "an historic."
A.D.
"A.D." does not mean "after death," as many people suppose. "B.C."
stands for the English phrase "before Christ," but "A.D." stands
confusingly for a Latin phrase: anno domini ("in the year of the
Lord"--the year Jesus was born). If the calendar actually changed with
Jesus' death, then what would we do with the years during which he
lived? Since Jesus was probably actually born around 6 B.C. or so, the
connection of the calendar with him can be misleading.
Many Biblical scholars, historians, and archeologists prefer the less
sectarian designations "before the Common Era" (B.C.E.) and "the Common
Era" (C.E.).
Traditionally "A.D." was placed before the year number and "B.C." after,
but many people now prefer to put both abbreviations after the numbers.
All of these abbreviations can also be spelled without their periods.
ALA / A LA
If you offer pie a la mode on your menu, be careful not to spell it "ala
mode" or--worse--"alamode." The accent over the first "a" is optional in
English, although this is an adaptation of the French phrase a la mode
de meaning "in the manner of." The one-word spelling used to be common;
but as people became more sensitive to preserving the spelling of
originally French phrases, it fell out of favor. In whose manner is it
to plop ice cream on your pie? Nobody really knows, but it's yummy.
Stick with the two-word spelling in all other uses of the phrase "a la"
as well.
AM/PM
"AM" stands for the Latin phrase Ante Meridiem --which means "before
noon"--and "PM" stands for Post Meridiem : "after noon." Although
digital clocks routinely label noon "12:00 PM" you should avoid this
expression not only because it is incorrect, but because many people
will imagine you are talking about midnight instead. The same goes for
"12:00 AM." You can say or write "twelve noon," "noon sharp," or
"exactly at noon" when you want to designate a precise time.
It is now rare to see periods placed after these abbreviations as in
"A.M."; but in formal writing it is still preferable to capitalize them,
though the lower-case "am" and "pm" are now so popular they are not
likely to get you into trouble.
Occasionally computer programs encourage you to write "AM" and "PM"
without a space before them, but others will misread your data if you
omit the space. The nonstandard habit of omitting the space is spreading
rapidly, and should be avoided in formal writing.
ABJECT
"Abject" is always negative, meaning "lowly" or "hopeless." You can't
experience "abject joy" unless you're being deliberately paradoxical.
ABLE TO
People are able to do things, but things are not able to be done: you
should not say, "the budget shortfall was able to be solved by selling
brownies."
ABOUT
"This isn't about you." What a great rebuke! But conservatives sniff at
this sort of abstract use of "about," as in "I'm all about good taste"
or "successful truffle-making is about temperature control"; so it's
better to avoid it in very formal English.
ABSORBTION/ABSORPTION
Although it's "absorbed" and "absorbing" the correct spelling of the
noun is "absorption."
But note that scientists distinguish between "absorption" as the process
of swallowing up or sucking in something and "adsorption" as the process
by which something adheres to the surface of something else without
being assimilated into it. Even technical writers often confuse these
two.
ABSTRUSE/OBTUSE
Most people first encounter "obtuse" in geometry class, where it labels
an angle of more than 90 degrees and less than 180. Imagine what sort of
blunt arrowhead that kind of angle would make and you will understand
why it also has a figurative meaning of "dull, stupid." But people often
mix the word up with "abstruse," which means "difficult to understand."
When you mean to criticize something for being needlessly complex or
baffling, the word you need is not "obtuse," but "abstruse."
ACADEMIA
Although some academics are undoubtedly nuts, the usual English-language
pronunciation of "academia" does not rhyme with "macadamia." The third
syllable is pronounced "deem." Just say "academe" and add "ee-yuh."
However, there's an interesting possibility if you go with
"ack-uh-DAME-ee-yuh: although some people will sneer at your lack of
sophistication, others will assume you're using the Latin pronunciation
and being learned.
ACAPELLA, A CAPELLA
In referring to singing unaccompanied by instruments, the traditional
spelling is the Italian one, "a cappella": two words, two Ps, two Ls.
The Latin spelling "a capella" is learned, but in the realm of musical
terminology, we usually stick with Italian. The one-word spelling
"acapella" is widely used by Americans, including by some performing
groups; but this is generally regarded by musical experts as an error.
ACCEDE/EXCEED
If you drive too fast, you exceed the speed limit. "Accede" is a much
rarer word meaning "give in," "agree."
ACCENT MARKS
In what follows, "accent mark" will be used in a loose sense to include
all diacritical marks that guide pronunciation. Operating systems and
programs differ in how they produce accent marks, but it's worth
learning how yours works. Writing them in by hand afterwards looks
amateurish.
Words adopted from foreign languages sometimes carry their accent marks
with them, as in "fiance" "protege," and "cliche." As words become more
at home in English, they tend to shed the marks: "Cafe" is often spelled
"cafe." Unfortunately, "resume" seems to be losing its marks one at a
time (see under "vita/vitae").
Many computer users have not learned their systems well enough to
understand how to produce the desired accent and often insert an
apostrophe (curled) or foot mark (straight) after the accented letter
instead: "café." This is both ugly and incorrect. The same error is
commonly seen on storefront signs.
So far we've used examples containing acute (right-leaning) accent
marks. French and Italian (but not Spanish) words often contain grave
(left-leaning) accents; in Italian it's a caffe. It is important not to
substitute one kind of accent for the other.
The diaeresis over a letter signifies that it is to be pronounced as a
separate syllable: "noel" and "naive" are sometimes spelled with a
diaeresis, for instance. The umlaut, which looks identical, modifies the
sound of a vowel, as in German Fraulein (girl), where the accent mark
changes the "frow" sound of Frau (woman) to "froy." Rock groups like
"Blue Oyster Cult" scattered umlauts about nonsensically to create an
exotic look.
Spanish words not completely assimilated into English like pinata and
nino retain the tilde, which tells you that an "N" is to be pronounced
with a "Y" sound after it. In English-language publications accent marks
are often discarded, but the acute and grave accents are the ones most
often retained.
[Note: the accent marks in this entry may not display properly on all
operating systems. Consult the page on accent marks to see them
properly.]
ACCEPT/EXCEPT
If you offer me Godiva chocolates I will gladly accept them--except for
the candied violet ones. Just remember that the "X" in "except" excludes
things--they tend to stand out, be different. In contrast, just look at
those two cozy "Cs" snuggling up together. Very accepting. And be
careful; when typing "except" it often comes out "expect."
ACCESS/GET ACCESS TO
"Access" is one of many nouns that's been turned into a verb in recent
years. Conservatives object to phrases like "you can access your account
online." Substitute "use," "reach," or "get access to" if you want to
please them.
ACCESSORY
There's an "ack" sound at the beginning of this word, though some
mispronounce it as if the two "C's" were to be sounded the same as the
two "S's."
ACCIDENTLY/ACCIDENTALLY
You can remember this one by remembering how to spell "accidental."
There are quite a few words with -ally suffixes (like "incidentally")
which are not to be confused with words that have "-ly" suffixes (like
"independently"). "Incidental" is a word, but "independental" is not.
ACCURATE/PRECISE
In ordinary usage, "accurate" and "precise" are often used as rough
synonyms, but scientists like to distinguish between them. Accurate
measurements reflect true values; but precise measurements are close to
each other, even if all of them are wrong in the same way. The same
distinction applies in scientific contexts to the related words
"accuracy" and "precision."
This distinction is not likely to come up outside of contexts where it
is understood, but science writers might want to be aware that the
general public will not understand this distinction unless it's
explained.
ACRONYMS AND APOSTROPHES
One unusual modern use of the apostrophe is in plural acronyms, like
"ICBM's" "NGO's" and "CD's". Since this pattern violates the rule that
apostrophes are not used before an S indicating a plural, many people
object to it. It is also perfectly legitimate to write "CDs," etc. See
also "50's." But the use of apostrophes with initialisms like "learn
your ABC's and "mind your P's and Q's" is now so universal as to be
acceptable in almost any context.
Note that "acronym" was used originally only to label pronounceable
abbreviations like "NATO," but is now generally applied to all sorts of
initialisms. Be aware that some people consider this extended definition
of "acronym" to be an error.
ACROSSED/ACROSS
The chicken may have crossed the road, but did so by walking across it.
ACTIONABLE/DOABLE
"Actionable" is a technical term referring to something that provides
grounds for a legal action or lawsuit. People in the business world have
begun using it as a fancy synonym for "doable" or "feasible." This is
both pretentious and confusing.
ACTUAL FACT/ACTUALLY
"In actual fact" is an unnecessarily complicated way of saying
"actually."
AD NAUSEUM/AD NAUSEAM
Seeing how often "ad nauseam" is misspelled makes some people want to
throw up. English writers also often mistakenly half-translate the
phrase as "ad nausea."
This Latin phrase comes from a term in logic, the "argumentum ad
nauseam," in which debaters wear out the opposition by just repeating
arguments until they get sick of the whole thing and give in.
ADD/AD
"Advertisement" is abbreviated "ad," not "add."
ADAPT/ADOPT
You can adopt a child or a custom or a law; in all of these cases you
are making the object of the adoption your own, accepting it. If you
adapt something, however, you are changing it.
ADDED BONUS/BONUS
People who avoid redundancies tend to object to the extremely popular
phrase "added bonus" because a bonus is already something additional.
Speakers who use this phrase probably think of "bonus" as meaning
something vaguely like "benefit." The phrase is so common that it's
unlikely to cause you real problems.
More people frown on the similarly redundant "and plus": "I was fired,
and plus I never got my last paycheck." Just say "and" or "plus."
ADDICTING/ADDICTIVE
Do you find beer nuts "addicting" or "addictive"? "Addicting" is a
perfectly legitimate word, but much less common than "addictive," and
some people will scowl at you if you use it.
ADMINISTER/MINISTER
You can minister to someone by administering first aid. Note how the
"ad" in "administer resembles "aid" in order to remember the correct
form of the latter phrase. "Minister" as a verb always requires "to"
following it.
ADMINISTRATE/ADMINISTER
Although it is very popular with administrators and others, many people
scorn "administrate" as an unnecessary substitute for the more common
verb form "administer."
ADMISSION/ADMITTANCE
"Admission" is a much more common word than "admittance" and is a good
choice for almost all contexts. You may gain admission or admittance to
a college, but you'll probably be dealing with its admissions office.
When "admittance" is used, it's most likely to refer to physical entry
into some place or other, as is indicated by signs saying "No
Admittance."
In electronics, admittance is the opposite of impedance.
ADULTRY/ADULTERY
"Adultery" is often misspelled "adultry," as if it were something every
adult should try. This spelling error is likely to get you snickered at.
The term does not refer to all sorts of illicit sex: at least one of the
partners involved has to be married for the relationship to be
adulterous.
ADVANCE/ADVANCED
When you hear about something in advance, earlier than other people, you
get advance notice or information. "Advanced" means "complex,
sophisticated" and doesn't necessarily have anything to do with the
revealing of secrets.
ADVERSE/AVERSE
The word "adverse" turns up most frequently in the phrase "adverse
circumstances," meaning difficult circumstances, circumstances which act
as an adversary; but people often confuse this word with "averse," a
much rarer word, meaning having a strong feeling against, or aversion
toward.
ADVICE/ADVISE
"Advice" is the noun, "advise" the verb. When Ann Landers advises
people, she gives them advice.
ADVISER/ADVISOR
"Adviser" and "advisor" are equally fine spellings. There is no
distinction between them.
ADVOCATE FOR/ADVOCATE
When they are acting as advocates for a cause, people often say they are
"advocating for"--say--traffic safety. This is not as widely accepted as
"campaigning for" or "working toward." Saying you are "advocating for
the blind" leaves a lot of listeners wondering what it is you advocate
for them. If you can substitute "advocate" for "advocate for," you
should do so: "I advocate for higher pay for teachers" becomes "I
advocate higher pay for teachers."
AESTHETIC/ASCETIC
People often encounter these two words first in college, and may confuse
one with the other although they have almost opposite connotations.
"Aesthetic" (also spelled "esthetic") has to do with beauty, whereas
"ascetic" has to do with avoiding pleasure, including presumably the
pleasure of looking at beautiful things.
St. Francis had an ascetic attitude toward life, whereas Oscar Wilde had
an esthetic attitude toward life.
AFFECT/EFFECT
There are five distinct words here. When "affect" is accented on the
final syllable (a-FECT), it is usually a verb meaning "have an influence
on": "The million-dollar donation from the industrialist did not affect
my vote against the Clean Air Act."
Occasionally a pretentious person is said to affect an artificial air of
sophistication. Speaking with a borrowed French accent or ostentatiously
wearing a large diamond ear stud might be an affectation. In this sort
of context, "affect" means "to make a display of or deliberately
cultivate."
Another unusual meaning is indicated when the word is accented on the
first syllable (AFF-ect), meaning "emotion." In this case the word is
used mostly by psychiatrists and social scientists--people who normally
know how to spell it.
The real problem arises when people confuse the first spelling with the
second: "effect." This too can be two different words. The more common
one is a noun: "When I left the stove on, the effect was that the house
filled with smoke." When you affect a situation, you have an effect on
it.
"Affective" is a technical term having to do with emotions; the vast
majority of the time the spelling you want is "effective."
Less common is a verb meaning "to create": "I'm trying to effect a
change in the way we purchase widgets." No wonder people are confused.
Note especially that the proper expression is not "take affect" but
"take effect"--become effective. Hey, nobody ever said English was
logical: just memorize it and get on with your life.
The stuff in your purse? Your personal effects.
The stuff in movies? Sound effects and special effects.
AFFLUENCE/EFFLUENCE
Wealth brings affluence; sewage is effluence.
AFGHAN/AFGHANI
The citizens of Afghanistan are Afghans. Similarly, it's Afghan food,
Afghan politics, and Afghan afghans. The only time to use "Afghani" is
in reference to the unit of Afghan currency by that name. Afghans spend
Afghanis.
AFRICAN AMERICAN
There have been several polite terms used in the US to refer to persons
of African descent: "colored," "negro," "Black," "Afro-American," and
"African American." "Colored" is definitely dated, though "people of
color" is now widely used with a broader meaning, including anyone with
non-European ancestry, sometimes even when their skin is not discernibly
darker than that of a typical European. A few contemporary writers like
to defy convention by referring to themselves as "negro." "Black,"
formerly a proudly assertive label claimed by young radicals in the
1960s, is now seen by some people as a racist insult. Some people insist
on capitalizing "Black," but others prefer "black." The safest and most
common neutral term is "African American," but Americans sometimes
misuse it to label people of African descent living in other countries
or even actual Africans. To qualify as an "African American" you have to
be an American.
Although it is traditional to hyphenate "African-American,"
"Irish-American," "Cuban-American," etc., there is a recent trend toward
omitting the hyphen, possibly in reaction to the belittling phrase
"hyphenated Americans." However, some styles still call for the hyphen
when the phrase is used adjectivally, so that you might be an African
American who enjoys African-American writers. Omitting the hyphen may
puzzle some readers, but it's not likely to offend anyone.
AFTERALL/AFTER ALL
"After all" is always two words.
AFTERWARDS/AFTERWORDS
Like "towards," "forwards," and "homewards," "afterwards" ends with
-wards.
"Afterwords" are sometimes the explanatory essays at the ends of books
or speeches uttered at the end of plays or other works. They are made up
of words.
AGNOSTIC/ATHEIST
Both agnostics and atheists are regularly criticized as illogical by
people who don't understand the meaning of these terms. An agnostic is a
person who believes that the existence of a god or gods cannot be proven
or known. Agnosticism is a statement about the limits of human
knowledge. It is an error to suppose that agnostics perpetually hesitate
between faith and doubt: they are confident they cannot know the
ultimate truth. Similarly, atheists believe there are no gods. Atheists
need not be able to disprove the existence of gods to be consistent just
as believers do not need to be able to prove that gods do exist in order
to be regarded as religious. Both attitudes have to do with beliefs, not
knowledge.
"Agnostic" is often used metaphorically of any refusal to make a
judgment, usually on the basis of a lack of evidence; people can be
agnostic about acupuncture, for instance, if they believe there is not
enough evidence one way or another to decide its effectiveness.
AGREEANCE/AGREEMENT
When you agree with someone you are in agreement.
AHOLD/HOLD
In standard English you just "get hold" of something or somebody.
AID/AIDE
In American English, a personal assistant is usually an "aide" (nurse's
aide, presidential aide) but an inanimate object or process is always an
"aid" (hearing aid, first aid).
AIN'T
"Ain't" has a long and vital history as a substitute for "isn't,"
"aren't" and so on. It was originally formed from a contraction of "am
not" and is still commonly used in that sense. Even though it has been
universally condemned as the classic "mistake" in English, everyone uses
it occasionally as part of a joking phrase or to convey a down-to-earth
quality. But if you always use it instead of the more "proper"
contractions you're sure to be branded as uneducated.
AISLE/ISLE
An aisle is a narrow passageway, especially in a church or store; an
isle is an island. Propose to the person you're stranded on a desert
isle with and maybe you'll march down the aisle together after you're
rescued.
ALL BE IT/ALBEIT
"Albeit" is a single word meaning "although": "Rani's recipe called for
a tablespoon of saffron, which made it very tasty, albeit rather
expensive." It should not be broken up into three separate words as "all
be it," just as "although" is not broken up into "all though."
ALL
Put this word where it belongs in the sentence. In negative statements,
don't write "All the pictures didn't show her dimples" when you mean
"The pictures didn't all show her dimples."
ALL AND ALL/ALL IN ALL
"The dog got into the fried chicken, we forgot the sunscreen, and the
kids started whining at the end, but all in all the picnic was a
success." "All in all" is a traditional phrase which can mean "all
things considered," "after all," or "nevertheless." People unfamiliar
with the traditional wording often change it to "all and all," but this
is nonstandard.
ALL FOR NOT/ALL FOR NAUGHT
"Naught" means "nothing," and the phrase "all for naught" means "all for
nothing." This is often misspelled "all for not" and occasionally "all
for knot."
ALL GOES WELL/AUGURS WELL
Some folks who don't understand the word "augur" (to foretell based on
omens) try to make sense of the common phrase "augurs well" by mangling
it into "all goes well." "Augurs well" is synonymous with "bodes well."
ALL OF THE SUDDEN/ALL OF A SUDDEN
An unexpected event happens not "all of the sudden" but "all of a
sudden."
ALL READY/ALREADY
"All ready" is a phrase meaning "completely prepared," as in "As soon as
I put my coat on, I'll be all ready." "Already," however, is an adverb
used to describe something that has happened before a certain time, as
in "What do you mean you'd rather stay home? I've already got my coat
on."
ALLEGED, ALLEGEDLY
Seeking to avoid prejudging the facts in a crime and protect the rights
of the accused, reporters sometimes over-use "alleged" and "allegedly."
If it is clear that someone has been robbed at gunpoint, it's not
necessary to describe it as an alleged robbery nor the victim as an
alleged victim. This practice insultingly casts doubt on the honesty of
the victim and protects no one. An accused perpetrator is one whose
guilt is not yet established, so it is redundant to speak of an "alleged
accused." If the perpetrator has not yet been identified, it's pointless
to speak of the search for an "alleged perpetrator."
ALLITERATE/ILLITERATE
Pairs of words which begin with the same sound are said to alliterate,
like "wild and wooly." Those who can't read are illiterate.
ALLS/ALL
"Alls I know is . . ." may result from anticipating the "S" in "is," but
the standard expression is "All I know is. . . ."
ALLUDE/ELUDE
You can allude (refer) to your daughter's membership in the honor
society when boasting about her, but a criminal tries to elude (escape)
captivity.
ALLUDE/REFER
To allude to something is to refer to it indirectly, by suggestion. If
you are being direct and unambiguous, you refer to the subject rather
than alluding to it.
ALLUSION/ILLUSION
An allusion is a reference, something you allude to: "Her allusion to
flowers reminded me that Valentine's Day was coming." In that English
paper, don't write "literary illusions" when you mean "allusions." A
mirage, hallucination, or a magic trick is an illusion. (Doesn't being
fooled just make you ill?)
ALLUSIVE/ELUSIVE/ILLUSIVE
When a lawyer alludes to his client's poor mother, he is being allusive.
When the mole keeps eluding the traps you've set in the garden, it's
being elusive. We also speak of matters that are difficult to
understand, identify, or remember as elusive. Illusions can be illusive,
but we more often refer to them as illusory.
ALMOST
Like "only," "almost" must come immediately before the word or phrase it
modifies: "She almost gave a million dollars to the museum" means
something quite different from "She gave almost a million dollars to the
museum." Right? So you shouldn't write, "There was almost a riotous
reaction when the will was read" when what you mean is "There was an
almost riotous reaction."
ALONG THE SAME VEIN/IN THE SAME VEIN, ALONG THE SAME LINE
The expressions "in the same vein" and "along the same line" mean the
same thing (on the same subject), but those who cross-pollinate them to
create the hybrid "along the same vein" sound a little odd to those who
are used to the standard expressions.
ALOT/A LOT
Perhaps this common spelling error began because there does exist in
English a word spelled "allot" which is a verb meaning to apportion or
grant. The correct form, with "a" and "lot" separated by a space is
perhaps not often encountered in print because formal writers usually
use other expressions such as "a great deal," "often," etc.
You shouldn't write "alittle" either. It's "a little."
ALOUD/ALLOWED
If you think Grandma allowed the kids to eat too much ice cream, you'd
better not say so aloud, or her feelings will be hurt. "Aloud" means
"out loud" and refers to sounds (most often speech) that can be heard by
others. But this word is often misused when people mean "allowed,"
meaning "permitted."
ALRIGHT/ALL RIGHT
The traditional form of this phrase has become so rare in the popular
press that many readers have probably never noticed that it is actually
two words. But if you want to avoid irritating traditionalists you'd
better tell them that you feel "all right" rather than "alright."
ALTAR/ALTER
An altar is that platform at the front of a church or in a temple; to
alter something is to change it.
ALTERIOR/ULTERIOR
When you have a concealed reason for doing something, it's an ulterior
motive.
ALTERNATE/ALTERNATIVE
Although UK authorities disapprove, in US usage, "alternate" is
frequently an adjective, substituted for the older "alternative": "an
alternate route." "Alternate" can also be a noun; a substitute delegate
is, for instance, called an "alternate." But when you're speaking of
"every other" as in "our club meets on alternate Tuesdays," you can't
substitute "alternative."
ALTHO, THO
The casual spellings "altho" and "tho" are not acceptable in formal or
edited English. Stick with "although" and "though."
ALTOGETHER/ALL TOGETHER
"Altogether" is an adverb meaning "completely," "entirely." For example:
"When he first saw the examination questions, he was altogether
baffled." "All together," in contrast, is a phrase meaning "in a group."
For example: "The wedding guests were gathered all together in the
garden." Undressed people are said in informal speech to be "in the
altogether" (perhaps a shortening of the phrase "altogether naked").
ALUMNUS/ALUMNI
We used to have "alumnus" (male singular), "alumni" (male plural),
"alumna" (female singular) and "alumnae" (female plural); but the latter
two are now popular only among older female graduates, with the first
two terms becoming unisex. However, it is still important to distinguish
between one alumnus and a stadium full of alumni. Never say, "I am an
alumni" if you don't want to cast discredit on your school. Many avoid
the whole problem by resorting to the informal abbreviation "alum."
AMATURE/AMATEUR
Most of the words we've borrowed from the French that have retained
their "-eur" endings are pretty sophisticated, like "restaurateur"
(notice, no "N") and "auteur" (in film criticism), but "amateur"
attracts amateurish spelling.
AMBIGUOUS/AMBIVALENT
Even though the prefix "ambi-" means "both," "ambiguous" has come to
mean "unclear," "undefined," while "ambivalent" means "torn between two
opposing feelings or views." If your attitude cannot be defined into two
polarized alternatives, then you're ambiguous, not ambivalent.
AMBIVALENT/INDIFFERENT
If you feel pulled in two directions about some issue, you're ambivalent
about it; but if you have no particular feelings about it, you're
indifferent.
AMERICAN
Some Canadians and many Latin Americans are understandably irritated
when US citizens refer to themselves simply as "Americans." Canadians
(and only Canadians) use the term "North American" to include themselves
in a two-member group with their neighbor to the south, though
geographers usually include Mexico in North America. When addressing an
international audience composed largely of people from the Americas, it
is wise to consider their sensitivities.
However, it is pointless to try to ban this usage in all contexts.
Outside of the Americas, "American" is universally understood to refer
to things relating to the US. There is no good substitute. Brazilians,
Argentineans, and Canadians all have unique terms to refer to
themselves. None of them refer routinely to themselves as "Americans"
outside of contexts like the "Organization of American States." Frank
Lloyd Wright promoted "Usonian," but it never caught on. For better or
worse, "American" is standard English for "citizen or resident of the
United States of America."
AMONGST/AMONG
Although in America "amongst" has not dated nearly as badly as "whilst,"
it is still less common in standard speech than "among." The -st forms
are still widely used in the UK.
AMORAL/IMMORAL
"Amoral" is a rather technical word meaning "unrelated to morality" or
indifferent to morality When you mean to denounce someone's behavior,
call it "immoral."
AMOUNT/NUMBER
This is a vast subject. I will try to limit the number of words I expend
on it so as not to use up too great an amount of space. The confusion
between the two categories of words relating to amount and number is so
pervasive that those of us who still distinguish between them constitute
an endangered species; but if you want to avoid our ire, learn the
difference. Amount words relate to quantities of things that are
measured in bulk; number words to things that can be counted.
In the second sentence above, it would have been improper to write "the
amount of words" because words are discrete entities which can be
counted, or numbered.
Here is a handy chart to distinguish the two categories of words:
amount vs. number quantity vs. number little vs. few less vs. fewer much
vs. many
You can eat fewer cookies, but you drink less milk. If you eat too many
cookies, people will probably think you've had too much dessert. If the
thing being measured is being considered in countable units, then use
number words. Even a substance which is considered in bulk can also be
measured by number of units. For instance, you shouldn't drink too much
wine, but you should also avoid drinking too many glasses of wine. Note
that here you are counting glasses. They can be numbered.
The most common mistake of this kind is to refer to an "amount" of
people instead of a "number" of people.
Just to confuse things, "more" can be used either way: you can eat more
cookies and drink more milk.
Exceptions to the less/fewer pattern are references to units of time and
money, which are usually treated as amounts: less than an hour, less
than five dollars. Only when you are referring to specific coins or
bills would you use fewer: "I have fewer than five state quarters to go
to make my collection complete."
AMPITHEATER/AMPHITHEATER
The classy way to pronounce the first syllable of this word is "amf-,"
but if you choose the more popular "amp-" remember that you still have
to include the H after the P when spelling it. UK-standard writers spell
it "amphitheatre," of course.
AN/AND
It's easy to type "and" when you mean "an." A spelling checker won't
catch the mistake.
AN HISTORIC/A HISTORIC
You should use "an" before a word beginning with an "H" only if the "H"
is not pronounced: "An honest effort"; it's properly "a historic event"
though many sophisticated speakers somehow prefer the sound of "an
historic," so that version is not likely to get you into any real
trouble.
ANALOGOUS
Even though "analogy" is spoken with a soft "G," use a hard "G" in
pronouncing "analogous" so that it sounds like the beginning of the word
"gust." Many people mistakenly use a soft G, which sounds like the
beginning of the word "just."
ANCESTOR/DESCENDANT
When Albus Dumbledore said that Lord Voldemort was "the last remaining
ancestor of Salazar Slytherin," more than one person noted that he had
made a serious verbal bumble; and in later printings of Harry Potter and
the Chamber of Secrets author J. K. Rowling corrected that to "last
remaining descendant." People surprisingly often confuse these two terms
with each other. Your great-grandmother is your ancestor; you are her
descendant.
ANECDOTE/ANTIDOTE
A humorist relates "anecdotes." The doctor prescribes "antidotes" for
children who have swallowed poison. Laughter may be the best medicine,
but that's no reason to confuse these two with each other.
AND ALSO/AND, ALSO
"And also" is redundant; say just "and" or "also."
AND/OR
The legal phrase "and/or," indicating that you can either choose between
two alternatives or choose both of them, has proved irresistible in
other contexts and is now widely acceptable though it irritates some
readers as jargon. However, you can logically use it only when you are
discussing choices which may or may not both be done: "Bring chips
and/or beer." It's very much overused where simple "or" would do, and it
would be wrong to say, "you can get to the campus for this morning's
meeting on a bike and/or in a car." Choosing one eliminates the
possibility of the other, so this isn't an and/or situation.
ANGEL/ANGLE
People who want to write about winged beings from Heaven often miscall
them "angles." A triangle has three angles. The Heavenly Host is made of
angels. Just remember the adjectival form: "angelic." If you pronounce
it aloud you'll be reminded that the E comes before the L.
ANOTHER WORDS/IN OTHER WORDS
When you reword a statement, you can preface it by saying "in other
words." The phrase is not "another words."
ANTECLIMAX/ANTICLIMAX
When an exciting build-up leads to a disappointing end, the result is an
anticlimax--the opposite of a climax. The prefix "anti-" is used to
indicate opposition whereas the prefix "ante-" is used to indicate that
something precedes something else; so be careful not to misspell this
word "anteclimax."
ANTIHERO
In literature, theater, and film, an antihero is a central character who
is not very admirable: weak, lazy, incompetent, or mean-spirited.
However, antiheroes are rarely actually evil, and you should not use
this word as a synonym for "villain" if you want to get a good grade on
your English lit paper.
ANXIOUS/EAGER
Most people use "anxious" interchangeably with "eager," but its original
meaning had to do with worrying, being full of anxiety. Perfectly
correct phrases like, "anxious to please" obscure the nervous tension
implicit in this word and lead people to say less correct things like
"I'm anxious for Christmas morning to come so I can open my presents."
Traditionalists frown on anxiety-free anxiousness. Say instead you are
eager for or looking forward to a happy event.
ANY
Instead of saying "he was the worst of any of the dancers," say "he was
the worst of the dancers."
ANY OTHER NUMBER OF/ANY NUMBER OF OTHER
When there are a lot of possible alternatives, we may say there are any
number of them: "There are any number of colors I would have preferred
to this sickening lime green."
This expression often gets scrambled into "any other number of."
ANY WHERE/ANYWHERE
"Anywhere," like "somewhere" and "nowhere," is always one word.
ANYWHERES/ANYWHERE
"Anywheres" is a dialectal variation on the standard English word
"anywhere."
ANYMORE/ANY MORE
In the first place, the traditional (though now uncommon) spelling is as
two words: "any more" as in "We do not sell bananas any more." In the
second place, it should not be used at the beginning of a sentence as a
synonym for "nowadays." In certain dialects of English it is common to
utter phrases like "anymore you have to grow your own if you want really
ripe tomatoes," but this is guaranteed to jolt listeners who aren't used
to it. Even if they can't quite figure out what's wrong, they'll feel
that your speech is vaguely clunky and awkward. "Any more" always needs
to be used as part of an expression of negation except in questions like
"Do you have any more bananas?" Now you won't make that mistake any
more, will you?
Some Americans now distinguish between the one-word and two-word
versions. "Anymore" is recommended for uses meaning "nowadays," and "any
more" for other uses. Examples: "I don't bet on horses anymore" vs. "I
don't want any more neckties." This distinction is not universally
observed by any means. In the UK, the two-word spelling is still
preferred.
ANYONE/ANY ONE
When it means "anybody," "anyone" is spelled as a single word: "anyone
can enter the drawing."
But when it means "any single one," "any one" is spelled as two words:
"any one of the tickets may win."
ANYTIME/ANY TIME
Though it is often compressed into a single word by analogy with
"anywhere" and similar words, "any time" is traditionally a two-word
phrase.
ANYWAYS/ANYWAY
"Anyways" at the beginning of a sentence usually indicates that the
speaker has resumed a narrative thread: "Anyways, I told Matilda that
guy was a lazy bum before she ever married him." It also occurs at the
end of phrases and sentences, meaning "in any case": "He wasn't all that
good-looking anyways." A slightly less rustic quality can be imparted to
these sentences by substituting the more formal "anyway." Neither
expression is a good idea in formal written English. The two-word phrase
"any way" has many legitimate uses, however: "Is there any way to
prevent the impending disaster?"
APART/A PART
Paradoxically, the one-word form implies separation while the two-word
form implies union. Feuding roommates decide to live apart. Their time
together may be a part of their life they will remember with some
bitterness.
APIECE/A PIECE
When you mean "each" the expression is "apiece": these pizzas are really
cheap--only ten dollars apiece." But when "piece" actually refers to a
piece of something, the required two-word expression is "a piece ":
"This pizza is really expensive--they sell it by the slice for ten
dollars a piece."
Despite misspellings in popular music lyrics, the expression is not
"down the road apiece"; it's "down the road a piece."
APPAULED/APPALLED
Those of us named Paul are appalled at the misspelling of this word. No
U, two L's please. And it's certainly not "uphauled"!
APOSTROPHES
First let's all join in a hearty curse of the grammarians who inserted
the wretched apostrophe into possessives in the first place. It may well
have been a mistake. In Medieval English possessive nouns ended with an
-ES or -YS. Eventually the vowel before the S disappeared, and we were
left with forms like "Johns hat." Some 17th-century writers took the
result to be an abbreviation and decided that the simple "s" of
possession in a phrase like "Johns hat" must have been formed out of a
contraction of the more "proper" "John his hat." One theory is that
since in English we mark contractions with an apostrophe, some scholars
did so, and we were stuck with "John's hat." Their purported error can
be a handy reminder: if you're not sure whether a noun ending in S
should be followed by an apostrophe, ask yourself whether you could
plausibly substitute "his" or "her" for the S.
The exception to this pattern involves personal pronouns indicating
possession like "his," "hers," and "its." For more on this point, see
"its/it's."
Get this straight once and for all: when the S is added to a word simply
to make it a plural, no apostrophe is used (except in expressions where
letters or numerals are treated like words, like "mind your P's and Q's"
and "learn your ABC's").
Apostrophes are also used to indicate omitted letters in real
contractions: "do not" becomes "don't."
Why can't we all agree to do away with the wretched apostrophe? Because
its two uses--contraction and possession--have people so thoroughly
confused that they are always putting in apostrophes where they don't
belong, in simple plurals ("cucumber's for sale") and family names when
they are referred to collectively ("the Smith's").
The practice of putting improper apostrophes in family names on signs in
front yards is an endless source of confusion. "The Brown's" is just
plain wrong. (If you wanted to suggest "the residence of the Browns" you
would have to write "The Browns'," with the apostrophe after the S,
which is there to indicate a plural number, not as an indication of
possession.) If you simply want to indicate that a family named Brown
lives here, the sign out front should read simply "The Browns." When a
name ends in an S you need to add an ES to make it plural: "The
Adamses."
No apostrophes for simple plural names or names ending in S, OK? I get
irritated when people address me as "Mr. Brian's."
What about when plural names are used to indicate possession? "The
Browns' cat" is standard (the second S is "understood"), though some
prefer "the Browns's cat." The pattern is the same with names ending in
S: "the Adamses' cat" or--theoretically--"the Adamses's cat." However,
because these standard forms can seem awkward, "the Adams' cat" is
widely accepted, with one S indicating both plural number and
possession.
Apostrophes are often mistakenly omitted in common expressions such as
"at arm's length" and "at wits' end." Note that the position of the
apostrophe before or after the S depends on whether the word is a plural
form ending in S. You hold someone at the length of your arms
(singular), but are at the end of your wits (plural).
Other examples: "the people's choice," "for old times' sake," and "for
heaven's sake." Why is the place name in England "Land's End" but the
American corporation "Lands' End"? It was just a mistake, and now the
company is stuck with its misplaced apostrophe.
Apostrophes are also misplaced in common plural nouns on signs:
"Restrooms are for customer's use only." Who is this privileged customer
to deserve a private bathroom? The sign should read "for customers'
use."
For ordinary nouns, the pattern for adding an apostrophe to express
possession is straightforward. For singular nouns, add an apostrophe
plus an S: "the duck's bill." If the singular noun happens to end in one
S or even two, you still just add an apostrophe and an S: "the boss's
desk."
For plural nouns which end in S, however, add only the apostrophe: "the
ducks' bills." But if a plural noun does not end in S, then you follow
the same pattern as for singular nouns by adding an apostrophe and an S:
"the children's menu."
In names which end in S the possessive plural is usually formed by
simply adding an apostrophe: "the Joneses' house" It's most often "in
Jesus' name." "In Jesus's name" is acceptable, but those three voiced S
sounds next to each other are awkward.
It is not uncommon to see the "S" wrongly apostrophized even in verbs,
as in the mistaken "He complain's a lot."
Unfortunately, some character sets do not include proper curled
apostrophes, including basic HTML and ASCII. If you do not turn off the
"smart quotes" feature in your word processor, the result will be ugly
gibberish in your writing which will make it hard to read.
But if you wish to create a true apostrophe in HTML ['] instead of a
straight "foot mark" ['], you can write this code: ’.
Another problem involving smart quotes arises when you need to begin a
word with an apostrophe, as in "the roaring '20s" or "give 'em a break."
Smart quotes will curl those opening apostrophes the wrong way.
There's more than one way to solve this problem, but here are the
easiest ones in Microsoft Word: 1) for Windows users, hold down the CTRL
key and hit the apostrophe key twice, 2) for Mac users, hold down the
option and shift keys and hit the right square bracket key. If all else
fails, you can type a pair of single quotation marks and delete the
first one.
See also "acronyms and apostrophes."
APPOSE/OPPOSE
These two spellings originally meant the same thing, but now "appose" is
a rare word having to do with placing one thing close to or on something
else (compare with juxtapose). It mainly occurs today as an error
spelling-checkers won't catch when the word intended is "oppose,"
meaning to be against something. If you object to a proposed course of
action, you are opposed (not "apposed") to it.
APPRAISE/APPRISE
When you estimate the value of something, you appraise it. When you
inform people of a situation, you apprise them of it.
APROPOS/APPROPRIATE
"Apropos," (anglicized from the French phrase "a propos") means
relevant, connected with what has gone before; it should not be used as
an all-purpose substitute for "appropriate." It would be inappropriate,
for example, to say "Your tuxedo was perfectly apropos for the opera
gala." Even though it's not pronounced, be careful not to omit the final
"S" in spelling "apropos."
ARAB/ARABIC/ARABIAN
Arabs are a people whose place of ethnic origin is the Arabian
Peninsula.
The language which they speak, and which has spread widely to other
areas, is Arabic. "Arabic" is not generally used as an adjective except
when referring to the language or in a few traditional phrases such as
"gum arabic" and "arabic numerals." Note that in these few phrases the
word is not capitalized. Otherwise it is "Arab customs," "Arab groups,"
"Arab countries," etc.
A group of Arab individuals is made of Arabs, not "Arabics" or
"Arabians." The noun "Arabian" by itself normally refers to Arabian
horses. The other main use of the word is in referring to the collection
of stories known as The Arabian Nights.
However, the phrase "Saudi Arabian" may be used in referring to citizens
of the country of Saudi Arabia, and to aspects of the culture of that
country. But it is important to remember that there are many Arabs in
other lands, and that this phrase does not refer properly to them.
Citizens of Saudi Arabia are often referred to instead as "Saudis,"
although strictly speaking this term refers to members of the Saudi
royal family and is usually journalistic shorthand for "Saudi Arabian
government."
It is also important not to treat the term "Arab" as interchangeable
with "Muslim." There are many Arabs who are not Muslims, and the
majority of Muslims are not Arab. "Arab" refers to an ethnic identity,
"Muslim" to a religious identity.
The standard pronunciation of "Arab" in American English is "AIR-rub."
Unless you are referring to the character in West Side Story called
"A-rab" (with the second syllable rhyming with "cab"), you'll sound
better educated if you stick with the standard version.
ARCHITECTED/DESIGNED, BUILT
Turning nouns into verbs is a normal process in English. Stabbed in the
back? You've been "knifed." Worked to the point of exhaustion? You've
been "hammered."
But when a noun gets verbed in a particular language community it's also
normal for outsiders to be annoyed or indignant. In the world of digital
design "architected" has become a popular term. The example given by the
Oxford Dictionaries Website is "an architected information interface."
Various uses of "architect" as a verb have been around for a long time,
but technical writers should be aware when writing for general audiences
that many readers find this usage annoying. In such contexts, it's
better to use "designed" or "built" when those words convey the same
meaning.
AROUND/ABOUT
Lots of people think it's just nifty to say things like "We're having
ongoing discussions around the proposed merger." This strikes some of us
as irritating and pointless jargon. We feel it should be "discussions
about" rather than "around."
ARRANT/ERRANT
In modern English "arrant" is usually used to describe someone
notorious, thoroughly shameless: an arrant villain, an arrant thief. It
has a rather old-fashioned air to it, and is often used in antique
phrases like "an arrant knave."
"Errant" is also an antique word, now used exclusively to mean
"wandering," especially in the phrase "a knight errant" (a wandering
knight). As here, it usually follows the noun it modifies. Although you
can argue that "arrant" also used to have this meaning, most readers
will regard its use in this sense today not as learned, but as mistaken.
ARTHURITIS/ARTHRITIS
If there were such a word as "arthuritis" it might mean the overwhelming
desire to pull swords out of stones, but that ache in your joints is
caused by "arthritis."
ARTIC/ARCTIC
Although some brand names have incorporated this popular error, remember
that the Arctic Circle is an arc. By the way, Ralph Vaughan Williams
called his suite drawn from the score of the film "Scott of the
Antarctic," the "Sinfonia Antartica," but that's Italian, not English.
ARTISANAL/ARTESIAN
For the past half-century foodies have referred to foods and drinks made
in small batches by hand using traditional methods as artisanal--made by
artisans: workers in handicrafts. It has also been extended to a wide
variety of other handmade products. Dictionaries agree that the word
should be pronounced "ARR-tizz-uh-nul" with the accent on the first
syllable and the second syllable rhyming with "fizz." Just say "artisan"
and add "-ul."
Diners and restaurant workers alike commonly confuse the pronunciation
of its first three syllables with that of "artesian" --"arr-TEE-zhun"--
which is an adjective to describe water which spurts out of the earth
under natural pressure. In this word the accent falls on the second
syllable, pronounced like "tea." A spring such as this is called an
"artesian spring" or "artesian well."
If you hand-bottle water from a natural spring in your back yard I
suppose you could label the result artisanal artesian water.
AS/THAT, WHO
In some American dialects it is common to say things like "I see lots of
folks as ain't got the sense to come in out out of the rain." In
standard English, the expression would be "folks that" or "folks who."
AS BEST AS/AS BEST
You can try to be as good as you can be, but it's not standard to say
that you do something "as best as you can." You need to eliminate the
second "as" when "good" changes to "best." You can try to do something
as best you can. You can also do the best that you can (or even better,
the best you can).
Unlike asbestos removal, "as best as" removal is easy, and you don't
have to wear a hazmat suit.
AS FAR AS
Originally people used to say things like "As far as music is concerned,
I especially love Baroque opera." Recently they have begun to drop the
"is concerned" part of the phrase. Perhaps this shift was influenced by
confusion with a similar phrase, "as for." "As for money, I don't have
any," is fine; "As far as money, I don't have any," is clumsy.
AS FOLLOW/AS FOLLOWS
"My birthday requests are as follows." This standard phrase doesn't
change number when the items to follow grow from one to many. It's never
correct to say "as follow."
AS LESS AS POSSIBLE/AS LITTLE AS POSSIBLE
The expression is not "as less as possible," but "as little as
possible."
AS OF YET/YET
"As of yet" is a windy and pretentious substitute for plain old English
"yet" or "as yet," an unjustified extension of the pattern in sentences
like "as of Friday the 27th of May."
AS PER/IN ACCORDANCE WITH
"Enclosed is the shipment of#2 toggle bolts as per your order of June
14" writes the businessman, unaware that not only is the "as" redundant,
he is sounding very old-fashioned and pretentious. The meaning is "in
accordance with," or "in response to the request made;" but it is better
to avoid these cumbersome substitutes altogether: "Enclosed is the
shipment of bolts you ordered June 14."
AS SUCH
The expression "as such" has to refer to some status mentioned earlier.
"The CEO was a former drill sergeant, and as such expected everyone to
obey his orders instantly." In this case "such" refers back to "former
drill sergeant." But often people only imply that which is referred to,
as in "The CEO had a high opinion of himself and as such expected
everyone to obey his orders instantly." Here the "such" cannot logically
refer back to "opinion." Replace "as such" with "therefore."
ASCARED/SCARED
The misspelling "ascared" is probably influenced by the spelling of the
synonym "afraid," but the standard English word is "scared."
ASCENT/ASSENT
"Assent" as a verb means "agree," "consent." "Assent" as a noun means
"agreement" or "consent." When you get people to agree to an action,
they assent to it. If you get them to agree, you gain their assent (or,
more often, their consent).
"Ascent" is a noun meaning "climb." When you climb a mountain, you make
an ascent.
ASCRIBE/SUBSCRIBE
If you agree with a theory or belief, you subscribe to it, just as you
subscribe to a magazine.
Ascribe is a very different word. If you ascribe a belief to someone,
you are attributing the belief to that person, perhaps wrongly.
ASHAMED/A SHAME
ItΤs a shame that many people mistakenly say and write that itΥs
�ashamedΣ that something is so when what they really mean is that itΤs
�a shame.Σ
ASOCIAL/ANTISOCIAL
Someone who doesn't enjoy socializing at parties might be described as
either "asocial" or "antisocial," but "asocial" is too mild a term to
describe someone who commits an antisocial act like planting a bomb.
"Asocial" suggests indifference to or separation from society, whereas
"anti-social" more often suggests active hostility toward society.
ASPECT/RESPECT
When used to refer to different elements of or perspectives on a thing
or idea, these words are closely related, but not interchangeable. It's
"in all respects," not "in all aspects." Similarly, one can say "in some
respects" but not "in some aspects." One says "in this respect," not "in
this aspect. " One looks at all "aspects" of an issue, not at all
"respects."
ASSESS
"Assess" is a transitive verb; it needs an object. You can assess your
team's chances of winning the bowl game, but you cannot assess that they
are playing better than last year. "Assess" is not an all-purpose
synonym of "judge" or "estimate." Most of the time if you write "assess
that" you are making a mistake. The errors arise when "that" is being
used as a conjunction. Exceptions arise when "that" is a pronoun or
adverb: "How do you assess that?" "I assess that team's chances as
good."
ASSURE/ENSURE/INSURE
To "assure" a person of something is to make him or her confident of it.
According to Associated Press style, to "ensure" that something happens
is to make certain that it does, and to "insure" is to issue an
insurance policy. Other authorities, however, consider "ensure" and
"insure" interchangeable. To please conservatives, make the distinction.
However, it is worth noting that in older usage these spellings were not
clearly distinguished.
European "life assurance" companies take the position that all
policy-holders are mortal and someone will definitely collect, thus
assuring heirs of some income. American companies tend to go with
"insurance" for coverage of life as well as of fire, theft, etc.
ASTERICK/ASTERISK
Some people not only spell this word without the second S, they say it
that way too. It comes from Greek asteriskos: "little star." Tisk, tisk,
remember the "-isk"; "asterick" is icky.
In countries where the Asterix comics are popular, that spelling gets
wrongly used for "asterisk" as well.
ASTROLOGY/ASTRONOMY
Modern astronomers consider astrology an outdated superstition. You'll
embarrass yourself if you use the term "astrology" to label the
scientific study of the cosmos. In writing about history, however, you
may have occasion to note that ancient astrologers, whose main goal was
to peer into the future, incidentally did some sound astronomy as they
studied the positions and movements of celestial objects.
ASWELL/AS WELL
No matter how you use it, the expression "as well" is always two words,
despite the fact that many people seem to think it should be spelled
"aswell." Examples: "I don't like plastic trees as well as real ones for
Christmas." "Now that we've opened our stockings, let's open our other
presents as well."
AT ALL
Some of us are irritated when a grocery checker asks "Do you want any
help out with that at all?" "At all" is traditionally used in negative
contexts: "Can't you give me any help at all?" The current pattern of
using the phrase in positive offers of help unintentionally suggests aid
reluctantly given or minimal in extent. As a way of making yourself
sound less polite than you intend, it ranks right up there with "no
problem" instead of "you're welcome."
ATM machine/ATM
"ATM" means "Automated Teller Machine," so if you say "ATM machine" you
are really saying "Automated Teller Machine machine."
ATHIEST/ATHEIST
An atheist is the opposite of a theist. "Theos" is Greek for "god." Make
sure the "TH" is followed immediately by an "E."
ATHLETE
Tired of people stereotyping you as a dummy just because you're a jock?
One way to impress them is to pronounce "athlete" properly, with just
two syllables, as "ATH-leet" instead of using the common
mispronunciation "ATH-uh-leet."
ATTAIN/OBTAIN
"Attain" means "reach" and "obtain" means "get." You attain a
mountaintop, but obtain a rare baseball card. "Attain" usually implies a
required amount of labor or difficulty; nothing is necessarily implied
about the difficulty of obtaining that card. Maybe you just found it in
your brother's dresser drawer.
Some things you obtain can also be attained. If you want to emphasize
how hard you worked in college, you might say you attained your degree;
but if you want to emphasize that you have a valid degree that qualifies
you for a certain job, you might say you obtained it. If you just bought
it from a diploma mill for fifty bucks, you definitely only obtained it.
ATTRIBUTE/CONTRIBUTE
When trying to give credit to someone, say that you attribute your
success to their help, not contribute. (Of course, a politician may
attribute his success to those who contribute to his campaign fund, but
probably only in private.)
AUGUR/AUGER
An augur was an ancient Roman prophet, and as a verb the word means
"foretell"--"their love augurs well for a successful marriage." Don't
mix this word up with "auger," a tool for boring holes. Some people
mishear the phrase "augurs well" as "all goes well" and mistakenly use
that instead.
AURAL/ORAL
"Aural" has to do with things you hear, "oral" with things you say, or
relating to your mouth.
AVAIDABLE/AVAILABLE
Many people mispronounce and misspell "available" as "avaidable," whose
peculiar spelling seems to be influenced by "avoidable," a word that has
opposite connotations.
"Avaidable" is avoidable; avoid it.
AVENGE/REVENGE
When you try to get vengeance for people who've been wronged, you want
to avenge them. You can also avenge a wrong itself: "He avenged the
murder by taking vengeance on the killer." Substituting "revenge" for
"avenge" in such contexts is very common, but frowned on by some people.
They feel that if you seek revenge in the pursuit of justice you want to
avenge wrongs: not revenge them.
AVOCATION/VOCATION
Your avocation is just your hobby; don't mix it up with your job: your
vocation.
AWAY/A WAY
"Jessica commented on my haircut in a way that made me think maybe I
shouldn't have let my little sister do it for me." In this sort of
context, "a way" should always be two distinct words, though many people
use the single word "away" instead. If you're uncertain, try
substituting another word for "way": "in a manner that," "in a style
that." If the result makes sense, you need the two-word phrase. Then you
can tell Jessica to just go away.
AWE, SHUCKS/AW, SHUCKS
"Aw, shucks," is a traditional folksy expression of modesty. An
"aw-shucks" kind of person declines to accept compliments. "Aw" is an
interjection roughly synonymous with "oh." "Awe" is a noun which most
often means "amazed admiration." So many people have begun to misspell
the familiar phrase "awe, shucks," that some writers think they are
being clever when they link it to the expression "shock and awe."
Instead, they reveal their confusion.
AWHILE/A WHILE
When "awhile" is spelled as a single word, it is an adverb meaning "for
a time" ("stay awhile"); but when "while" is the object of a
prepositional phrase, like "Lend me your monkey wrench for a while" the
"while" must be separated from the "a." (But if the preposition "for"
were lacking in this sentence, "awhile" could be used in this way: "Lend
me your monkey wrench awhile.")
AX/ASK
The dialectal pronunciation of "ask" as "ax" is a sure marker of a
substandard education. You should avoid it in formal speaking
situations.
AXEL/AXLE
The centers of wheels are connected by axles. An axel is a tricky jump
in figure skating named after Axel Paulsen.
BACK/FORWARD/UP IN TIME
For most people you move an event forward by scheduling it to happen
sooner, but other people imagine the event being moved forward into the
future, postponed. This is what most--but not all--people mean by saying
they want to move an event back--later. Usage is also split on whether
moving an event up means making it happen sooner (most common) or later
(less common). The result is widespread confusion. When using these
expressions make clear your meaning by the context in which you use
them. "We need to move the meeting forward" is ambiguous; "we need to
move the meeting forward to an earlier date" is not.
Just to confuse things further, when you move the clock ahead in the
spring for daylight saving time, you make it later; but when you move a
meeting ahead, you make it sooner. Isn't English wonderful?
BACKSEAT/BACK SEAT
Although you will often see people writing about the "backseat" of a
car, the standard and still most common spelling of the noun form is as
two words: "back seat." "Small children should ride in the back seat."
"In a crisis, planning takes a back seat to immediate action."
The one-word adjective "backseat" is appropriate when it describes where
something is. "The backseat area is cramped in this model " "Don't be a
backseat driver." Conservatives prefer the hyphenated spelling
"back-seat" for this sort of use: the back-seat area, a back-seat
driver.
BACKSLASH/SLASH
This is a slash: /. Because the top of it leans forward, it is sometimes
called a "forward slash."
This is a backslash: \. Notice the way it leans back, distinguishing it
from the regular slash.
Slashes are often used to indicate directories and subdirectories in
computer systems such as Unix and in World Wide Web addresses.
Unfortunately, many people, assuming "backslash" is some sort of
technical term for the regular slash, use the term incorrectly, which
risks confusing those who know enough to distinguish between the two but
not enough to realize that Web addresses rarely contain backslashes.
BACKUP/BACK UP
To "back up" is an activity; "back up your computer regularly"; "back up
the truck to the garden plot and unload the compost."
A "backup" is a thing: "keep your backup copies in a safe place." Other
examples: a traffic backup, sewage backup, backup plan, backup forces.
Older writers often hyphenated this latter form ("back-up"), but this is
now rare.
BACKWARD/BACKWARDS
As an adverb, either word will do: "put the shirt on backward" or "put
the shirt on backwards." However, as an adjective, only "backward" will
do: "a backward glance." When in doubt, use "backward."
BACKYARD/BACK YARD
The thing itself is a two-word phrase: you grow vegetables in your back
yard. The adjective form that describes the location of something behind
your house is a single word: you have a backyard vegetable garden.
BAD/BADLY
In informal speech "bad" is sometimes used as an adverb: "the toilet was
leaking pretty bad" or "my arm hurt so bad I thought it was broken." In
formal writing, "badly" is preferred in both contexts.
BAIL/BALE
You bail the boat and bale the hay.
In the expression "bail out," meaning to abandon a position or
situation, it is nonstandard in America to use "bale," though that
spelling is widely accepted in the UK. The metaphor in the US is to
compare oneself when jumping out of a plane to a bucket of water being
tossed out of a boat, though that is probably not the origin of the
phrase.
BAILOUT/BAIL OUT
Whether you are bailing out a rowboat or a bank, use the two-word
spelling to describe the action of doing it (the verb form): "we need to
bail out the boat before we can go fishing."
But to label the activity itself (the noun form), use the one-word
spelling: "this bailout is going to be expensive."
BALDFACED, BOLDFACED/BAREFACED
The only one of these spellings recognized by the Oxford English
Dictionary as meaning "shameless" is "barefaced." Etymologies often
refer to the prevalence of beards among Renaissance Englishmen, but
beards were probably too common to be considered as deceptively
concealing. It seems more likely that the term derived from the
widespread custom at that time among the upper classes of wearing masks
to social occasions where one would rather not be recognized.
BALL, BAWL
To "bawl" is to cry out loudly, so when you break down in tears you bawl
like a baby and when you reprimand people severely you bawl them out.
Don't use "ball" in these sorts of expressions. It has a number of
meanings, but none of them have to do with shouting and wailing unless
you're shouting "play ball!"
BALOGNA/BALONEY
"Bologna" is the name of a city in Italy, pronounced "boh-LOAN-ya." But
although in English the sausage named after the city is spelled the
same, it is pronounced "buh-LOAN-ee" and is often spelled "baloney."
Either spelling is acceptable for the sliced meat product.
Then there is the expression "a bunch of baloney." "Baloney" in this
case probably originated as a euphemism for "BS." When it means
"nonsense," the standard spelling is "baloney." People who write "bunch
of bologna" are making a pun or are just being pretentious.
BARB WIRE, BOB WIRE/BARBED WIRE
In some parts of the country this prickly stuff is commonly called "barb
wire" or even "bob wire." When writing for a general audience, stick
with the standard "barbed wire."
BARE/BEAR
There are actually three words here. The simple one is the big growly
creature (unless you prefer the Winnie-the-Pooh type). Hardly anyone
past the age of ten gets that one wrong. The problem is the other two.
Stevedores bear burdens on their backs and mothers bear children. Both
mean "carry" (in the case of mothers, the meaning has been extended from
carrying the child during pregnancy to actually giving birth). But
strippers bare their bodies--sometimes bare-naked. The confusion between
this latter verb and "bear" creates many unintentionally amusing
sentences; so if you want to entertain your readers while convincing
them that you are a dolt, by all means mix them up. "Bear with me," the
standard expression, is a request for forbearance or patience. "Bare
with me" would be an invitation to undress. "Bare" has an adjectival
form: "The pioneers stripped the forest bare."
BASED AROUND, BASED OFF OF/BASED ON
You can build a structure around a center, but bases go on the bottom of
things, so you can't base something around something else.
Similarly, you can build something off of a starting point, but you
can't base anything off of anything. Something is always based on
something else.
BASISES/BASES
The plural of "basis" is "bases," pronounced "BAY-sees" (not to be
confused with Baywatch).
BASICLY/BASICALLY
There are "-ly" words and "-ally" words, and you basically just have to
memorize which is which. But "basically" is very much overused and is
often better avoided in favor of such expressions as "essentially,"
"fundamentally," or "at heart."
BAITED BREATH/BATED BREATH
Although the odor of the chocolate truffle you just ate may be
irresistible bait to your beloved, the proper expression is "bated
breath." "Bated" here means "held, abated." You do something with bated
breath when you're so tense you're holding your breath.
BARTER/HAGGLE
When you offer to trade your vintage jeans for a handwoven shirt in
Guatemala, you are engaged in barter--no money is involved. One thing
(or service) is traded for another.
But when you offer to buy that shirt for less money than the vendor is
asking, you are engaged in haggling or bargaining, not bartering.
BAZAAR/BIZARRE
A "bazaar" is a market where miscellaneous goods are sold. "Bizarre," in
contrast, is an adjective meaning "strange," "weird."
BEAUROCRACY/BUREAUCRACY
The French bureaucrats from whom we get this word worked at their
bureaus (desks, spelled "bureaux" in French) in what came to be known as
bureaucracies.
BEAT/BEAD
In American English when you focus narrowly on something or define it
carefully you "get a bead" or "draw a bead" on it. In this expression
the term "bead" comes from the former name for the little metal bump on
the end of a gun barrel which helped the shooter aim precisely at a
target. "Beat" is often mistakenly substituted for "bead" by people who
imagine that the expression has something to do with matching the timing
of the person or activity being observed, catching up with it.
BECKON CALL/BECK AND CALL
This is a fine example of what linguists call "popular etymology."
People don't understand the origins of a word or expression and make one
up based on what seems logical to them. "Beck" is just an old shortened
version of "beckon." If you are at people's beck and call it means they
can summon you whenever they want: either by gesture (beck) or speech
(call).
BEGAN/BEGUN
In modern English "began" is the simple past tense of "begin": "he began
to study for the test at midnight."
But the past participle form--preceded by a helping verb--is "begun":
"By morning, he had begun to forget everything he'd studied that night."
FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME
Stephen Hawking writes about the beginning of time, but few other people
do. People who write "from the beginning of time" or "since time began"
are usually being lazy. Their grasp of history is vague, so they resort
to these broad, sweeping phrases. Almost never is this usage literally
accurate: people have not fallen in love since time began, for instance,
because people arrived relatively late on the scene in the cosmic scheme
of things. When I visited Ferrara several years ago I was interested to
see that the whole population of the old city seemed to use bicycles for
transportation, cars being banned from the central area. I asked how
long this had been the custom and was told "We've ridden bicycles for
centuries." Since the bicycle was invented only in the 1860s, I strongly
doubted this (no, Leonardo da Vinci did not invent the bicycle--he just
drew a picture of what one might look like--and some people think that
picture is a modern forgery). If you really don't know the appropriate
period from which your subject dates, you could substitute a less silly
but still vague phrase such as "for many years," or "for centuries"; but
it's better simply to avoid historical statements if you don't know your
history.
See "today's modern society."
BEGS BELIEF/BEGGARS BELIEF
You beggar people by impoverishing them, reducing them to beggary. This
term now survives mainly in metaphorical expressions such as "it beggars
description" (exhausts my ability to describe it) or "it beggars belief"
(exhausts my ability to believe it).
People who aren't familiar with this meaning of the word "beggar" often
substitute "beg," saying of something implausible that it "begs belief."
This makes no sense, for it implies that the story is trying to persuade
you to believe it.
BEGS THE QUESTION
An argument that improperly assumes as true the very point the speaker
is trying to argue for is said in formal logic to "beg the question."
Here is an example of a question-begging argument: "This painting is
trash because it is obviously worthless." The speaker is simply
asserting the worthlessness of the work, not presenting any evidence to
demonstrate that this is in fact the case. Since we never use "begs"
with this odd meaning ("to improperly take for granted") in any other
phrase, most people now suppose the phrase implies something quite
different: that the argument demands that a question about it be
asked--raises the question. Although using the expression in its
original sense is now rare, using it in the newer sense will cause
irritation among traditionalists.
BEHAVIORS
"Behavior" has always referred to patterns of action, including multiple
actions, and did not have a separate plural form until social scientists
created it. Unless you are writing in psychology, sociology,
anthropology, or a related field, it is better to avoid the use of
"behaviors" in your writing.
See also "peoples."
BEING THAT/BECAUSE
Using "being that" to mean "because" is nonstandard, as in "Being that
the bank robber was fairly experienced, it was surprising that he showed
the teller his ID card when she asked for it." "Being as how" is even
worse. If "because" or "since" are too simple for your taste, you could
use "given that" or "in that" instead.
BELIEF/BELIEVE
People can't have religious "believes"; they have religious beliefs. If
you have it, it's a belief; if you do it, you believe.
BELIEF TOWARD/BELIEF IN
You may have a positive attitude toward an idea, but you have a belief
in it.
BELOW TABLE/TABLE BELOW
When calling your readers' attention to an illustration or table further
on in a text, the proper word order is not "the below table" but "the
table below."
BEMUSE/AMUSE
When you bemuse someone, you confuse them, and not necessarily in an
entertaining way. Don't confuse this word with "amuse."
BENEFACTOR/BENEFICIARY
Benefactors give benefits; beneficiaries receive them. We expect to hear
of generous benefactors and grateful beneficiaries.
BESIDE/BESIDES
"Besides" can mean "in addition to" as in "besides the puppy chow, Spot
scarfed up the filet mignon I was going to serve for dinner." "Beside,"
in contrast, usually means "next to." "I sat beside Cheryl all evening,
but she kept talking to Jerry instead." Using "beside" for "besides,"
won't usually get you in trouble, but using "besides" when you mean
"next to" will.
BETTER
When Chuck says "I better get my research started; the paper's due
tomorrow," he means "I had better," abbreviated in speech to "I'd
better." The same pattern is followed for "he'd better," "she'd better,"
and "they'd better."
BETWEEN
"Between 1939 to 1945" is obviously incorrect to most people--it should
be "between 1939 and 1945"--but the error is not so obvious when it is
written thus: "between 1939-1949." In this case, the "between" should be
dropped altogether. Also incorrect are expressions like "there were
between 15 to 20 people at the party." This should read "between 15 and
20 people."
BETWEEN YOU AND I/BETWEEN YOU AND ME
"Between you and me" is preferred in standard English.
See "I/me/myself."
BEYOND THE PAIL/BEYOND THE PALE
A pale is originally a stake of the kind which might make up a palisade,
or enclosure. The uncontrolled territory outside was then "beyond the
pale." The expression "beyond the pale" came to mean "bizarre, beyond
proper limits"; but people who don't understand the phrase often alter
the last word to "pail."
The area of Ireland called "the Pale" inside the Dublin region formerly
controlled by the English is often said to have been the inspiration for
this expression, but many authorities challenge that explanation.
BIAS/BIASED
A person who is influenced by a bias is biased. The expression is not
"they're bias," but "they're biased." Also, many people say someone is
"biased toward" something or someone when they mean biased against. To
have a bias toward something is to be biased in its favor.
See also "prejudice/prejudiced."
BIBLE
Whether you are referring to the Jewish Bible (the Torah plus the
Prophets and the Writings) or the Protestant Bible (the Jewish Bible
plus the New Testament), or the Catholic Bible (which contains
everything in the Jewish and Protestant Bibles plus several other books
and passages mostly written in Greek in its Old Testament), the word
"Bible" must be capitalized. Remember that it is the title of a book,
and book titles are normally capitalized. An oddity in English usage is,
however, that "Bible" and the names of the various parts of the Bible
are not italicized or placed between quotation marks.
Even when used metaphorically of other sacred books, as in "The Qur'an
is the Bible of the Muslims," the word is usually capitalized; although
in secular contexts it is not: "Physicians' Desk Reference is the
pharmacists' bible." "Biblical" may be capitalized or not, as you choose
(or as your editor chooses).
Those who wish to be sensitive to the Jewish authorship of the Jewish
Bible may wish to use "Hebrew Bible" and "Christian Scriptures" instead
of the traditionally Christian nomenclature: "Old Testament" and "New
Testament." Modern Jewish scholars sometimes use the Hebrew acronym
"Tanakh" to refer to their Bible, but this term is not generally
understood by others.
BICEP/BICEPS
A biceps is a single muscle with two attaching tendons at one end.
Although "bicep" without the S is often used in casual speech, this
spelling is frowned on in medical and anatomical contexts.
BIT/BITTEN
When Walter Brennan in "To Have and Have Not" asks "Was you ever bit by
a dead bee?" the effect is to illustrate his folksy, semiliterate way of
speaking. The traditional way to phrase this question would be "Were you
ever stung by a dead bee?"
The simple past form of "bite" is "bit," as in "Their dog bit the paper
carrier." But the past participle is "bitten," as in "The paper carrier
was bitten by their dog."
In common expressions about becoming enthusiastic about something, like
"bit by the genealogy bug" the verb should technically be "bitten," but
"bit" is so common that it's not likely to be noticed. In other contexts
where you are not sure which one works best, try "bitten." If it sounds
OK, go with it.
BIT THE BULLET/BIT THE DUST
Someone of whom it is said "he bit the bullet" has made a tough decision
and decided to act on it. The expression is derived from the old
practice of having a wounded soldier bite down on a bullet to brace
himself against the pain of undergoing an amputation or other painful
operation. Some people confuse this with "bit the dust," which means
simply "died" (or more often, "was killed").
BIWEEKLY/SEMIWEEKLY
Technically, a biweekly meeting occurs every two weeks and a semiweekly
one occurs twice a week, but so few people get this straight that your
club is liable to disintegrate unless you avoid these words in the
newsletter and stick with "every other week" or "twice weekly." The same
is true of "bimonthly" and" semimonthly," though "biennial" and
"semi-annual" are less often confused with each other.
BLATANT
The classic meaning of "blatant" is "noisily conspicuous," but it has
long been extended to any objectionable obviousness. A person engaging
in blatant behavior is usually behaving in a highly objectionable
manner, being brazen. Unfortunately, many people nowadays think that
"blatant" simply means "obvious" and use it in a positive sense, as in
"Kim wrote a blatantly brilliant paper." Use "blatant" or "blatantly"
only when you think the people you are talking about should be ashamed
of themselves.
BLINDSIGHTED/BLINDSIDED
When you are struck by surprise from an unexpected direction, you are
blindsided, as if from your blind side. Do not be confused by the many
punning titles using the deliberate misspelling "blindsighted" into
using the latter spelling for this meaning.
BLOCK/BLOC
"Block" has a host of uses, including as the spelling in the phrase
"block of time." But for groups of people and nations, use the French
spelling "bloc": "bloc of young voters," "Cold War-era Eastern bloc of
nations." Don't be confused by punning names for groups and Web sites
like "Writer's Bloc."
BLOG/POST
Ships used to chart their progress by heaving overboard a chunk of wood
(the "log") trailing a line and measuring how much of it unspooled in a
given length of time. This allowed them to record the rate of the ship's
progress through the water. The resulting figures were recorded in a
"log-book," which was later abbreviated to "log." The word's meaning
shifted from the device floating in the water to the book in which
progress was recorded. "Log" also became a verb, referring to the
process of making entries in a log-book. In modern times the word
drifted away from seafaring matters to refer to any record of progress
created out of periodic entries.
Around the turn of the millennium, keepers of journals on the World Wide
Web began to shorten the term "Web log" to "blog," and to refer to the
activity of keeping a blog as "blogging." The common term referring to a
single entry in a blog is "post" (short for "posting"). But "post" is
also a verb: you post an entry to your blog. Amidst all this overlapping
terminology many confused people have begun to refer to the individual
entries as "blogs," writing "I made a new blog today" when they mean "I
put a new post on my blog today."
BLUNT/BRUNT
Some people mistakenly substitute the adjective "blunt" for the noun
"brunt" in standard expressions like "bear the brunt." "Brunt" means
"main force."
BOARDERS/BORDERS
Boarders are residents in a boarding house or school paying for their
room and board (food), fighters who board ships, or more recently,
people who go snowboarding a lot. You can also board animals, though
usually only people are called "boarders." All of these have some
connection with boards: hunks of wood (the planks of a table, the deck
of a ship, a snowboard).
All uses having to do with boundaries and edges are spelled "border":
border collies, Doctors Without Borders, borderline disorders, border
guard.
BOAST YOUR CONFIDENCE/BOLSTER YOUR CONFIDENCE
A bolster is a large pillow, and when you bolster something you support
it as if you were propping it up with a pillow. Thus the expression is
"bolster your confidence." People unfamiliar with the word sometimes say
instead "boast your confidence." They may also be confusing this saying
with "boost your confidence."
BON A PETITE/BON APPETIT
The traditional French phrase to utter when you serve the food is bon
appetit: "good appetite" (and pronounced "bone ah-puh-TEE"). It implies
"may you enjoy your food with a good appetite." (For some reason I think
this is fine but get irritated when a waiter tells me "enjoy!")
You see all sorts of misspellings of this phrase: "bon a petite," "bon a
petite," "bon a petite," "bona petite," "bonapetite," "bon a petit,"
etc. All of these are bon a rien--good for nothing.
BONAFIED/BONA FIDE
"Bona fide" is a Latin phrase meaning "in good faith," most often used
to mean "genuine" today. It is often misspelled as if it were the past
tense of an imaginary verb: "bonafy."
BOOST IN THE ARM/SHOT IN THE ARM
Early in the 20th century it used to be common for people feeling a bit
run-down to go to the doctor to get injected with a stimulant. By 1916
this remedy had led to a saying according to which a positive
stimulation of almost any kind could be called "a real shot in the arm."
We still use this expression in a wide variety of ways. It can refer to
an increase of business in a company, to a stimulus administered to the
economy, to the hopes of a sports franchise or a politician running for
office.
A simpler way of expressing the idea is to refer to a stimulus as a
"boost." Examples: "the flowers on my birthday gave my spirits a real
boost," "the large donation by the pharmaceutical company gave his
campaign a major boost," "the President is looking for ways to boost the
economy."
It's easy to understand how these two expressions came to be confused
with each other in the popular form "a boost in the arm." After all, we
go to the doctor for a booster shot. But the boost in this expression is
a shove from underneath to raise the whole body, not a needle in the
biceps. It makes more sense to stick with the traditional expression "a
shot in the arm" or to simply use "boost."
BORED OF/BORED WITH
When you get tired of something you are bored with it (not of it).
BORN/BORNE
This distinction is a bit tricky. When birth is being discussed, the
past participle of �bearΣ is usually �bornΣ: �I was born in a
trailerΡbut it was an Airstream.Σ Note that the form used here is
passive: you are the one somebody elseΡyour motherΡbore. But if the form
is active, you need an �EΣ on the end, as in �Midnight has borne another
litter of kittens in DadΥs old fishing hatΣ (Midnight did the bearing).
But in other meanings not having to do with birth, �borneΣ is always the
past participle of �bearΣ: �My brotherΥs constant teasing about my green
hair was more than could be borne.Σ
The simple past tense of �bearΣ when no helping verb is involved is of
course �boreΣ: �Yesterday my wife bore twins.Σ
"BornedΣ is not standard English.
BORN OUT OF/BORN OF
Write "my love of dance was born of my viewing old Ginger Rogers-Fred
Astaire movies," not "born out of." The latter expression is probably
substituted because of confusion with the expression "borne out" as in
"my concerns about having another office party were borne out when Mr.
Peabody spilled his beer into the fax machine." The only correct (if
antiquated) use of "born out of" is in the phrase "born out of wedlock."
BORROW/LOAN
In some dialects it is common to substitute "borrow" for "loan" or
"lend," as in "borrow me that hammer of yours, will you, Jeb?" In
standard English the person providing an item can loan it, but the
person receiving it borrows it.
For "loan" vs. "lend, see "Non-Errors."
BORROW OFF/BORROW FROM
In some dialects you can borrow five dollars off a friend, but in
standard English you borrow the money from a friend.
BOTH/EACH
There are times when it is important to use "each" instead of "both."
Few people will be confused if you say "I gave both of the boys a
baseball glove," meaning "I gave both of the boys baseball gloves"
because it is unlikely that two boys would be expected to share one
glove, but you risk confusion if you say "I gave both of the boys $50."
It is possible to construe this sentence as meaning that the boys shared
the same $50 gift. "I gave each of the boys $50" is clearer.
BOUGHT/BROUGHT
If you pay for something, you've bought it; if you bring something
you've brought it. These two words are probably interchanged most often
out of mere carelessness. A spelling checker won't catch the switch, so
watch out for it.
BONDS/BOUNDS
In expressions like "beyond the bounds of credibility" and "beyond the
bounds of decency" the word "bounds" is short for "boundaries," and
means "limits." Many people transform these sayings by substituting
"bonds" for "bounds," evidently thinking of people straining against
restraints, even going so far as to speak of the bonds of credibility
being stretched or broken. This usage makes a sort of sense, but it is
not traditional.
BOTH
"Both" refers to two items only. It is easy in speech to absent-mindedly
add items to an initial pair and wind up saying things like "I like both
mangos and papayas and Asian pears." Try to avoid this when writing.
How do you use "both" in a possessive construction? It's not easy. "It's
both of our home town" sounds awkward. Better to restructure the
sentence and say "it's the home town of both of us."
People occasionally say things like "I phoned both them," when they mean
"I phoned both of them," or "I phoned them both."
BOUGHTEN/BOUGHT
"Bought, " not "boughten" is the past tense of "buy." "Store-bought," a
colloquial expression for "not home-made," is already not formal
English; but it is not improved by being turned into "store-boughten."
BOUNCE/BOUNDS
A leaky ball may be out of bounce, but when it crosses the boundary line
off the basketball court or football field it goes out of bounds.
Similarly, any action or speech that goes beyond proper limits can be
called "out of bounds": "Mark thought that it was out of bounds for his
wife to go spelunking with Tristan, her old boyfriend."
BOURGEOIS
In the original French, a bourgeois was originally merely a free
inhabitant of a "bourg," or town. Through a natural evolution it became
the label for members of the property-owning class, then of the middle
class. As an adjective it is used with contempt by bohemians and
Marxists to label conservatives whose views are not sufficiently
revolutionary. The class made up of bourgeois (which is both the
singular and the plural form) is the bourgeoisie. Shaky spellers are
prone to leave out the "E" from the middle because "eoi" is not a
natural combination in English, but these words have remarkably enough
retained their French pronunciation: boorzhwah and boorzhwazee. The
feminine form, "bourgeoise," is rarely encountered in English.
BOUYANT/BUOYANT
Buoys are buoyant. In the older pronunciation of "buoyant" as "bwoyant"
this unusual spelling made more sense. Now that the pronunciation has
shifted to "boyant" we have to keep reminding ourselves that the U comes
before the O. The root noun, however, though often pronounced "boy" is
more traditionally pronounced "BOO-ee."
BOW
When it shoots arrows, plays your violin, or secures your shoelaces,
"bow" rhymes with "go." When it's a respectful bending of the body or
the front end of a ship, it rhymes with "cow" and sounds just like the
"bough" on a tree.
BRAINCHILD
Some people misuse "brainchild," as in "Steve Jobs is the brainchild
behind the iPhone." A brainchild is not a person, but the child
(product) of someone's brain. So the iPhone is the brainchild of Steve
Jobs.
BRAND NAMES
Popular usage frequently converts brand names into generic ones, with
the generic name falling into disuse. Few people call gelatin dessert
mix anything other than "Jell-O," which helps to explain why it's hard
to find Royal Gelatin on the grocery shelves. All facial tissues are
"Kleenex" to the masses, all photocopies "Xeroxes." Such commercial fame
is, however, a two-edged sword: sales may be lost as well as gained from
such over-familiarity. Few people care whether their "Frisbee" is the
genuine Wham-O brand original or an imitation. Some of these terms lack
staying power: "Hoover" used to be synonymous with "vacuum cleaner," and
the brand name was even transmuted into a verb: "to hoover" (these uses
are still common in the UK). Most of the time this sort of thing is
fairly harmless, but if you are a motel operator offering a different
brand of whirlpool bath in your rooms, better not call it a "Jacuzzi."
BRANG, BRUNG/BROUGHT
In some dialects the past tense of "bring" is "brang," and "brung" is
the past participle; but in standard English both are "brought."
BREACH/BREECH
Substitute a K for the CH in "breach" to remind you that the word has to
do with breakage: you can breach (break through) a dam or breach
(violate the terms of) a contract. As a noun, a breach is something
broken off or open, as in a breach in a military line during combat.
"Breech" however, refers to rear ends, as in "breeches" (slang spelling
"britches"). Thus "breech cloth," "breech birth," or "breech-loading
gun."
"Once more unto the breach, dear friends," means "let's charge into the
gap in the enemy's defenses," not "let's reach into our pants again."
BRAKE/BREAK
You brake to slow down; if your brakes fail and you drive through a
plate-glass window, you will break it.
BREAKUP/BREAK UP
A breakup is what happens when two people break up. The one-word form is
the result, whereas the two-word form is the action that leads to it.
BREATH/BREATHE
When you need to breathe, you take a breath. "Breathe" is the verb,
"breath" the noun.
BREECHES
The most common pronunciation of this word referring to pants rhymes
with "itches." The more phonetic spelling "britches" is perfectly
acceptable.
BRING/TAKE
When you are viewing the movement of something from the point of
arrival, use "bring": "When you come to the potluck, please bring a
green salad." Viewing things from the point of departure, you should use
"take": "When you go to the potluck, take a bottle of wine."
BRITAIN/BRITON
A British person is a Briton; only the country can be referred to as
"Britain."
BRITISH/ENGLISH
Americans tend to use the terms "British" and "English" interchangeably,
but Great Britain is made up of England plus Scotland and Wales. If you
are referring to this larger entity, the word you want is "British."
Britons not from England resent being referred to as "English."
BROACH/BROOCH
A decorative pin is a "brooch" even though it sounds like "broach"--a
quite different word. Although some dictionaries now accept the latter
spelling for jewelry, you risk looking ignorant to many readers if you
use it.
BROKE/BROKEN
When you break something, it's broken, not "broke," though a person or
organization which has run out of money can be said in informal speech
to be "broke." Otherwise, use "broke" only as the simple past tense of
"break," without a helping verb: "Azfar broke the record," but "The
record was broken by Azfar."
BRUNT/BUTT
A person who is the target of jokers is the butt of their humor (from an
old meaning of the word "butt": target for shooting at). But the object
of this joking has to bear the brunt of the mockery (from an old word
meaning a sharp blow or attack). A person is never a brunt. The person
being attacked receives the brunt of it.
BRUSSEL SPROUT/BRUSSELS SPROUT
These tiny cabbage-like vegetables are named after the Belgian city of
Brussels, which has an "S" on the end. The correct spelling is "Brussels
sprout."
BUILD OFF OF/BUILD ON
You build "on" your earlier achievements, you don't build "off of" them.
BULLION/BOUILLON
Gold bricks are bullion. Boil down meat stock to get bouillon. It's an
expensive mistake to confuse bouillon with bullion in a recipe.
BULLY PULPIT
We occasionally still use the old positive meaning of the word "bully"
when congratulating somebody (sincerely or sarcastically) by saying
"Bully for you!" A century ago "bully" meant "good," "great."
That's why Theodore Roosevelt called the American presidency a "bully
pulpit," meaning that it provided him an outstanding platform from which
to preach his ideas. The expression is often misused by writers who
mistakenly think it has something to do with preaching at people in a
bullying way.
BUMRUSH/BUM'S RUSH
A 1987 recording by the rap group Public Enemy popularized the slang
term "bumrush" as a verb meaning "to crash into a show hoping to see it
for free," evidently by analogy with an earlier usage in which it meant
"a police raid." In the hip-hop world to be "bumrushed" (also spelled
as two words) has evolved a secondary meaning, "to get beaten up by a
group of lowlifes, or "bums." However, older people are likely to take
all of these as mistakes for the traditional expression "bum's rush," as
in "Give that guy the bum's rush," i.e. throw him out unceremoniously,
treating him like an unwanted bum. It was traditionally the bum being
rushed, whereas in the newer expressions the bums are doing the rushing.
It's good to be aware of your audience when you use slang expressions
like this, to avoid baffling listeners.
Side note: Britons laughed themselves silly when they saw Americans
wandering around in sportswear with "B.U.M." plastered in huge letters
across their chests. "Bum" means "rear end" in the UK.
BUT . . . HOWEVER/BUT, HOWEVER
Since "but" and "however" perform the same function in a sentence, it's
not appropriate to use them together. Suppose you have written "but the
cake he made for my birthday, however, was his old girlfriend's favorite
BUTTLOAD/BOATLOAD
The original expression (meaning "a lot"), both more polite and more
logical, is "boatload."
BUTT NAKED/BUCK NAKED
The standard expression is "buck naked," and the contemporary "butt
naked" is an error that will get you laughed at in some circles.
However, it might be just as well if the new form were to triumph.
Originally a "buck" was a dandy, a pretentious, overdressed show-off of
a man. Condescendingly applied in the US to Native Americans and black
slaves, it quickly acquired negative connotations. To the historically
aware speaker, "buck naked" conjures up stereotypical images of naked
"savages" or--worse--slaves laboring naked on plantations. Consider
using the alternative expression "stark naked."
BUTTOX/BUTTOCKS
The popular phonetic spelling "buttox" ignores the fact that "buttocks"
(the traditional spelling) is a plural: one buttock, two buttocks.
BY/'BYE/BUY
These are probably confused with each other more often through haste
than through actual ignorance, but "by" is the common preposition in
phrases like "you should know by now." It can also serve a number of
other functions, but the main point here is not to confuse "by" with the
other two spellings: "'bye" is an abbreviated form of "goodbye"
(preferably with an apostrophe before it to indicate the missing
syllable), and "buy" is the verb meaning "purchase." "Buy" can also be a
noun, as in "that was a great buy." The term for the position of a
competitor who advances to the next level of a tournament without
playing is a "bye." All others are "by."
BY FAR AND AWAY/BY FAR, FAR AND AWAY
You could say that Halloween is by far your favorite holiday, or you can
say that it's far and away your favorite holiday; but if you combine the
two expressions and say "by far and away" you'll annoy some people and
puzzle others who can't figure out why it doesn't sound quite right.
CACAO/COCOA
Technically speaking, the plant is called a "cacao tree" and the seeds
and the chocolate powder made from them are called "cocoa." These
spellings are often swapped, but in contexts where botanical names
matter, it's better to stick with "cacao tree."
Neither of these should be confused with "coca," the source of cocaine.
CACHE/CACHET
"Cache" comes from the French verb "cacher," meaning "to hide," and in
English is pronounced exactly like the word "cash." But reporters
speaking of a cache (hidden hoard) of weapons or drugs often
mispronounce it to sound like cachet--"ca-SHAY"--a word with a very
different meaning: originally a seal affixed to a document, now a
quality attributed to anything with authority or prestige. Rolex watches
have cachet.
CADDY-CORNER/CATTY-CORNER, CATER-CORNER, KITTY-CORNER
This expression, meaning "diagonally opposite," was formed from a
misspelling in English of the French word quatre ("four") prefixed to
"corner." Although the word has nothing to do with cats or kittens, in
various dialects all three spellings are acceptable: "catty," "cater" or
"kitty."
But unless you have somebody holding your golf clubs permanently
stationed in the corner of your room, you shouldn't use the spelling
"caddy corner."
CALL THE QUESTION
This is more a matter of parliamentary procedure than of correct
English, but people are generally confused about what "calling the
question" means. They often suppose that it means simply "let's vote!"
and some even imagine that it is necessary to call for the question
before a vote may be taken. You even see deferential meeting chairs
pleading, "Would someone like to call for the question?"
But "calling the question" when done properly should be a rare
occurrence. If debate has dragged on longer than you feel is really
warranted, you can "call the question," at which time the chair has to
immediately ask those assembled to vote to determine whether or not
debate should be cut off or continue. The motion to call the question is
itself not debatable. If two-thirds of those voting agree that the
discussion should have died some time ago, they will support the call.
Then, and only then, will the vote be taken on the question itself.
Potentially this parliamentary maneuver would be a great way to shut
down windy speakers who insist on prolonging a discussion when a clear
consensus has already been arrived at, but since so few people
understand what it means, it rarely works as intended.
Chairs: when someone "calls the question," explain what the phrase means
and ask if that is what's intended. Other folks: you'll get further most
of the time just saying "Let's vote!"
CALLOUS/CALLUSED
Calling someone callous is a way of metaphorically suggesting a lack of
feeling similar to that caused by calluses on the skin, but if you are
speaking literally of the tough build-up on a person's hand or feet, the
word you need is "callused."
CALLS FOR/PREDICTS
Glendower: I can call spirits from the vasty deep.
Hotspur: Why, so can I, or so can any man; But will they come when you
do call for them?
Shakespeare: Henry IV, Part 1
Newspeople constantly joke that the weather service is to blame for the
weather, so we shouldn't be surprised when they tell us that the
forecast "calls for rain" when what they mean is that it "predicts"
rain. Remember, wherever you live, the weather is uncalled for.
CALM, COOL, AND COLLECTIVE/CALM, COOL, AND COLLECTED
Unless you're living in an unusually tranquil commune, you wouldn't be
"calm, cool, and collective." The last word in this traditional phrase
is "collected," in the sense of such phrases as "let me sit down a
minute and collect my thoughts." If you leave out "cool" the last word
still has to be "collected."
CALVARY/CAVALRY
"Calvary," always capitalized, is the hill on which Jesus was crucified.
It means "hill of skulls." Soldiers mounted on horseback are cavalry.
CAN GOODS/CANNED GOODS
Is there a sign at your grocery store that says "can goods"? It should
say "canned goods."
CANADIAN GEESE/CANADA GEESE
"Canadian geese" would be any old geese that happen to be in Canada.
What people usually mean to refer to when they use this phrase is the
specific species properly called "Canada geese."
CANON/CANNON
"Canon" used to be such a rare word that there was no temptation to
confuse it with "cannon": a large piece of artillery. The debate over
the literary canon (a list of officially-approved works) and the
popularity of Pachelbel's Canon (an imitative musical form related to
the common "round") have changed all that--confusion is rampant. Just
remember that the big gun is a "cannon." All the rest are "canons." Note
that there are metaphorical uses of "cannon" for objects shaped like
large guns, such as a horse's "cannon bone."
CANNOT/CAN NOT
These two spellings are largely interchangeable, but by far the more
common is "cannot"; and you should probably use it except when you want
to be emphatic: "No, you can not wash the dog in the Maytag."
See also "may/might."
CAN'T . . . TOO
In many contexts, "can't" followed by "too" can be confusing. "You can't
put too much garlic in this stew" could mean "be careful not to put too
much garlic in this soup" or "there's no limit to how much garlic you
could put in this soup--use lots!"
CANVAS/CANVASS
Heavy cloth, whether in the frame of a painting or on the floor of a
boxing ring, is canvas, with one S.
To survey ballots or voters is to canvass them, with two S's.
CAPEESH/CAPISCE
CAPEESH/CAPISCE
�Capisce?Σ is American pseudo-Italian slang for �understand?Σ and
functions rather like �know what I mean?Σ In Italian this form would be
used only in a formal setting; the typically casual American-style
contexts would require capischi.
Since American slang uses the wrong spelling by Italian standards
anyway, it probably doesnΥt matter that itΥs often misspelled as
�capeeshΣ; but �kapeeshΣ is really uncool: thereΥs no K in Italian.
In formal Italian, capisce is pronounced �cah-PEE-shay,Σ but in slangy
Italian and English itΥs �cah-PEESH.Σ
CAPITAL/CAPITOL
A "capitol" is almost always a building. Cities which serve as seats of
government are capitals spelled with an A in the last syllable, as are
most other uses of the word as a common noun. The only exceptions are
place names alluding to capitol buildings in some way or other, like
"Capitol Hill" in DC, Denver, or Seattle (the latter named either after
the hill in Denver or in hopes of attracting the Washington State
capitol building). Would it help to remember that Congress with an O
meets in the Capitol with another O?
CAPITALIZATION
Proper nouns (names of people and places: "Frederick," "Paris") and
proper adjectives ("French," "Biblical") must be capitalized. Many
people used to casual online writing patterns omit capital letters
throughout their writing, even at the beginning of sentences when
writing in more formal contexts. Unless your correspondent is someone
that you know prefers the all-lower-case approach, to be taken seriously
you should take the trouble to hit that Shift key when necessary.
Particularly watch out for this sloppy habit in writing timed
examinations. A teacher who has devoted 20 years to the study of Chinese
art flinches when she sees her cherished subject demoted to "chinese."
CARAMEL/CARMEL
Take Highway 1 south from Monterey to reach the charming seaside town of
Carmel, of which Clint Eastwood was formerly mayor. Dissolve sugar in a
little water and cook it down until the sugar turns brown to create
caramel. A nationwide chain uses the illiterate spelling
"Karmelkorn(TM)," which helps to perpetuate the confusion between these
two words.
CARAT/CARET/CARROT/KARAT
"Carrots" are those crunchy orange vegetables Bugs Bunny is so fond of,
but this spelling gets misused for the less familiar words which are
pronounced the same but have very different meanings. Precious stones
like diamonds are weighed in carats. The same word is used to express
the proportion of pure gold in an alloy, though in this usage it is
sometimes spelled "karat" (hence the abbreviation "20K gold"). A caret
is a proofreader's mark showing where something needs to be inserted,
shaped like a tiny pitched roof. It looks rather like a French
circumflex, but is usually distinct from it on modern computer
keyboards. Carets are extensively used in computer programming. Just
remember, if you can't eat it, it's not a carrot.
CAREER/CAREEN
A truck careening down the road is swerving from side to side as it
races along, whereas a truck careering down the road may be simply
traveling very fast. But because it is not often clear which meaning a
person intends, confusing these two words is not likely to get you into
trouble.
CARING
Most people are comfortable referring to "caring parents," but speaking
of a "caring environment" is jargon, not acceptable in formal English.
The environment may contain caring people, but it does not itself do the
caring.
CAROUSAL/CAROUSEL
A carousal is a wild drunken party.
When you encounter a "carousal horse," a "baggage carousal," or a
"carousal CD player," what is meant is "carousel."
If you've been invited to a "carousal party" don't head for the liquor
store until you're sure you haven't just been invited to ride on a
merry-go-round.
CAST DISPERSIONS/CAST ASPERSIONS
"Aspersions" is an unusual word whose main meaning is "false or
misleading accusations," and its only common use is in the phrase "cast
aspersions." To disperse a crowd is to break it up and scatter it, which
perhaps leads some people to mistakenly associate "cast" ("throw") with
"disperse" but the expression is "cast aspersions."
CATCH-22/CATCH
People familiar with Joseph Heller's novel are irritated when they see
"Catch-22" used to label any simple hitch or problem rather than this
sort of circular predicament: you can't get published until you have an
agent, and you can't get an agent until you've been published. "There's
a catch" will do fine for most other situations.
CATCHED/CAUGHT
The standard past tense form of "catch" in modern English is not
"catched," but "caught."
CAUCASIAN
"Caucasian" is an outdated term originally used to refer to some or all
of the people of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Central
and South Asia. It was invented in the early 19th century by Johann
Friedrich Blumenbach, who felt the Caucasian "race" was best exemplified
by people living in the Caucasus mountains of Georgia. It is widely
misused today as a synonym for "white." Although the concept of "race"
is still widely popular, contemporary scientists have generally rejected
the concept as simplistic and misleading.
The term is better avoided except in reference to people actually from
the Caucasus.
CD-ROM disk/CD-ROM
"CD-ROM" stands for "compact disc, read-only memory," so adding another
"disc" or "disk" is redundant. The same goes for "DVD" (from Digital
Video Disc" or "Digital Versatile Disc"--there are non-video versions).
Don't say "give me that DVD disk," just "give me that DVD."
CEASAR/CAESAR
Did you know that German "Kaiser" is derived from the Latin "Caesar" and
is pronounced a lot more like it than the English version? We're stuck
with our illogical pronunciation, so we have to memorize the correct
spelling. (The Russians messed up the pronunciation as thoroughly as the
English, with their "Czar.") Thousands of menus are littered with
"Ceasar salads" throughout America which should be "Caesar
salads"--named after a restaurateur, not the Roman ruler (but they both
spelled their names the same way).
CEASE THE DAY/SEIZE THE DAY
The classical Latin phrase "carpe diem"--usually translated as "seize
the day"--means "act now," "there's no time like the present."
It has to do not with ceasing, but with acting.
CELIBATE/CHASTE
Believe it or not, you can be celibate without being chaste, and chaste
without being celibate. A celibate person is merely unmarried, usually
(but not always) because of a vow of celibacy. The traditional
assumption is that such a person is not having sex with anyone, which
leads many to confuse the word with "chaste," denoting someone who does
not have illicit sex. A woman could have wild sex twice a day with her
lawful husband and technically still be chaste, though the word is more
often used to imply a general abstemiousness from sex and sexuality. You
can always amuse your readers by misspelling the latter word as
"chased."
CELTIC
Because the Boston Celtics basketball team pronounces its name as if it
began with an S, Americans are prone to use this pronunciation of the
word as it applies to the Bretons, Cornish, Welsh, Irish and Scots; the
dominant pronunciation among sophisticated US speakers is "keltik." Just
remember: "Celts in kilts."
Interestingly, the Scots themselves often use the "S" pronunciation,
notably in referring to the Glasgow soccer team, the "Celtic Football
Club."
CEMENT/CONCRETE
People in the building trades distinguish cement (the gray powder that
comes in bags) from concrete (the combination of cement, water, sand,
and gravel which becomes hard enough in your driveway to drive your car
on). In contexts where technical precision matters, it's probably better
to speak of a "concrete sidewalk" rather than of a "cement sidewalk."
CENSOR/CENSURE/SENSOR/CENSER
To censor somebody's speech or writing is to try to suppress it by
preventing it from reaching the public. When guests on network TV utter
obscenities, broadcasters practice censorship by bleeping them.
To censure someone, however, is to officially denounce an offender. You
can be censured as much for actions as for words. A lawyer who destroyed
evidence which would have been unfavorable to his client might be
censured by the bar association.
A device which senses any change like changes in light or electrical
output is a sensor. Your car and your digital camera contain sensors.
A censer is a church incense burner.
CENTER AROUND/CENTER ON, REVOLVE AROUND
Two perfectly good expressions--"center on" and "revolve around"--get
conflated in this nonsensical neologism. When a speaker says his address
will "center around the topic of" whatever, my interest level plummets.
CENTER OF ATTRACTION/CENTER OF ATTENTION
"Center of attraction" makes perfect sense, but the standard saying is
"center of attention."
CENTS
On a sign displaying a cost of twenty-nine cents for something the price
can be written as ".29," as "$.29," or as "29c," but don't combine the
two forms. ".29c" makes no sense, and "$.29c" is worse.
CEREMONIAL/CEREMONIOUS
"Ceremonial" and "ceremonious" are often considered synonyms, and can
indeed be used interchangeably in many contexts. But there are some
cases in which one is better than the other.
If you are talking about the performance of a ceremony, the word you
will usually want is "ceremonial" as in "ceremonial offering,"
"ceremonial garb," or "ceremonial dance." Sikhs traditionally wear
ceremonial daggers.
"Ceremonious" is mostly used to describe formal behavior which often has
little or no connection with a literal ceremony: "ceremonious manners,"
"ceremonious welcome," or "ceremonious speech."
CHAI TEA/CHAI
"Chai" is simply the word for "tea" in Hindi and several other Asian
languages. The spicy, milky variety known in India as "masala chai" is
called "chai" in the US. Since Americans likely to be attracted by the
word "chai" already know it's a tea-based drink, it's both redundant and
pointless to call the product "chai tea."
CHAISE LONGUE
When English speakers want to be elegant they commonly resort to French,
often mangling it in the process. The entree [acute accent over the
second E], the dish served before the plat, usurped the latter's
position as main dish. And how in the world did French "lingerie"
(originally meaning linen goods of all sorts, later narrowed to
underwear only) pronounced--roughly--"lanzheree" come to be American
"lawnzheray"? Quelle horreur! "Chaise longue" (literally "long chair"),
pronounced--roughly--"shezz lohng" with a hard G on the end became in
English "shayz long." Many speakers, however, confuse French "chaise"
with English "chase" and French longue with English "lounge"
(understandable since the article in question is a sort of couch or
lounge), resulting in the mispronunciation "chase lounge." We may
imagine the French as chasing each other around their lounges, but a
chaise is just a chair.
CHALK-FULL/CHOCK-FULL, CHUCK-FULL
Originally a person or thing stuffed to the point of choking was
"choke-full." In modern speech this expression has become "chock-full,"
or in less formal American English, "chuck-full." Chalk has nothing to
do with it.
CHAMPAIGN/CHAMPAGNE
Champaign is the name of a city and county in Illinois.
Champagne is a region of France that produces the sparkling wine of this
name.
CHAUVINIST/MALE CHAUVINIST, SEXIST
Nicolas Chauvin of Rochefort became a laughingstock in Napoleon's army
for his exaggerated nationalism, and his name gave rise to the term
"chauvinism," which characterizes people who wildly overestimate the
excellence and importance of their own countries while denigrating
others. The word was then broadened to cover an exaggerated belief in
the superiority of one's own kind in other respects. Following this
pattern, feminists in the 1970s invented the term "male chauvinist" to
label people who considered women inferior to men. Unfortunately, this
was the context in which many people first encountered "chauvinism" and
not understanding that it had a broader meaning, dropped the "male,"
thinking that "chauvinist" was a synonym for "sexist." This
misunderstanding is so widespread that only occasionally will you
encounter someone who knows better, but in formal writing it is wise to
avoid the abbreviated form in this restricted meaning. However, if you
do intend the older meaning of the word, it's also a good idea to make
that clear from your context, for a great many of your readers will
assume you are talking about sexism.
CHECK/CZECH
Pronounce the name of the country which broke away from the former
Czechoslovakia to form the Czech Republic as "check," but don't spell it
that way. Its citizens are Czechs.
CHEMICALS
Markets offering "organic" produce claim it has been raised "without
chemicals." News stories fret about "chemicals in our water supply."
This common error in usage indicates quite clearly the lamentable level
of scientific literacy in our population. Everything on earth save a few
stray subatomic particles and various kinds of energy (and--if you
believe in it--pure spirit) is composed of chemicals. Pure water
consists of the chemical dihydrogen oxide. Vitamins and minerals are
chemicals. In the broadest sense, even simple elements like nitrogen can
be called chemicals. Writers who use this term sloppily contribute to
the obfuscation of public debate over such serious issues as pollution
and malnutrition.
CHICANO/LATINO/HISPANIC
"Chicano" means "Mexican-American," and not all the people denoted by
this term like it. When speaking of people living in the US from various
other Spanish-speaking countries, "Chicano" is an error for "Latino" or
"Hispanic." Only "Hispanic" can include people with a Spanish as well as
with a Latin American heritage; and some people of Latin American
heritage object to it as ignoring the Native American element in that
population. Only "Latino" could logically include Portuguese-speaking
Brazilians, though that is rarely done.
CHOCK IT UP/CHALK IT UP
"Chalk it up" is a very old expression that goes back to the custom of
writing a customer's outstanding charges on a chalkboard, especially in
a bar. Today it means to give credit in a more general sense, as in the
expression "chalk it up to experience" (credit it to experience, add it
to your account of experiences)." A successful team may chalk up another
win.
You chock a vehicle parked on a slope by slipping a wedge called a
"chock" behind its wheels.
CHOOSE/CHOSE
You chose tequila last night; you choose aspirin this morning. "Chose"
is the past tense, "choose" the present.
CHRISPY/CRISPY
There are a lot of menus, signs, and recipes out there featuring
"chrispy chicken." Is this misspelling influenced by the "CH" in
"chicken" or the pattern in other common words like "Christmas"? At any
rate, the proper spelling is "crispy."
CHUNK/CHUCK
In casual conversation, you may get by with saying "Chuck [throw] me
that monkey wrench, will you?" But you will mark yourself as illiterate
beyond mere casualness by saying instead "Chunk me that wrench." This is
a fairly common substitution in some dialects of American English.
CHURCH
Catholics routinely refer to their church as the Church, with a capital
"C." This irritates the members of other churches, but is standard
usage. When "Church" stands by itself (that is, not as part of a name
like "First Methodist Church") you should normally capitalize it only to
mean "Roman Catholic Church." Note that protestant theologians and other
specialists in religion do refer to the whole body of Christians as "the
Church," but this professional usage is not common in ordinary writing.
CHUTE/SHOOT
It is not uncommon to see people writing "down the shoot" when they mean
"down the chute."
A chute is a sloping channel things move down along. It comes from the
French word for "to fall."
But if you are a shipper of Chinese groceries you could shoot cans of
bamboo shoots down a chute to the loading dock.
"Chute" is also short for "parachute," but people rarely misspell it in
that sense.
List of errors CITE/SITE/SIGHT
You cite the author in an endnote; you visit a Web site or the site of
the crime, and you sight your beloved running toward you in slow motion
on the beach (a sight for sore eyes!).
CITE/SITE/SIGHT
You cite the author in an endnote; you visit a Web site or the site of
the crime, and you sight your beloved running toward you in slow motion
on the beach (a sight for sore eyes!).
You travel to see the sights. It's called not "siteseeing" but
sightseeing.
CLASSIC/CLASSICAL
"Classical" usually describes things from ancient Greece or Rome, or
things from analogous ancient periods like classical Sanskrit poetry.
The exception is classical music, which in the narrow sense is late
18th- and 19th-century music by the likes of Mozart, Haydn, and
Beethoven, and in the broader sense formal concert music of any period
in the West or traditional formal music from other cultures, like
classical ragas.
"Classic" has a much looser meaning, describing things that are
outstanding examples of their kind, like a classic car or even a classic
blunder.
CLEANUP/CLEAN UP
"Cleanup" is usually a noun: "the cleanup of the toxic waste site will
cost billions of dollars." "Clean" is a verb in the phrase "clean up":
"You can go to the mall after you clean up your room."
CLENCH/CLINCH
"Clench" and "clinch" are related words, but they are not
interchangeable.
You clench a fist or teeth.
You clinch a deal or a victory. A reliable person comes through in the
clinch.
Bent-over nails are sometimes said to be clenched, but are more often
clinched.
CLICHE/CLICHED
One often hears young people say "That movie was so cliche!" "Cliche" is
a noun, meaning an overfamiliar phrase or image. A work containing
cliches is cliched.
CLICK/CLIQUE
Students lamenting the division of their schools into snobbish factions
often misspell "clique" as "click." In the original French, "clique" was
synonymous with "claque"--an organized group of supporters at a
theatrical event who tried to prompt positive audience response by
clapping enthusiastically.
CLIMACTIC/CLIMATIC
"Climactic" and "anticlimactic" have to do with climaxes, "climatic"
with climate. There is no such word as "anticlimatic."
CLOSE/CLOTHES
Because the TH in "clothes" is seldom pronounced distinctly, it is often
misspelled "close." Just remember the TH in "clothing," where it is
obvious. Clothes are made of cloth. Rags can also be cloths (without an
E).
CLOSE PROXIMITY/CLOSE, IN PROXIMITY TO
A redundancy: �in proximity toΣ means �close to.Σ
CLOSED-MINDED/CLOSE-MINDED
"Closed-minded" might seem logical, but the traditional spelling of this
expression is "close-minded." The same is true for "close-lipped" and
"close-mouthed."
COARSE/COURSE
"Coarse" is always an adjective meaning "rough, crude." Unfortunately,
this spelling is often mistakenly used for a quite different word,
"course," which can be either a verb or a noun (with several different
meanings).
COAT STRINGS/COAT TAILS, APRON STRINGS
A person deriving unearned benefits by being attached to another is
riding on his or her coat tails. This expression derives from the long
tails on menΥs old-fashioned coats.
A person clinging to anotherΥs apron strings is excessively dependent on
him or her, like a smalll child hanging on to its motherΥs clothing.
These two expressions are often mistakenly blended. The result is
statements such as Σshe hoped to succeed by clinging to her bossΥs coat
stringsΣ and �he is still clinging to his motherΥs coat strings.Σ Some
coats have strings, but �coat stringsΣ is not standard usage in either
of these sorts of expressions.
COFFEE KLATSCH, COFFEE KLATCH
"Coffee klatsch" comes from German Kaffeeklatsch meaning "coffee chat."
This is a compound word of which only one element has been translated,
with the other being left in its original German spelling.
Many people anglicize the spelling further to "coffee klatch" or "coffee
clatch." Either one is less sophisticated than "coffee klatsch," but not
too likely to cause raised eyebrows.
"Coffee clutch" is just a mistake except when used as a deliberate pun
to label certain brands of coffee-cup sleeves or to name a cafe.
COIFFEUR/COIFFURE
The guy who does your hair is a "coiffeur," just as the person who
drives a car is a "chauffeur," and a restaurant owner is a
"restaurateur." The "-eur" suffix occurs regularly in occupation names
which we have borrowed from the French. In French all of these would be
male, though Americans often refer to female restaurateurs and
chauffeurs. But it less acceptable to refer to a female hairdresser as a
coiffeur.
When the coiffeur has finished, the end product--your hairdo--is your
"coiffure."
COLD SLAW/COLE SLAW
The popular salad made of shredded cabbage was originally "cole slaw,"
from the Dutch for "cabbage salad." Because it is served cold, Americans
have long supposed the correct spelling to be "cold slaw," but if you
want to sound more sophisticated go with the original.
COLISEUM/COLOSSEUM
The standard spelling for an outdoor stadium is "coliseum," but the one
in Rome is called the "Colosseum." Also note that the name of the
specific construction in Rome is capitalized.
COLLAGE/COLLEGE
You can paste together bits of paper to make a collage, but the
institution of higher education is a college.
COLLECTIVE PLURAL
In UK English it is common to see statements like "Parliament have
raised many questions about the proposal" in which because Parliament is
made up of many individuals, several of whom are raising questions, the
word is treated as if it were plural in form and given a plural verb.
This is the proper-noun form of what is called the "collective plural."
Many UK authorities object when this pattern is applied to organization
names if the organization is being discussed as a whole and not as a
collection of individuals. According to them, "The BBC have been filming
in Papua New Guinea" should be "The BBC has been filming. . . ."
This sort of collective plural applied to the names of organizations is
almost unheard of in the US, and in fact strikes most Americans as
distinctly weird, with the exception being the occasional sports team
with a singular-form name like the Utah Jazz, the Miami Heat, the
Orlando Magic, or the Seattle Storm. There's a sarcastic saying, "The
Utah Jazz are to basketball what Utah is to jazz."
Another occasional exception is singular performing group names that are
sometimes treated as plural, like The Who and The Clash, though such
groups are also often referred to the singular. It's almost as common to
write "The Who rule" as "The Who rules."
COLOMBIA/COLUMBIA
Although both are named after Columbus, the US capital is the District
of Columbia, whereas the South American country is Colombia.
COLONS/SEMICOLONS
Colons have a host of uses, but they mostly have in common that the
colon acts to connect what precedes it with what follows. Think of the
two dots of a colon as if they were stretched out to form an equal sign,
so that you get cases like this: "he provided all the ingredients:
sugar, flour, butter, and vanilla." There are a few exceptions to this
pattern, however. One unusual use of colons is in between the chapter
and verses of a Biblical citation, for instance, "Matthew 6:5." In
bibliographic citation a colon separates the city from the publisher:
"New York: New Directions, 1979." It also separates minutes from hours
in times of day when given in figures: "8:35."
It is incorrect to substitute a semicolon in any of these cases. Think
of the semicolon as erecting a little barrier with that dug-in comma
under the dot; semicolons always imply separation rather than
connection. A sentence made up of two distinct parts whose separation
needs to be emphasized may do so with a semicolon: "Mary moved to
Seattle; she was sick of getting sunburned in Los Angeles." When a
compound sentence contains commas within one or more of its clauses, you
have to escalate to a semicolon to separate the clauses themselves: "It
was a mild, deliciously warm spring day; and Mary decided to walk to the
fair." The other main use of semicolons is to separate one series of
items from another--a series within a series, if you will: "The issues
discussed by the board of directors were many: the loud, acrimonious
complaints of the stockholders; the abrupt, devastating departure of the
director; and the startling, humiliating discovery that he had absconded
with half the company's assets." Any time the phrases which make up a
series contain commas, for whatever reason, they need to be separated by
semicolons.
Many people are so terrified of making the wrong choice that they try to
avoid colons and semicolons altogether; but formal writing often
requires their use, and it's wise for serious writers to learn the
correct patterns.
COLORADO
"Colorado" is one of three states whose names are commonly mispronounced
by non-Westerners. The third syllable should sound like "rad," not
"rod."
See also Oregon and Nevada.
COMA/COMMA
Some people write of patients languishing in a comma, and others refer
to inserting a coma into a sentence. A long-term unconscious state is a
coma; the punctuation mark is a comma.
COMMAS
What follows is not a comprehensive guide to the many uses of commas,
but a quick tour of the most common errors involving them.
The first thing to note is that the comma often marks a brief pause in
the flow of a sentence, and it helpfully marks off one phrase from
another. If you write "I plan to see Shirley and Fred will go shopping
while we visit" your readers are naturally going to think the announced
visit will be to both Shirley and Fred until the second half surprises
them into realizing that Fred is not involved in this visit at all. A
simple comma makes everything clear: "I plan to see Shirley, and Fred
will go shopping while we visit." People who read and write little have
trouble with commas if they deal with English primarily as a spoken
language, where emphasis and rhythm mark out phrases. It takes a
conscious effort to translate the rhythm of a sentence into writing
using punctuation.
Not many people other than creative writers have the occasion to write
dialogue, but it is surprising how few understand that introductory
words and phrases have to be separated from the main body of speech in
direct address: "Well, what did you think of that?" "Good evening, Mr.
Nightingale."
Commas often help set off interrupting matter within sentences. The
proper term for this sort of word or phrase is "parenthetical." There
are three ways to handle parenthetical matter. For asides sharply
interrupting the flow of the sentence (think of your own examples) use
parentheses. For many other kinds of fairly strong interjections,
dashes--if you know how to type them properly--work best. Milder
interruptions, like this, are nicely set off with commas. Many writers
don't realize that they are setting off a phrase, so they begin with the
first comma but omit the second, which should conclude the parenthetical
matter. Check for this sort of thing in your proofreading.
A standard use for commas is to separate the items in a series: "cats,
dogs, and gerbils." Authorities differ as to whether that final comma
before the "and" is required. Follow the style recommended by your
teacher, editor, or boss when you have to please them; but if you are on
your own, I suggest you use the final comma. It often removes
ambiguities.
A different kind of series has to do with a string of adjectives
modifying a single noun: "He was a tall, strong, handsome, but stupid
man." But when the adjective becomes an adverb modifying another
adjective instead of the noun, then no comma is used: "He was wearing a
garish bright green tie." A simple test: if you could logically insert
"and" between the modifying words in a series like this, you need
commas.
English teachers refer to sentences where clauses requiring some
stronger punctuation are instead lightly pasted together with a comma as
"comma splices." Here's an example: "He brought her a dozen roses, he
had forgotten she was allergic to them." In this sentence the reader
needs to be brought up sharply and reoriented mid-sentence with a
semicolon; a comma is too weak to do the trick. Here's a worse example
of a comma splice: "It was a beautiful day outside, she remembered just
in time to grab the coffee mug." There is no obvious logical connection
between the two parts of this sentence. They don't belong in the same
sentence at all. The comma should be a period, with the rest being
turned into a separate sentence.
Some writers insert commas seemingly at random: "The unabridged
dictionary, was used mainly to press flowers." When you're not certain a
comma is required, read your sentence aloud. If it doesn't seem natural
to insert a slight pause or hesitation at the point marked by the comma,
it should probably be omitted.
See also "colons/semicolons" and "hyphens & dashes."
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
Hey kids, here's a chance to catch your English teacher in a redundancy!
To compare two things is to note their similarities and their
differences. There's no need to add "and contrast."
COMPARE TO/COMPARE WITH
These are sometimes interchangeable, but when you are stressing
similarities between the items compared, the most common word is "to":
"She compared his home-made wine to toxic waste." If you are examining
both similarities and differences, use "with": "The teacher compared
Steve's exam with Robert's to see whether they had cheated."
COMPLEMENT/COMPLIMENT
Originally these two spellings were used interchangeably, but they have
come to be distinguished from each other in modern times. Most of the
time the word people intend is "compliment": nice things said about
someone ("She paid me the compliment of admiring the way I shined my
shoes"). "Complement," much less common, has a number of meanings
associated with matching or completing. Complements supplement each
other, each adding something the others lack, so we can say that
"Alice's love for entertaining and Mike's love for washing dishes
complement each other." Remember, if you're not making nice to someone,
the word is "complement."
A complement can also be the full number of something needed to make it
complete: "my computer has a full complement of video-editing programs."
If it is preceded by "full" the word you want is almost certainly
"complement."
COMPLEMENTARY/COMPLIMENTARY
When paying someone a compliment like "I love what you've done with the
kitchen!" you're being complimentary. A free bonus item is also a
complimentary gift. But items or people that go well with each other are
complementary.
In geometry, complementary angles add up to 90 degrees, whereas
supplementary ones add up to 180 degrees.
COMPRISED OF/COMPOSED OF
Although "comprise" is used primarily to mean "to include," it is also
often stretched to mean "is made up of"--a meaning that some critics
object to. The most cautious route is to avoid using "of" after any form
of "comprise" and substitute "is composed of" in sentences like this:
"Jimmy's paper on Marxism was composed entirely of sentences copied off
the Marx Brothers Home Page."
There's a lot of disagreement about the proper use of "comprise," but
most authorities agree that the whole comprises the parts: "Our pets
comprise one dog, two cats, and a turtle." The whole comes first, then
"comprise" followed by the parts. There's so much confusion surrounding
the usage of this word that it may be better to avoid it altogether.
COMPTROLLER
Although it is less and less often heard, the traditional pronunciation
of "comptroller" is identical with "controller." The Oxford English
Dictionary, indeed, considers "comptroller" to have begun as a
misspelling of "controller"--back in the 16th century.
CONCENSUS/CONSENSUS
You might suppose that this word had to do with taking a census of the
participants in a discussion, but it doesn't. It is a good old Latin
word that has to do with arriving at a common sense of the meeting, and
the fourth letter is an "S."
Speaking of a "general consensus" is extremely common, though strictly
speaking it's a redundant expression since a consensus is by definition
a general agreement.
CONCERTED EFFORT
One cannot make a "concerted effort" all by one's self. To work "in
concert" is to work together with others. The prefix "con-" means
"with."
CONFIDENT/CONFIDANT/CONFIDANTE
In modern English "confident' is almost always an adjective. Having
studied for a test you feel confident about passing it. You're in a
confident frame of mind. This spelling is often misused as a noun
meaning "person you confide in," especially in the misspelled phrase
"close confident."
The spelling "confidante" suggests that such a close friend might be a
female, and conservatives prefer to confine its use to refer to women.
But this spelling is also very common for males, and the spelling
"confidant" is also used of both males and females. Either one will do
in most contexts, but the person you trust with your deep secrets is not
your "confident."
CONFLICTED/CONFLICTING FEELINGS
Phrases like "conflicted feelings" or "I feel conflicted" are considered
jargon by many, and out of place in formal writing. Use "I have
conflicting feelings" instead, or write "I feel ambivalent."
CONFUSIONISM/CONFUCIANISM
Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. His name is not spelled
"Confucious," and his philosophy is not called "Confusionism." When you
spot the confusion in the latter term, change it quickly to
"Confucianism."
CONGRADULATIONS/CONGRATULATIONS
I fear that all too many seniors are being "congradulated" for
graduating from high school who don't know that this word should be
spelled "congratulations." Try a search for this misspelling on your
favorite Web search engine and be prepared to be astonished.
CONSERVATIVISM/CONSERVATISM
The conservative spelling of this word is "conservatism."
CONSIDERED AS/CONSIDERED
Although we say things like "Shakespeare is regarded as the finest
playwright in the English language," it is not standard to retain the
"as" when the wording is changed to "Shakespeare is considered the
finest playwright. . . ."
Of course there's nothing wrong with the phrase "considered as" in
contexts like this: "Salt is being considered as a melting agent for
snow on the city streets." Also fine is the standard idiom "considered
as a whole."
There is a specialized proper use of the phrase "considered as" in
formal writing which has to do with a thing being considered as an
example of some category, sometimes an unexpected one. " This pattern is
common in scholarly titles, such as "Heat Considered as a Mode of
Motion" and "Typhoid Fever Considered as a Problem of Scientific
Medicine."
A couple of examples from literature which parody this scholarly usage:
"The Crucifixion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race" (Alfred Jarry)
and "Time Considered as a Helix of Semi-Precious Stones" (Samuel R.
Delany).
Since there are so many exceptions to the rule against following
"considered" by "as," try applying one of these two tests: if
"considered as" means the same thing as " regarded as" in your sentence,
drop the "as"--or, more simply, if you can omit the "as" without making
the sentence sound weird, do so.
"Deem," which also means "regard," should also not be followed by "as."
CONTACT
Although some still object to "contact" as a verb, sentences like
"contact me when the budget is ready" are now standard English.
CONTACT/CONTRACT
If you touch a sick person, you have contacted him or her; but if you
catch the disease, you have contracted it.
CONTAMINATES/CONTAMINANTS
When run-off from a chemical plant enters the river it contaminates the
water, but the goo itself consists of "contaminants."
CONTINUAL/CONTINUOUS
"Continuous" refers to actions which are uninterrupted: "My upstairs
neighbor played his stereo continuously from 6:00 PM to 3:30 AM."
Continual actions, however, need not be uninterrupted, only repeated:
"My father continually urges me to get a job."
CONVERSATE/CONVERSE
"Conversate" is what is called a "back-formation" based on the noun
"conversation." But the verb for this sort of thing is "converse."
CORE/CORPS/CORPSE
Apples have cores. A corps is an organization, like the Peace Corps. A
corpse is a dead body, a carcass.
COLLABORATE/CORROBORATE
People who work together on a project "collaborate" (share their labor);
people who support your testimony as a witness "corroborate" (strengthen
by confirming) it.
COLONS/SEMICOLONS
Colons have a host of uses, but they mostly have in common that the
colon acts to connect what precedes it with what follows. Think of the
two dots of a colon as if they were stretched out to form an equal sign,
so that you get cases like this: "he provided all the ingredients:
sugar, flour, butter, and vanilla."
There are a few exceptions to this pattern, however. One unusual use of
colons is in between the chapter and verses of a Biblical citation, for
instance, "Matthew 6:5." In bibliographic citation a colon separates the
city from the publisher: "New York: New Directions, 1979." It also
separates minutes from hours in times of day when given in figures:
"8:35." It is incorrect to substitute a semicolon in any of these cases.
Think of the semicolon as erecting a little barrier with that dug-in
comma under the dot; semicolons always imply separation rather than
connection. A sentence made up of two distinct parts whose separation
needs to be emphasized may do so with a semicolon: "Mary moved to
Seattle; she was sick of getting sunburned in Los Angeles." When a
compound sentence contains commas within one or more of its clauses, you
have to escalate to a semicolon to separate the clauses themselves: "It
was a mild, deliciously warm spring day; and Mary decided to walk to the
fair." The other main use of semicolons is to separate one series of
items from another--a series within a series, if you will: "The issues
discussed by the board of directors were many: the loud, acrimonious
complaints of the stockholders; the abrupt, devastating departure of the
director; and the startling, humiliating discovery that he had absconded
with half the company's assets." Any time the phrases which make up a
series contain commas, for whatever reason, they need to be separated by
semicolons.
Many people are so terrified of making the wrong choice that they try to
avoid colons and semicolons altogether, but I'm afraid this just can't
be done. Formal writing requires their use, and it's necessary to learn
the correct patterns.
COME WITH
In some American dialects it is common to use the phrase "come with"
without specifying with whom, as in "We're going to the bar. Want to
come with?" This sounds distinctly odd to the majority of people, who
would expect "come with us."
COMPANY NAMES WITH APOSTROPHES
Some company names which have a possessive form use an apostrophe before
the S and some don't: "Macy's" does and "Starbucks" doesn't. Logo
designers often feel omitting the apostrophe leads to a cleaner look,
and there's nothing you can do about it except to remember which is
standard for a particular company. But people sometimes informally add
an S to company names with which they are on familiar terms: "I work
down at the Safeway's now" (though in writing, the apostrophe is likely
to be omitted). This is not standard usage.
CONCERNING/WORRISOME, TROUBLING
People commonly say of things that are a cause for concern that they are
"concerning": "My boyfriend's affection for his pet rattlesnake is
concerning." This is not standard English. There are many better words
that mean the same thing including "worrisome," "troubling," and
"alarming."
CONNOTE/DENOTE
The literal meaning of a word is its denotation; the broader
associations we have with a word are its connotations. People who depend
on a thesaurus or a computer translation engine to find synonyms often
choose a word with the right denotation but the wrong connotations.
"Determined" and "pig-headed" both denote stubbornness, but the first
connotes a wise adherence to purpose and the second connotes foolish
rigidity.
"Boss" and "Chief Executive Officer" (CEO) can refer to the same office;
but the first is less admiring and likely to connote the view of
employees lower down in the company--nobody wants to be thought of as
"bossy." Higher executives would be more likely to speak admiringly of a
"CEO."
I often write "insufficiently complex" at the bottom of student papers
instead of "simple-minded." Although they denote essentially the same
quality, the connotations of the first are less insulting.
CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUS, CONSCIOUSNESS
Your conscience makes you feel guilty when you do bad things, but your
consciousness is your awareness. If you are awake, you are conscious.
Although it is possible to speak of your "conscious mind," you can't use
"conscious" all by itself to mean "consciousness."
See unconscience.
CONTRARY/CONTRAST
The phrases "on the contrary" and "to the contrary" are used to reply to
an opposing point. Your friend tells you she is moving to New York and
you express surprise because you thought she hated big cities. She
replies, "On the contrary, I've always wanted to live in an urban area."
When a distinction is being made that does not involve opposition of
this sort, "in contrast" is appropriate. "In New York, you don't need a
car. In Los Angeles, in contrast, you can't really get along without
one, though you won't need a snow shovel."
Here's a simple test: if you could possibly substitute "that's wrong"
the phrase you want is "on the contrary" or "to the contrary." If not,
then use "in contrast."
CONTRASTS/CONTRASTS WITH
"With" must not be omitted in sentences like this: "Julia's enthusiasm
for rugby contrasts with Cheryl's devotion to chess."
COPE UP/COPE WITH
When you can't keep up with your work you may not be able to cope with
your job, but you never "cope up" with anything. In casual speech we say
"I can't cope," but in formal writing "cope" is normally followed by
"with."
COPYWRITE/COPYRIGHT
You can copyright writing, but you can also copyright a photograph or
song. The word has to do with securing rights. Thus, there is no such
word as "copywritten"; it's "copyrighted."
CORONATE/CROWN
A person is crowned, not coronated. "Coronate" is improperly derived
from "coronation," but "crown" is the original and still standard form
of the verb.
But don't be in too big a hurry to declare that there is "no such word":
"coronate" means "crown-shaped," and has various uses in biology.
COSTUMER/CUSTOMER
Just what would a "costumer service" do? Supply extra-shiny spangles for
a Broadway diva's outfit? But this phrase is almost always a
typographical error for "customer service," and it appears on an
enormous number of Web pages. Be careful not to swap the U and O when
you type "customer."
COULD CARE LESS/COULDN'T CARE LESS
Cliches are especially prone to scrambling because they become
meaningless through overuse. In this case an expression which originally
meant "it would be impossible for me to care less than I do because I do
not care at all" is rendered senseless by being transformed into the
now-common "I could care less." Think about it: if you could care less,
that means you care some. The original already drips sarcasm, so it's
pointless to argue that the newer version is "ironic." People who misuse
this phrase are just being careless.
More on "COULD CARE LESS"
People who use the shortened form are often convinced they are right
because they are being "ironic" and some even claim it's the original
form. But here's the entry in "The American Heritage Dictionary of
Idioms":
"This expression originated about 1940 in Britain and for a time
invariably used couldn't. About 1960 could was occasionally substituted,
and today both versions are used with approximately equal frequency,
despite their being antonyms."
"I could care less" just isn't logically ironic. The people speaking
feel irony, but their words don't convey it. "I'd buy those jeans" could
be ironic if you really meant the opposite: you wouldn't buy those jeans
if they were the last pair in the world. But "I could care less" isn't
used to imply its opposite: that you care more. Thus it is not ironic.
"Couldn't care less" is a strong statement because it says you don't
care at all, zero!
"Could care less," whatever meaning you take it to have, does not have
that crucial message of zero interest which gives the original saying
its sting. See http://incompetech.com/gallimaufry/care_less.html
See also Michael Quinion on this point:
http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-ico1.htm.
COULD GIVE A DAMN/COULDN'T GIVE A DAMN
If you don't care at all about something, the standard popular
expression is "I couldn't give a damn." People often say instead "I
could give a damn," which should logically mean they care. Note that we
say "I don't give a damn," not "I give a damn" unless it's set in some
kind of negative context such as "do you really think I give a damn?" or
"do I look like I give a damn?'
The same goes for parallel expressions where the last word is "darn" or
some other expletive.
Just remember that in Gone with the Wind Clark Gable told Vivien Leigh,
"Frankly, my dear, I don't give a damn."
COULD OF, SHOULD OF, WOULD OF/COULD HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, WOULD HAVE
This is one of those errors typically made by a person more familiar
with the spoken than the written form of English. A sentence like "I
would have gone if anyone had given me free tickets" is normally spoken
in a slurred way so that the two words "would have" are not distinctly
separated, but blended together into what is properly rendered
"would've." Seeing that "V" tips you off right away that "would've" is a
contraction of "would have." But many people hear "would of" and that's
how they write it. Wrong.
Note that "must of" is similarly an error for "must have."
COUNCIL/COUNSEL/CONSUL
The first two words are pronounced the same but have distinct meanings.
An official group that deliberates, like the Council on Foreign
Relations, is a "council"; all the rest are "counsels": your lawyer,
advice, etc. A consul is a local representative of a foreign government.
COUPLE/COUPLE OF
Instead of "she went with a couple sleazy guys before she met me," write
"a couple of guys" if you are trying to sound a bit more formal. Leaving
the "of" out is a casual, slangy pattern.
COWERED/COWARD
"Coward" and "cower" may seem logically connected. But "coward"--a noun
used to scornfully label a fearful person--is derived from a French
root, and "cower"--a verb meaning to crouch down, often fearfully--is
derived from an entirely different Nordic one. "Cowered" is just the
past tense of "cower" and should not be used as a spelling for the label
given to a timid person. "It's always "a coward" and "the coward."
"Cowered" is also occasionally used improperly when "cowed"--meaning
"intimidated"--is meant. It is not related etymologically to either
"coward" or "cowered."
CURSING THROUGH VEINS/COURSING THROUGH VEINS
To "course" is to run. The most familiar use of this meaning of the word
is in "racecourse": a place where races are run. When the blood runs
strongly through your veins, it courses through them. Metaphorically we
speak of strong emotions like fear, exhilaration, and passion as
coursing through our veins.
Some people mistakenly substitute "curse" and think these feelings are
cursing through their veins. This might make some sort of sense with
negative emotions, but note that the expression is also used of positive
ones. Stick with coursing.
COWTOW/KOWTOW
You can tow a cow to water, but you can't make it drink. But the word
that means bowing worshipfully before someone comes from the Chinese
words for knocking one's head on the ground, and is spelled "kowtow."
CRACKER JACKS/CRACKER JACK
"Crackerjack" is an old slang expression meaning "excellent," and the
official name of the popcorn confection is also singular: "Cracker
Jack." People don't pluralize its rival Poppycock as "Poppycocks," but
they seem to think of the individual popped kernels as the "jacks." A
similarly named candy is "Good and Plenty." All three have descriptive
names describing qualities and shouldn't be pluralized. A way to
remember this: in "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" "Cracker Jack" rhymes
with "back."
CRAPE/CREPE
In modern English "crape" refers to thin, crinkled paper or cloth. Black
crape was traditionally associated with mourning. A crepe is a thin flat
French pancake. Most Americans pronounce the two words the same, to
rhyme with "ape." If you want to spell it the French way, you'll need to
add a circumflex over the first "E": crepe, and pronounce it to rhyme
with "step." Even if you use the French form you're likely to sound the
final "S" in plural "crepes," though a real French speaker would leave
it silent.
CRAFTS
When referring to vehicles, "craft" is both singular and plural. Two
aircraft, many watercraft, etc. Do not add an "S."
But when referring to hobbies and skills such as "woodcrafts" or "arts
and crafts" adding an "S" in the plural form is standard.
CREDIBLE/CREDULOUS
"Credible" means "believable" or "trustworthy." It is also used in a
more abstract sense, meaning something like "worthy": "She made a
credible lyric soprano." Don't confuse "credible" with "credulous," a
much rarer word which means "gullible." "He was incredulous" means "he
didn't believe it" whereas "he was incredible" means "he was wonderful"
(but use the latter expression only in casual speech).
Although you will commonly see it said of some far-fetched story either
that "it strains credulity" or that "it strains credibility," the latter
is more traditional. Something that strains credulity would be beyond
the powers of even a very gullible person to believe. This form of the
saying isn't very effective because a credulous person isn't straining
to believe things anyway. Such a person believes easily without
thinking. It makes more sense to say that something too weird or wild to
be credible "strains credibility."
See also "incredible" and "begs belief."
CRESCENDO/CLIMAX
When something is growing louder or more intense, it is going through a
crescendo (from an Italian word meaning "growing"). Traditionalists
object to its use when you mean "climax." A crescendo of cheers by an
enthusiastic audience grows until it reaches a climax, or peak.
"Crescendo" as a verb is common, but also disapproved of by many
authorities. Instead of "the orchestra crescendos," write "the orchestra
plays a crescendo."
CREVICE/CREVASSE
Crevices are by definition tiny, like that little crevice between your
teeth where the popcorn hulls always get caught. A huge crack in a
glacier is given the French spelling: crevasse.
CRICK/CREEK
The dialectal pronunciation and spelling of "creek" as "crick" is very
popular in some parts of the US, but the standard pronunciation of the
word is the same as that of "creak."
CRITERIA/CRITERION
There are several words with Latin or Greek roots whose plural forms
ending in A are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for
instance, data and media. You can have one criterion or many criteria.
Don't confuse them.
CRITICISM
Beginning literature or art history students are often surprised to
learn that in such contexts "criticism" can be a neutral term meaning
simply "evaluating a work of literature or art." A critical article
about The Color Purple can be entirely positive about Alice Walker's
novel. Movie critics write about films they like as well as about films
they dislike: writing of both kinds is called "criticism."
CRITIQUE/CRITICIZE
A critique is a detailed evaluation of something. The formal way to
request one is "give me your critique," though people often say
informally "critique this"--meaning "evaluate it thoroughly." But
"critique" as a verb is not synonymous with "criticize" and should not
be routinely substituted for it. "Josh critiqued my backhand" means Josh
evaluated your tennis technique but not necessarily that he found it
lacking. "Josh criticized my backhand" means that he had a low opinion
of it.
You can write criticism on a subject, but you don't criticize on
something, you just criticize it.
CROCHET/CROTCHET/CROTCHETY
Although all of these words are derived from a common ancestor meaning
"hook" and are related to "crook," they have taken on different meanings
in modern English. Those who do needlework with a crochet hook crochet.
Your peculiar notions are your crotchets. And a crabby old person like
Bob Cratchit's boss is crotchety. There are various other technical uses
for "crotchet," but people who use them usually know the correct
spelling. Just remember that "crochet" goes only with goods made with a
crochet hook.
CROISSANT
The fanciful legend which attributes the creation of the croissant to
Christian bakers celebrating a 17th-century victory over the Turks is
widely recounted but almost certainly untrue, since there is no trace of
the pastry until a century later. Although its form was probably not
influenced by the Islamic crescent, the word croissant most definitely
is French for "crescent." Pastries formed from the same dough into
different shapes should not be called "croissants." If a customer in
your bakery asks for a pain au chocolat (PAN oh-show-co-LA), reach for
that rectangular pastry usually mislabeled in the US a "chocolate
croissant."
CROWBAR/WRECKING BAR
A crowbar is a straight bar with one end only slightly bent and
sharpened into a beak. Often the beak is split, giving the tool its name
from its resemblance to a crow's foot.
The tool with the much more pronounced hook on the end--designed for
prying loose boards and drawing nails-- may be considered a type of
crowbar, but among people in construction and the hardware trade it is
called a "wrecking bar."
CRUCIFICTION/CRUCIFIXION
One might suppose that this common misspelling was a product of
skepticism were it not for the fact that it most often occurs in the
writings of believers. The word should make clear that Jesus was affixed
to the cross, not imply that his killing is regarded as a fiction.
CRUCIFIX/CROSS
A crucifix is a cross with an image of the crucified Christ affixed to
it. Reporters often mistakenly refer to someone wearing a "crucifix"
when the object involved is an empty cross. Crucifixes are most often
associated with Catholics, empty crosses with Protestants.
CUE/QUEUE
"Cue" has a variety of meanings, but all uses of "queue" relate to its
original French meaning of "tail," which becomes a metaphor for a line
(beware, however: in French "queue" is also rude slang for the male sex
organ). Although a few dictionaries accept "cue" as an alternative
spelling for the braided tail some people make of their hair or a
waiting line, traditionally both are queues: "Sun Yat Sen ordered that
all Chinese men should cut off their queues," "I have over 300 movies in
my Netflix queue."
CURRANT/CURRENT
"Current" is an adjective having to do with the present time, and can
also be a noun naming a thing that, like time, flows: electrical
current, currents of public opinion. "Currant" refers only to little
fruits.
CURVE YOUR APPETITE/CURB YOUR APPETITE
A "curb" was originally a device used to control an unruly horse.
Already in the 18th century people were speaking by analogy of
controlling their appetites as "curbing" them. You do not "curve" your
hunger, appetite, desires, etc. You curb them.
CUT AND DRY/CUT AND DRIED
Many people mishear the standard expression meaning "set," "not open to
change," as "cut and dry." Although this form is listed in the Oxford
English Dictionary, it is definitely less common in sophisticated
writing. The dominant modern usage is "cut and dried." When used to
modify a noun, it must be hyphenated: "cut-and-dried plan."
CUT AND PASTE/COPY AND PASTE
Because "cut and paste" is a familiar phrase, many people say it when
they mean "copy and paste" in a computer context. This can lead to
disastrous results if followed literally by an inexpert person. If you
mean to tell someone to duplicate something rather than move it, say
"copy." And when you are moving bits of computer information from one
place to another the safest sequence is often to copy the original,
paste the copy elsewhere, and only then delete (cut) the original.
CUT OF TEA/CUP OF TEA
An astounding number of people write "cut of tea" when they mean "cup of
tea," especially in phrases like "not my cut of tea" instead of "not my
cup of tea." This saying is not about fine distinctions between
different ways the tea's been harvested; it just refers to the ordinary
vessel from which you drink the stuff.
Is this mistake influenced by the expression "the cut of his jib" or is
it just a goofy typo?
DAIRY/DIARY
A common typo that won't be caught by your spelling checker is swapping
"dairy" and "diary." Butter and cream are dairy products; your journal
is your diary.
DAMP SQUID/DAMP SQUIB
Squid are indeed usually damp in their natural environment, but the
popular British expression describing a less than spectacular explosion
is a "damp squib" (soggy firecracker).
DAMPED/DAMPENED
When the vibration of a wheel is reduced it is damped, but when you
drive through a puddle your tire is dampened. "Dampened" always has to
do with wetting, if only metaphorically: "The announcement that Bob's
parents were staying home after all dampened the spirits of the
party-goers." The parents are being a wet blanket.
A device to slow or control some movement--the spinning of a wheel, the
vibration of an airplane part, or the movement of smoke up a chimney--is
not a "dampner" but a "damper."
DANGLING AND MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Dangling and misplaced modifiers are discussed at length in usage guides
partly because they are very common and partly because there are many
different kinds of them. But it is not necessary to understand the
grammatical details involved to grasp the basic principle: words or
phrases which modify some other word or phrase in a sentence should be
clearly, firmly joined to them and not dangle off forlornly on their
own.
Sometimes the dangling phrase is simply too far removed from the word it
modifies, as in "Sizzling on the grill, Theo smelled the Copper River
salmon." This makes it sound like Theo is being barbecued, because his
name is the nearest noun to "sizzling on the grill." We need to move the
dangling modifier closer to the word it really modifies: "salmon." "Theo
smelled the Copper River salmon sizzling on the grill."
Sometimes it's not clear which of two possible words a modifier
modifies: "Felicia is allergic to raw apples and almonds." Is she
allergic only to raw almonds, or all almonds--even roasted ones? This
could be matter of life and death. Here's a much clearer version:
"Felicia is allergic to almonds and raw apples." "Raw" now clearly
modifies only "apples."
Dangling modifiers involving verbs are especially common and sometimes
difficult to spot. For instance, consider this sentence: "Having bought
the harpsichord, it now needed tuning." There is no one mentioned in the
sentence who did the buying. One way to fix this is to insert the name
of someone and make the two halves of the sentence parallel in form:
"Wei Chi, having bought the harpsichord, now needed to tune it." If you
have a person in mind, it is easy to forget the reader needs to be told
about that person; but he or she can't be just "understood."
Here's another sentence with a dangling modifier, in this case at the
end of a sentence: "The retirement party was a disaster, not having
realized that Arthur had been jailed the previous week." There is nobody
here doing the realizing. One fix: "The retirement party was a disaster
because we had not realized that Arthur had been jailed the previous
week."
Using passive verbs will often trip you up: "In reviewing Gareth's
computer records, hundreds of hours spent playing online games were
identified." This sort of thing looks fine to a lot of people and in
fact is common in professional writing, but technically somebody
specific needs to be mentioned in the sentence as doing the identifying.
Inserting a doer and shifting to the active voice will fix the problem.
While we're at it, let's make clear that Gareth was doing the playing:
"The auditor, in checking Gareth's computer records, identified hundreds
of hours that he had spent playing online games."
Adverbs like "almost," "even," "hardly," "just," "only," and "nearly"
are especially likely to get stuck in the wrong spot in a sentence.
"Romeo almost kissed Juliet as soon as he met her" means he didn't kiss
her--he only held her hand. True, but you might want to say something
quite different: "Romeo kissed Juliet almost as soon as he met her." The
placement of the modifier is crucial.
DARING-DO/DERRING-DO
The expression logically should be "feats of daring-do" because that's
just what it means: deeds of extreme daring. But through a chain of
misunderstandings explained in the Oxford English Dictionary, the
standard form evolved with the unusual spelling "derring-do," and
"daring-do" is an error.
DATA/DATUM
There are several words with Latin or Greek roots whose plural forms
ending in A are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for
instance, "criteria" and "media." "Datum" is so rare now in English that
people may assume "data" has no singular form. Many American usage
communities, however, use "data" as a singular and some have even gone
so far as to invent "datums" as a new plural. This is a case where you
need to know the patterns of your context. An engineer or scientist used
to writing "the data is" may well find that the editors of a journal or
publishing house insist on changing this phrase to "the data are." Usage
is so evenly split in this case that there is no automatic way of
determining which is right, but writers addressing an international
audience of nonspecialists would probably be safer treating "data" as
plural.
DATELINE/DEADLINE
The word "dateline" is used today mainly to label the bit of text at the
top of a printed news story that indicates where and--often, but not
always--when it was written. For instance, after a headline about events
in Kenya, the dateline might read "NAIROBI, Kenya, June 2, 2010."
Probably because this rather obscure word has been popularized by its
use for the name of an NBC television news show, some people confuse it
with "deadline," which is most often the date by which something must be
accomplished. You can miss deadlines, meet deadlines, or have to deal
with short deadlines-- but not datelines.
DAY IN AGE/DAY AND AGE
The expression is "in this day and age, but it's a worn-out expression,
so you'd be better off writing "these days."
DAYLIGHT SAVINGS TIME/DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME
The official term is "daylight saving time," not "savings time."
DE RIGUEUR
The French phrase "de rigueur" means "required," "mandatory" (usually
according to custom, etiquette, or fashion). It's one of those tricky
words like "liqueur" with a U before the E and another one after it. It
is misspelled in a host of ways ("de rigeur," "de rigor," "derigor,"
etc.) It is pronounced duh-ree-GUHR. Like other incompletely adopted
foreign phrases, it is usually italicized in print.
DEAL
Popular expressions like "not that big a deal" and "what's the deal?" in
which "deal" stands vaguely for something like "situation" are fine in
casual spoken English, but inappropriate in formal writing.
Even in casual speech, it's better to leave out the "of" in "not that
big of a deal."
DEALED/DEALT
The standard past tense of "deal" is not "dealed" but "dealt." The only
exception is the rhyming expression "wheeled and dealed," which is not
formal English.
DEBRIEF
"Debrief" has leaked out of the military and national security realms
into the business world, where people seem pretty confused about it.
When you send people out on missions, you brief them--give them
information they'll need. You give them a briefing. When they come back,
you debrief them by asking them what they did and found out. Note that
in both cases it's not the person doing the actual work but the boss or
audience that does the briefing and debriefing. But people commonly use
"debrief" when they mean "report."
The verb "brief" comes originally from law, where someone being given a
legal brief (instructions on handling a case) can be said to have been
briefed. Debriefing has nothing to do with underwear.
DECENT/DESCENT/DISSENT
"Decent" (rhymes with "recent") is used to label actions, things, or
people that are respectable, appropriate, satisfactory, or kind.
The word to use when discussing ancestry is "descent" (rhymes with "we
sent"). Somebody whose ancestors came from Brazil is of Brazilian
descent.
Occasionally this latter word is confused with "dissent," which means
"disagreement."
DECEPTIVELY
If you say of a soldier that he is "deceptively brave" you might be
understood to mean that although he appears cowardly he is actually
brave, or that although he appears brave he is actually cowardly. This
ambiguity should cause you to be very careful about using "deceptive"
and "deceptively" to make clear which meaning you intend.
DECIMATE/ANNIHILATE, SLAUGHTER, ETC.
This comes under the heading of the truly picky. Despite the fact that
most dictionaries have caved in, some of us still remember that when the
Romans killed one out of every ten (decem) soldiers in a rebellious
group as an example to the others, they decimated them. People sensitive
to the roots of words are uncomfortably reminded of that ten percent
figure when they see the word used instead to mean "annihilate,"
"obliterate," etc. You can usually get away with using "decimate" to
mean "drastically reduce in numbers," but you're taking a bigger risk
when you use it to mean "utterly wipe out."
DEEP-SEEDED/DEEP-SEATED
Those who pine for the oral cultures of Ye Olden Dayes can rejoice as we
enter an era where many people are unfamiliar with common expressions in
print and know them only by hearsay. The result is mistakes like "deep
seeded." The expression has nothing to do with a feeling being planted
deep within one, but instead refers to its being seated firmly within
one's breast: "My aversion to anchovies is deep-seated." Compounding
their error, most people who misuse this phrase leave the hyphen out.
Tennis players may be seeded, but not feelings.
The notion that English should be spelled as it is pronounced is
widespread, but history is against the reformers in most cases.
Pronunciation is often a poor guide to spelling. The veneration of
certain political movements for the teaching of reading through phonics
is nicely caricatured by a t-shirt slogan I've seen: "Hukt awn fonix."
DEFENCE/DEFENSE
If you are writing for a British publication, use "defence," but the
American "defense" has the advantages of greater antiquity, similarity
to the words from which it was derived, and consistency with words like
"defensible." The pronunciation used in sports which accents the first
syllable ("DEE-fense") should not be used when discussing military,
legal, or other sorts of defense.
People in sports use "defense" as a verb meaning "defend against," as in
"the team couldn't defense that strategy." Outside of sports talk,
"defense" is never a verb.
See also offence/offense.
DEFINATE/DEFINITE
Any vowel in an unstressed position can sometimes have the sound
linguists call a "schwa:" "uh." The result is that many people tend to
guess when they hear this sound, but "definite" is definitely the right
spelling. Also common are various misspellings of "definitely,"
including the bizarre "defiantly."
DEFAMATION/DEFORMATION
Someone who defames you, seeking to destroy your reputation (making you
ill-famed), is engaging in defamation of character. Only if someone
succeeded in actually making you a worse person could you claim that
they had deformed your character.
DEFUSE/DIFFUSE
You defuse a dangerous situation by treating it like a bomb and removing
its fuse; to diffuse, in contrast, is to spread something out: "Bob's
cheap cologne diffused throughout the room, wrecking the wine-tasting."
DEGRADE/DENIGRATE/DOWNGRADE
Many people use "downgrade" instead of "denigrate" to mean "defame,
slander." "Downgrade" is entirely different in meaning. When something
is downgraded, it is lowered in grade (usually made worse), not just
considered worse. "When the president of the company fled to Rio with
fifteen million dollars, its bonds were downgraded to junk bond status."
"Degrade" is much more flexible in meaning. It can mean to lower in
status or rank (like "downgrade") or to corrupt or make contemptible;
but it always has to do with actual reduction in value rather than mere
insult, like "denigrate." Most of the time when people use "downgrade"
they would be better off instead using "insult," "belittle," or "sneer
at."
DEGREE TITLES
When you are writing phrases like "bachelor's degree," "master of arts
degree" and "doctor of philosophy degree" use all lower-case spelling.
Less formally, these are often abbreviated to "bachelor's," "master's,"
and "doctorate": "I earned my master's at Washington State University."
The only time to capitalize the spelled-out forms of degree names is
when you are specifying a particular degree's name: "Master of English
Composition." However, the abbreviations BA, MA, and PhD are all
capitalized. In modern usage periods are not usually added.
Be careful not to omit the apostrophes where needed. Some schools have
adopted a spelling of "Masters" without an apostrophe, and if you work
for one of them you may have to adopt this non-standard form for
institutional work, but usage guides uniformly recommend the apostrophe.
DEJA VU
In French "deja vu" means literally "already seen" and usually refers to
something excessively familiar. However the phrase, sans accent marks,
was introduced into English mainly as a psychological term indicating
the sensation one experiences when feeling that something has been
experienced before when this is in fact not the case. If you feel
strongly that you have been previously in a place where you know for a
fact you have never before been, you are experiencing a sensation of
deja vu. English usage is rapidly sliding back toward the French
meaning, confusing listeners who expect the phrase to refer to a false
sensation rather than a factual familiarity, as in "Congress is in
session and talking about campaign finance reform, creating a sense of
deja vu." In this relatively new sense, the phrase has the same
associations as the colloquial "same old, same old" (increasingly often
misspelled "sameo, sameo" by illiterates).
"It seems like it's deja vu all over again," is a redundantly mangled
saying usually attributed to baseball player Yogi Berra. Over the
ensuing decades clever writers would allude to this blunder in their
prose by repeating the phrase "deja vu all over again," assuming that
their readers would catch the allusion and share a chuckle with them.
Unfortunately, recently the phrase has been worn to a frazzle and become
all but substituted for the original, so that not only has it become a
very tired joke indeed--a whole generation has grown up thinking that
Berra's malapropism is the correct form of the expression. Give it a
rest, folks!
DEMOCRAT PARTY/DEMOCRATIC PARTY
Certain Republican members of Congress have played the childish game in
recent years of referring to the opposition as the "Democrat Party,"
hoping to imply that Democrats are not truly democratic. They succeed
only in making themselves sound ignorant, and so will you if you imitate
them. The name is "Democratic Party." After all, we don't say "Republic
Party."
DEMURE/DEMUR
A quiet, reserved person is demure. Its second syllable begins with a
kittenish "mew": "de-MYURE."
The verb demur has several meanings, but is now used in a sense derived
from law to describe the action of someone who resists acting as
requested or answering a question. Its second syllable sounds like the
"mur" in "murmur": "duh-MURR." Note that it is not spelled with a final
E. It is used mainly in legal contexts and in journalism, and is
unfamiliar enough to many people that they mix it up with the adjective
demure. An example of correct use: "If they ask me to make Danish
pastries again, I'm going to demur." Demurs are usually mild--not loud,
vehement refusals.
DENIED OF/DENIED
If you are deprived of your rights you are denied them, but that's no
reason to confuse these two expressions with each other. You can't be
"denied of" anything.
DEPENDS/DEPENDS ON
In casual speech, we say "it depends who plays the best defense," but in
writing follow "depends" with "on."
DEPRAVATION/DEPRIVATION
There is a rare word spelled "depravation" which has to do with
something being depraved, corrupted, perverted.
But the spelling you're more likely to need is "deprivation," which has
to do with being deprived of desirable things like sleep or chocolate.
DEPRECIATE/DEPRECATE
To depreciate something is to actually make it worse, whereas to
deprecate something is simply to speak or think of it in a manner that
demonstrates your low opinion of it. People who make unflattering jokes
or comments about themselves are self-deprecating.
DERISORY/DERISIVE
Although "derisory" and "derisive" can both mean "laughable," there are
sometimes subtle distinctions made between them. "Derisory" is most
often used to mean "worthy of being laughed at": "Ethan" made a derisory
effort to clean the cat box while talking on his cell phone." Sneering
laughter is usually described as "derisive."
You might more unusually speak of an effort as "derisive," but most
people would think it odd to use "derisory" to describe the tone of
someone's laughter.
DESERT/DESSERT
Perhaps these two words are confused partly because "dessert" is one of
the few words in English with a double "S" pronounced like "Z"
("brassiere" is another). That impoverished stretch of sand called a
desert can only afford one "S." In contrast, that rich gooey extra thing
at the end of the meal called a dessert indulges in two of them. The
word in the phrase "he got his just deserts" is confusingly pronounced
just like "desserts."
DESIRABLE/DESIROUS
When you desire something, you are desirous of it. The thing you desire
is desirable.
DEVIANT/DEVIATE
The technical term used by professionals to label someone whose behavior
deviates from the norm is "deviate," but if you want to tease a perv
friend you may as well call him a "deviant"--that's what almost
everybody else says. In your sociology class, however, you might want to
stick with "deviate."
DEVICE/DEVISE
"Device" is a noun. A can-opener is a device. "Devise" is a verb. You
can devise a plan for opening a can with a sharp rock instead. Only in
law is "devise" properly used as a noun, meaning something deeded in a
will.
DEVOTE, DEVOUT
If you are devoted to a particular religion, you are "devout," not
"devote." You may be a devout Christian, a devout Catholic, a devout
Jew, a devout Buddhist, etc.
"Devote" (with no final D) is a verb, something you do rather than
something you are. You may devote a lot of your time to working at a
food bank, or building model airplanes, for instance.
If you are enthusiastically dedicated to an activity, a cause or person,
you are "devoted" to it. You can be devoted to your gardening, to
collecting money for Unicef, or to your pet. You can be a devoted
father, husband, or a devoted runner or knitter. You can be a devoted
fan of the Seattle Storm. If you have a lot of fans, you may have a
devoted following. The devotion involved need not be religious.
DEW/DO/DOO/DUE
The original pronunciation of "dew" and "due" rhymed with "pew", but
American pronunciation has shifted toward sounding all of these words
alike, and the result is much confusion in standard phrases. On a damp
morning there is dew on the grass. Doo on the grass is the result of
failing to pick up after your dog. The most common confusion is
substituting "do" for "due" (owing) in phrases like "credit is due,"
"due to circumstances," and "bill is due."
"Do" is normally a verb, but it can be a noun with meanings like
"party," "hairdo," and "dos and don'ts." Note that in the last phrase it
is not necessary to insert an apostrophe before the "S," and that if you
choose to do so you'll wind up with two apostrophes awkwardly close
together: "don't's."
DIALOGUE/DISCUSS
"Dialogue" as a verb in sentences like "the Math Department will
dialogue with the Dean about funding" is commonly used jargon in
business and education settings, but abhorred by traditionalists. Say
"have a dialogue" or "discuss" instead.
DIETIES/DEITIES
This one is always good for a laugh. The gods are deities, after the
Latin "deus," meaning "god."
DIFFERENT THAN/DIFFERENT FROM/TO
Americans say "Scuba-diving is different from snorkeling," the British
often say "different to" (though most UK style guides disapprove), and
many say "different than," though to some of us this sounds weird.
However, though certain conservatives object, you can usually get away
with "different than" if a full clause follows: "Your pashmina shawl
looks different than it used to since the cat slept on it."
DIFFERENTLY ABLED, PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED/DISABLED
These rather awkward euphemisms for "disabled" have attracted widespread
scorn and mockery. They have achieved some limited currency, but it's
generally safer to use "disabled."
DIFFER/VARY
"Vary" can mean "differ," but saying "our opinions vary" makes it sound
as if they were changing all the time when what you really mean is "our
opinions differ." Pay attention to context when choosing one of these
words.
DIGESTIVE TRACK/DIGESTIVE TRACT
It may seem logical to think of your guts as forming a track through
your body, but the correct spelling is "digestive tract."
DIKE/DYKE
In the US the barrier preventing a flood is called a "dike." "Dyke" is a
term for a type of lesbian, generally considered insulting but adopted
as a label for themselves by some lesbians.
DILEMMA/DIFFICULTY
A dilemma is a difficult choice, not just any difficulty or problem.
Whether to invite your son's mother to his high school graduation when
your current wife hates her is a dilemma. Cleaning up after a hurricane
is just a problem, though a difficult one.
"Dilemna" is a common misspelling of "dilemma."
DIRE STRAIGHTS/DIRE STRAITS
When you are threading your way through troubles as if you were
traversing a dangerously narrow passage you are in "dire straits." The
expression and the band by that name are often transformed by those who
don't understand the word "strait" into "dire straights."
See also "straightjacket/straitjacket."
DIRECTIONS
Compass points like "north," "east," "south," and "west" are not
capitalized when they are mere directions: the geese fly south for the
winter and the sun sets in the west.
Capitalize these words only in the names of specific places identifiable
on a map: Alabama is in the Deep South (the region which includes the
Southern States) and Santa Claus lives at the North Pole.
The same pattern holds for the adjectival forms. It's a southern
exposure, but Southern hospitality. Note that "The Westward Movement"
(now often called the "Westward Expansion") refers to a specific series
of migrations toward a specific region in the western part of the US.
DISASTEROUS/DISASTROUS
"Disastrous" has only three syllables, and is pronounced
"diz-ASS-truss." Because of its relationship to the word "disaster" many
people insert an extra second syllable when speaking the word aloud, or
even when writing it, resulting in "disasterous." Not a disastrous
error, but it can be an embarrassing one.
DISBURSE/DISPERSE
You disburse money by taking it out of your purse (French "bourse") and
distributing it. If you refuse to hand out any money, the eager mob of
beggars before you may disperse (scatter).
DISC/DISK
"Compact disc" is spelled with a "C" because that's how its inventors
decided it should be rendered, but a computer hard disk is spelled with
a "K" (unless it's a CD-ROM, of course). In modern technological
contexts, "disks" usually reproduce data magnetically, while "discs"
(CD-ROMs, DVDs, etc.) reproduce it "optically," with lasers.
DISCONCERNING/CONCERNING, DISCERNING
This odd word looks like it might be an error for "disconcerting," but
people who use it seem mostly to mean something like "discerning"
(perceiving) or "concerning" (in the sense of "being of concern,"
itself widely considered an error).
DISCREET/DISCRETE
The more common word is "discreet," meaning "prudent, circumspect":
"When arranging the party for Agnes, be sure to be discreet; we want her
to be surprised." "Discrete" means "separate, distinct": "He arranged
the guest list into two discrete groups: meat-eaters and vegetarians."
Note how the T separates the two Es in "discrete."
DISCRETION IS THE BETTER PART OF VALOR
In Shakespeare's "Henry IV, Part I" when Prince Hal finds the cowardly
Falstaff pretending to be dead on the battlefield, the prince assumes he
has been killed. After the prince leaves the stage, Falstaff
rationalizes "The better part of Valour, is Discretion; in the which
better part, I haue saued my life" (spelling and punctuation from the
"First Folio," Act 5, Scene 3, lines 3085-3086).
Falstaff is saying that the best part of courage is caution, which we
are to take as a joke. Truly courageous people may be cautious, but
caution is not the most important characteristic of courage.
This passage is loosely alluded to in the saying "discretion is the
better part of valor," which is usually taken to mean that caution is
better than rash courage or that discretion is the best kind of courage.
Only Shakespeare scholars are likely to be annoyed by this usage.
However, those who take "discretion" in this context to mean the quality
of being discreet--cautiously quiet--are more likely to annoy their
readers.
Much more of a problem are misspellings like "descretion,"
"disgression," "digression," and "desecration." Unless you are
deliberately punning, stick with "discretion."
DISCUSSED/DISGUST
"Discussed" is the past tense of the verb "discuss." Don't substitute
for it the noun "disgust" in such sentences as "The couple's wedding
plans were thoroughly discussed."
DISEASE NAMES
The medical profession has urged since the 1970s the dropping of the
possessive S at the end of disease names which were originally named
after their discoverers ("eponymous disease names"). The possessive is
thought to confuse people by implying that the persons named actually
had the disease. Thus "Meniere's syndrome" became "Meniere syndrome,"
Bright's disease" became "Bright disease" and "Asperger's syndrome"
became "Asperger syndrome."
But the public has not always followed this rule. "Alzheimer disease" is
still widely called "Alzheimer's disease" or just "Alzheimer's." Only
among professionals is this really considered a mistake.
"Down syndrome," named after John Langdon Down--originally written
"Down's syndrome"--has been so often mistakenly written without its
apostrophe as "Downs syndrome" that many people conclude that the
syndrome's discoverer must have been named "Downs."
Although some professionals write "Huntington disease"--originally
"Huntington's chorea"--many still write "Huntington's." But another
popular name for this illness is "Woody Guthrie's disease" because the
folksinger actually had it, though one also occasionally sees "Woody
Guthrie disease."
Lou Gehrig's disease, named after its most famous sufferer, always bears
an apostrophe-S because professionals prefer the rather more cumbersome
but nonpossessive "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis" (ALS).
The best practice is to follow the pattern prevalent in your social
context. If you are a medical professional, you'll probably want to
avoid the possessive forms.
"Legionnaires' disease" has its apostrophe at the end of the first word
because it was first recognized among a group of American Legion members
celebrating the American Bicentennial. Specialists consider it a severe
form of Legionellosis, caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila.
Lyme disease should never be written "Lyme's disease" because it is not
named after a person at all, but after the village of Lyme, Connecticut.
DISEMBARK THE VESSEL/DISEMBARK
Announcements on many boats and ships tell passengers when to "disembark
the vessel." This wording makes some of those listening wince.
To "disembark" is to get off a marine vessel or put something or someone
off a vessel. The crew disembarks the passengers. On a cargo vessel they
may disembark the cargo. It's the stuff on the ship, not the ship
itself, which gets disembarked.
People sensitive to the history of words know that a "bark" is a boat or
ship. The word is related etymologically to "barge."
It would be better to simply tell the passengers to get off the vessel,
leave it, or go ashore. But "disembark the vessel" is so well
established in the industry that it's not likely to go away any time
soon. Meantime, it can bother you too.
DISGRESSION/DISCRETION
Discretion has to do with being discreet or with making choices. A lot
of people hear it and get influenced by the quite different word
"digression" which is used to label instances of people wandering off
the point. The result is the nonword "disgression." The expression is
"you can do it at your own discretion."
Also wrong but less common--and pretty funny--is "at your own
desecration."
DISINTERESTED/UNINTERESTED
A bored person is uninterested. Do not confuse this word with the much
rarer "disinterested," which means "objective, neutral".
DISPOSE/DISPOSE OF
If you want to get rid of your stuff you may dispose of it on Freecyle
or Craigslist. A great many people mistakenly dispose of the "of" in
this phrase, writing sentences like "Dispose your unwanted mail in the
recycling bin." You can also use "dispose of" to mean "deal with" ("you
can dispose of your royalties as you see fit") or "demolish an opposing
argument" ("the defense attorney disposed of the prosecutor's case in
less than five minutes").
"Dispose" without "of" works differently, depending on the meaning.
Whereas to dispose of your toy soldiers you might take them to a
pawnshop, to dispose your toy soldiers you would arrange them for
battle. Most politicians are disposed to talk at length.
DISREMEMBER/FORGET
"Disremember" is an old synonym for "forget," but it is often considered
dialectal today, not standard English.
DISRESPECT
The hip-hop subculture revived the use of "disrespect" as a verb. In the
meaning to have or show disrespect, this usage has been long
established, if unusual. However, the street meaning of the term,
ordinarily abbreviated to "dis," is slightly but significantly
different: to act disrespectfully, or--more frequently--insultingly
toward someone. In some neighborhoods "dissing" is defined as merely
failing to show sufficient terror in the face of intimidation. In those
neighborhoods, it is wise to know how the term is used; but an applicant
for a job who complains about having been "disrespected" elsewhere is
likely to incur further disrespect . . . and no job. Street slang has
its uses, but this is one instance that has not become generally
accepted.
DISSEMBLE/DISASSEMBLE
People who dissemble are being dishonest, trying to hide what they are
really up to. This is an uncommon word, often misused when "disassemble"
is meant. People who disassemble something take it apart--they are doing
the opposite of assembling it.
DIVIDE BY HALF / DIVIDE IN HALF
If you are talking about dividing numbers or objects into two equal
parts, the expression to use is "divide in half," not "divide by half."
Technically, to divide a number by 1/2 is the same as to multiply it by
2.
See also "multiply by double."
DO RESPECT/DUE RESPECT
When you preface your critical comments by telling people "with all due
respect" you are claiming to give them the respect they are due--that
which is owed them. Many folks misunderstand this phrase and misspell it
"all do respect" or even "all-do respect." You shouldn't use this
expression unless you really do intend to be as polite as possible; all
too often it's used merely to preface a deliberate insult.
DOCTORIAL/DOCTORAL
"Doctoral" is occasionally misspelled--and often mispronounced--
"doctorial."
DOGMA/DOCTRINE
Although in many contexts "dogma" and "doctrine" are used
interchangeably, in technical theological contexts "dogma" has a
narrower meaning: a doctrine which has been given official status by a
religious body. Especially in the Catholic Church dogmas are required
beliefs whereas many other less firmly established beliefs are only
doctrines.
Nonspecialists writing about religion often ignore the distinction, and
call a doctrine which has not received such official status a "dogma."
Since only some doctrines are dogmas but all dogmas are doctrines and
since "dogma" often has negative connotations, it's safer in
non-technical religious contexts to stick with "doctrine."
DOESN'T SUPPOSED TO/ISN'T SUPPOSED TO
You aren't supposed to say "doesn't supposed to." The expression is
"isn't supposed to."
DOLLY/HANDCART
A dolly is a flat platform with wheels on it, often used to make heavy
objects mobile, or by an auto mechanic lying on one under a car body.
Many people mistakenly use this word to designate the vertically
oriented two-wheeled device with upright handles and horizontal lip.
This latter device is more properly called a "handcart" or "hand truck."
DOMINATE/DOMINANT
The verb is "dominate"; the adjective is "dominant." The dominant
chimpanzee tends to dominate the others.
DONE/DID
The past participle of "do" is "done," so it's not "they have did what
they promised not to do" but "they have done. . . ." But without a
helping verb, the word is "did." Nonstandard: "I done good on the test."
Standard: "I did well on the test." Using "done" itself as a helping
verb is also a nonstandard dialectal pattern: "he done give us Christmas
tree" in standard English would be "he gave us a Christmas tree."
DO'S AND DON'TS/DOS AND DON'TS
One unusual use of apostrophes is to mark plurals of words when they are
being treated as words, as in "pro's and con's," although plain old
"pros and cons" without apostrophes is fine. But "don't" already has one
apostrophe in it, and adding another looks awkward in the phrase "do's
and don't's," so people wind up being inconsistent and writing "do's and
don'ts." This makes no logical sense. You can also skip the extra
apostrophes and write "dos and don'ts," unless you're afraid that "dos"
will remind your readers of MS-DOS (but that unlamented operating system
is now only a distant memory).
DONΥT/DOESNΥT
The opposite of "do" is "do not," usually contracted to "don't."
The opposite of "does" is "does not," usually contracted to "doesn't."
"I do," "you do," "we do," "they do," "the birds do." "It does," "she
does," "he does," "the flock does."
So in standard English it's "I don't," "you don't, "we don't, "the birds
don't and "it doesn't, "he "doesn't, and "the flock doesn't."
But in many American dialects, "don't" is used in contexts where
"doesn't" is standard: "she don't drive," "it don't make no sense," "the
boss don't treat us right."
This is one of those patterns which is likely to make you sound less
well educated and less sophisticated than standard English speakers. If
you're trying to shake off your dialect, learning when to use "doesn't"
is important.
You can usually tell when "doesn't" is more appropriate by expanding the
contracted form to two words: "does not." It's not "she do not
appreciate my singing," but "she does not appreciate it," so it should
be "she doesn't appreciate it."
But in popular song lyrics "don't" prevails: "she don't like the
lights," "he don't love you like I love you," "it don't come easy."
DOZED/DOSED
You can be dosed with a drug (given a dose of it), but if it makes you
drowsy you may find you have dozed off.
DOUBLE NEGATIVES
It is not true, as some assert, that double negatives are always wrong;
but the pattern in formal speech and writing is that two negatives equal
a mild positive: "he is a not untalented guitarist" means he has some
talent. In informal speech, however, double negatives are intended as
negatives: "he ain't got no talent" means he is a lousy musician. People
are rarely confused about the meaning of either pattern, but you do need
to take your audience into account when deciding which pattern to
follow.
One of the funniest uses of the literary double negative is Douglas
Adams' description of a machine dispensing "a substance almost, but not
quite, entirely unlike tea."
DOUBLE POSSESSIVE
In "that dog of Bob's is ugly," there are two indicators of possession:
"of" and "Bob's." Although this sort of expression is common in casual
speech, in formal writing it's better to stick with just one: "Bob's dog
is ugly."
DOUBT THAT/DOUBT WHETHER/DOUBT IF
If you really doubt that something is true (suspect that it's false),
use "doubt that": "I doubt that Fred has really lost 25 pounds." If you
want to express genuine uncertainty, use "whether": "I doubt whether
we'll see the comet if the clouds don't clear soon." "Doubt if" can be
substituted for "doubt whether," though it's considered somewhat more
casual, but don't use it when you mean "doubt that."
DOUBTLESSLY/DOUBTLESS
Leave off the unnecessary "-ly" in "doubtless."
DONUT/DOUGHNUT
"Donut" is popular in advertising, but for most purposes spell it
"doughnut."
DOVE/DIVED
Although "dove" is a common form of the past tense of "dive," a few
authorities consider "dived" preferable in formal writing.
DOUSE/DOWSE
You douse a fire with water; you dowse for water with a dowsing rod.
Unless you are discussing the latter practice, the word you want is
"douse."
DOWNFALL/DRAWBACK
A downfall is something that causes a person's destruction, either
literal or figurative: "expensive cars were Fred's downfall: he spent
his entire inheritance on them and went bankrupt." A drawback is not
nearly so drastic, just a flaw or problem of some kind, and is normally
applied to plans and activities, not to people: "Gloria's plan to camp
on Mosquito Island had just one drawback: she had forgotten to bring her
insect repellent." Also, "downfall" should not be used when the more
moderate "decline" is meant; reserve it for ruin, not to designate
simple deterioration.
DOWNLOAD/UPLOAD
Most people do far more downloading (transferring files to their
computers) than uploading (transferring files from their computers), so
it's not surprising that they often use the first word for the second
word's meaning. You don't download the video of your birthday party to
YouTube--you upload it.
DOZEN OF/DOZEN
Why isn't it "a dozen of eggs" when it's standard to say "a couple of
eggs"? The answer is that "dozen" is a precise number word, like "two"
or "hundred"; we say "two eggs," "a hundred eggs," and "a dozen eggs."
"Couple" is often used less precisely, to mean "a few," so it isn't
treated grammatically as an exact number. "A couple eggs" is less
standard than "a couple of eggs."
"Dozens of eggs" is standard because you're not specifying how many
dozens you're talking about.
DRANK/DRUNK
Many common verbs in English change form when their past tense is
preceded by an auxiliary ("helping") verb: "I ran, I have run." The same
is true of "drink." Don't say "I've drank the beer" unless you want
people to think you are drunk. An even more common error is "I drunk all
the milk." it's "I've drunk the beer" and "I drank all the milk."
DRASTIC
"Drastic" means "severe" and generally has negative or frightening
associations. Drastic measures are not just extreme, they are likely to
have harmful side-effects. Don't use this word or "drastically" in a
positive or neutral sense. A drastic rise in temperature should be seen
as downright dangerous, not just surprisingly large. Often when people
use phrases like "drastic improvement," they mean "dramatic" instead.
DREDGE/DRUDGE/TRUDGE
You use machinery to scoop stuff up from underwater--called a dredge--to
dredge up gunk or debris from the bottom of a river or lake.
Metaphorically, you also dredge up old memories, the past, or objects
buried in the mess in your room.
To drudge is to do hard, annoying work; and a person who does such work
can also be called a "drudge." If you find yourself saying "drudge up"
about anything you're trying to uncover you almost certainly should be
using "dredge up" instead.
When you slog laboriously up a hill, you trudge up it. Trudging may be
drudgery, but the act of walking a difficult path is not drudging, but
trudging.
And you cooks wondering whether dredging a chicken breast with flour has
anything to do with river-bottom dredging will be relieved to know it
does not. The two words have completely different origins ("sprinkling"
vs. "scooping").
DRIER/DRYER
A clothes dryer makes the clothes drier.
DRIBBLE/DRIVEL
"Dribble" and "drivel" originally meant the same thing: drool. But the
two words have become differentiated. When you mean to criticize someone
else's speech as stupid or pointless, the word you want is "drivel."
DRIPS AND DRABS/DRIBS AND DRABS
Something doled out in miserly amounts is provided in "dribs and drabs."
A drib is a smaller relative of a dribble. Nobody seems to be sure what
a drab is in this sense, except that it's a tiny bit larger than a drib.
Since the origin of the phrase is obscure, people try to substitute a
more familiar word for the unusual word "drib" by writing "drips and
drabs." But that's not the traditional formula.
DRIVE/DISK
A hard drive and a hard disk are much the same thing; but when it comes
to removable computer media, the drive is the machinery that turns and
reads the disk. Be sure not to ask for a drive when all you need is a
disk.
DRUG/DRAGGED
"Well, look what the cat drug in!" Unless you are trying to render
dialectal speech to convey a sense of down-home rusticity, use "dragged"
as the past tense of "drag."
DUAL/DUEL
"Dual" is an adjective describing the two-ness of something--dual
carburetors, for instance. A "duel" is a formal battle intended to
settle a dispute.
DUCK TAPE/DUCT TAPE
A commercial firm has named its product "Duck Tape," harking back to the
original name for an adhesive tape made of "duck" linen or cotton (a
sort of a light canvas fabric).
It is now usually called "duct tape," for its supposed use in connecting
ventilation and other ducts (which match its current silver color). Note
that modern building codes consider duct tape unsafe for sealing ducts,
particularly those that convey hot air.
DUE TO THE FACT THAT/BECAUSE
Although "due to" is now a generally acceptable synonym for "because,"
"due to the fact that" is a clumsy and wordy substitute that should be
avoided in formal writing. "Due to" is often misspelled "do to."
DULY/DULLY
To do something "dully" is to do it in a dull manner. Too often people
use this word when they mean "duly," which means "properly." Something
duly done is done properly; something done dully is just a bore.
DYEING/DYING
If you are using dye to change your favorite t-shirt from white to blue
you are dyeing it, but if you don't breathe for so long that your face
turns blue, you may be dying.
E.G./I.E.
When you mean "for example," use e.g. It is an abbreviation for the
Latin phrase exempli gratia. When you mean "that is," use "i.e." It is
an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "id est-" Either can be used to
clarify a preceding statement, the first by example, the second by
restating the idea more clearly or expanding upon it. Because these uses
are so similar, the two abbreviations are easily confused. If you just
stick with good old English "for example" and "that is" you won't give
anyone a chance to sneer at you. If you insist on using the
abbreviation, perhaps "example given" will remind you to use "e.g.,"
while "in effect" suggests "i.e."
Since e.g. indicates a partial list, it is redundant to add "etc." at
the end of a list introduced by this abbreviation.
EACH
"Each" as a subject is always singular: think of it as equivalent to
"every one." The verb whose subject it is must also be singular. Some
uses, like "to keep them from fighting, each dog has been given its own
bowl," cause no problem. No one is tempted to say "have been given." But
when a prepositional phrase with a plural object intervenes between
subject and verb, we are likely to be misled into saying things like
"Each of the children have to memorize their own locker combinations."
The subject is "each," not "children." The tendency to avoid specifying
gender by using "their" adds to pressure toward plurality, but the
correct version of this sentence is "Each of the children has to
memorize his or her own locker combination." One can avoid the entire
problem by pluralizing throughout: "All the children have to memorize
their own locker combinations" (but see the entry on singular "they").
In many uses, however, "each" is not the subject, as in "We each have
our own favorite flavor of ice cream" which is correct because "we" and
not "each" is the subject of the verb "have".
"Each other" cannot be a subject, so the question of verb number does
not arise; but the number of the possessive creates a problem for some
writers. "They gazed into each other's eyes" is correct and "each
others'" is incorrect because "each other" is singular. Reword to "each
gazed into the other's eyes" to see the logic behind this rule. "Each
other" is always two distinct words separated by a space although it
functions grammatically as a sort of compound word.
EARLY ADAPTER/EARLY ADOPTER
An "early adopter" is a person who quickly adopts something new
quickly--usually a technological innovation. If you just have to rush
out and buy the latest and coolest gadget, you're an early adopter. If
it meant anything, an "early adapter" would be someone who reworked
something first for his or her own purposes, but most of the time this
version of the phrase is just a mistake.
EARMARKS/HALLMARK
The distinguishing cuts made into an animal's ear are its earmarks. They
work like brands to mark ownership. Originally gold and silver articles
assayed at Goldsmith's Hall in London received a "Hall-Mark" to certify
them as genuine. In modern usage "earmarks" and "hallmark" are used in
many other contexts and mean pretty much the same thing, except that we
say "it has all the earmarks" of someone or something, and a certain
characteristic is "the hallmark" of someone or something. Although a
great many people pluralize this expression too, traditionally an item
can have only one hallmark.
We speak today of parts of bills being earmarked when legislators set
aside certain expenditures in them for particular purposes which benefit
the legislators' own constituencies. They lay claim to public resources
just as a shepherd would earmark a sheep to lay claim to it. Note that
no one hallmarks a bill. If we said a bill bore Senator Blowhard's
hallmark, we would mean that it bore some characteristic pattern by
which we could recognize his influence on it.
EARTH, MOON
Soil is lower-case "earth." And in most uses even the planet itself
remains humbly in lower-case letters: "peace on earth." But in
astronomical contexts, the Earth comes into its own with a proud initial
capital, and in science fiction it drops the introductory article and
becomes "Earth," just like Mars and Venus. A similar pattern applies to
Earth's satellite: "shine on, harvest moon," but "from the Earth to the
Moon." Because other planets also have moons, it never loses its
article.
EASEDROP/EAVESDROP
The area under the eaves right next to the front of a building used to
be called the "eavesdrop," and somebody listening in secretively from
such a position came to be called an "eavesdropper." Unfortunately, so
few people distinctly pronounce the V in "eavesdrop" that many are
misled into misspelling it "easedrop."
ECOLOGY/ENVIRONMENT
"Ecology" is the study of living things in relationship to their
environment. The word can also be used to describe the totality of such
relationships, but it should not be substituted for "environment" in
statements like "improperly discarded lead batteries harm the ecology."
it's not the relationships that are being harmed, but nature itself: the
batteries are harming the environment.
ECONOMIC/ECONOMICAL
Something is economical if it saves you money; but if you're talking
about the effect of some measure on the world's economy, it's an
economic effect.
ECSTATIC
Pronounced "eck-sta-tic," not "ess-ta-tic."
ECT./ETC.
"Etc." is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase et cetera, meaning "and
the rest." ("Et" means "and" in French too.) Just say "et cetera" out
loud to yourself to remind yourself of the correct order of the "T" and
"C." Also to be avoided is the common mispronunciation "excetera." "And
etc." is a redundancy.
NEEDS -ED/-ING
In some dialects it is common to say "my shoes need shined" instead of
the standard "my shoes need shining" or "my shoes need to be shined."
-ED/-T
You have learnt your lessons only in UK-influenced countries; you've
learned them in the US. There are several common verbs that often have
"T" endings in Britain which seem a little quaint and poetic in American
English, where we prefer "-ED." Other examples: "dreamt/dreamed,"
"dwelt/dwelled," "leant/leaned," "leapt/leaped," and "spelt/spelled."
However, the following alternatives are both common in the US:
"burned/burnt" and "kneeled/knelt."
EDGE ON/EGG ON
When you egg people on to do something you are inciting them to do
something, often something risky. So why isn't the expression "to edge"?
After all, you're pushing them toward the edge--trying to get them to do
something edgy.
In fact the people who use "edge" in this way have both logic and
history on their side. The oldest spelling of this verb meaning "incite"
is "egge" pronounced "edge," and the spellings "edge" and "egg"
coexisted for a long time before "egg" edged out its rival. Now,
however, saying someone is edged on to do something is likely to be
regarded as a mistake.
EEK/EKE
If you're startled by a snake that sneaks past you in a creek, you might
squeak "eek!" "Eek" is just a noise you make when frightened.
But if you are barely squeaking by on a slim salary, you're trying to
eke out a living. The original meaning of "eke" was "increase," but
today it is used mainly in phrases having to do with supplementing or
stretching resources or otherwise obtaining with difficulty: lost
campers eke out their food until they are found, in a down market a few
stocks eke out gains, and struggling athletic teams eke out narrow
victories.
EFFORTING/TRYING
Among the new verbs created out of nouns, "efforting" is one of the most
bizarre and unnecessary, and has been met with a chorus of objections.
You are not "efforting" to get your report in on time; you are trying to
do so. Instead of saying "we are efforting a new vendor," say "we are
trying to find a new vendor."
I/IE
The familiar rule is that English words are spelled with the "I" before
the "E" unless they follow a "C," as in "receive." But it is important
to add that words in which the vowel sound is an "A" like "neighbor" and
"weigh" are also spelled with the "E" first. And there are a few
exceptions like "counterfeit," "either," "neither," "forfeit," "height,"
"leisure," "seize," "seizure," and "weird."
See also "neice/niece."
EITHER/OR, NEITHER/NOR
When making comparisons, "either" goes with "or" and "neither" with
"nor": "I want to buy either a new desktop computer or a laptop, but I
have neither the cash nor the credit I need."
"Either" often gets misplaced in a sentence: "He either wanted to build
a gambling casino or a convent" should be "He wanted to build either a
gambling casino or a convent." In this example, both things are wanted,
so "either" comes after the verb.
But if the action is different in regard to the things compared, the
"either" has to come before the verb: "He wanted either to build a
casino or remodel a convent." Here two different actions are being
compared, so the "either" has to precede both actions.
EITHER ARE/EITHER IS
As a subject, "either" is singular. It's the opposite of "both," and
refers to one at a time: "Either ketchup or mustard is good on a hot
dog." But if "either" is modifying a subject in an "either . . . or"
phrase, then the number of the verb is determined by the number of the
second noun: "Either the puppy or the twins seem to need my attention
every other minute."
ELAPSE/LAPSE
Both these words come from a Latin root meaning "to slip." "Elapse"
almost always refers to the passage of time. "Lapse" usually refers to a
change of state, as in lapsing from consciousness into unconsciousness.
Here are examples of the correct uses of these words you might get in
the mail: "Six months have elapsed since your last dental appointment"
and "You have allowed your subscription to Bride Magazine to lapse."
Occasionally "lapse" can be used as a synonym of "elapse" in the sense
"to slip away." Substituting one for the other is dangerous, however, if
you are a lawyer. Insurance policies and collective bargaining
agreements do not elapse when they expire, they lapse.
ELECTROCUTE/SHOCK
To electrocute is to kill using electricity. If you live to tell the
tale, you've been shocked, but not electrocuted. For the same reason,
the phrase "electrocuted to death" is a redundancy.
ELEGY/EULOGY
A speech praising the deceased person at a funeral is a eulogy. An elegy
is a poetic form, usually with a sad or thoughtful subject. It can also
be a poem on any subject written in the form called "elegaic couplets."
Unless it's in verse, the speech at a funeral isn't an elegy.
ELICIT/ILLICIT
The lawyer tries to elicit a description of the attacker from the
witness. "Elicit" is always a verb. "Illicit," in contrast, is always an
adjective describing something illegal or naughty.
ELLIPSES
Those dots that come in the middle of a quotation to indicate something
omitted are called an "ellipsis" (plural "ellipses"): "Tex told Sam to
get the . . . cow out of the bunk house." Here Tex's language has been
censored, but you are more likely to have a use for ellipses when
quoting some source in a paper: "Ishmael remarks at the beginning of
"Moby Dick," 'some years ago . . . I thought I would sail about a
little' --a very understated way to begin a novel of high adventure."
The three dots stand for a considerable stretch of prose that has been
omitted. If the ellipsis ends your sentence, some editorial styles
require four dots, the first of which is a period: From the same
paragraph in Moby Dick: "almost all men . . . cherish very nearly the
same feelings. . . ." Note that the period in the second ellipsis has to
be snug up against the last word quoted, with spaces between the other
dots.
Some modern styles do not call for ellipses at the beginning and ending
of quoted matter unless not doing so would be genuinely misleading, so
check with your teacher or editor if you're uncertain whether to use one
in those positions. It is never correct to surround a quoted single word
or short phrase with ellipses: "Romeo tells Juliet that by kissing her
again his 'sin is purged'" (note, by the way, that I began the quotation
after the first word in the phrase "my sin is purged" in order to make
it work grammatically in the context of the sentence).
When text is typeset, the spaces are often but not always omitted
between the dots in an ellipsis. Since modern computer printer output
looks much more like typeset writing than old-fashioned typewriting, you
may be tempted to omit the spaces; but it is better to include them and
let the publisher decide whether they should be eliminated.
An ellipsis that works perfectly well on your computer may "break" when
your text is transferred to another if it comes at the end of a line,
with one or more of the dots wrapping around to the next line. To avoid
this, learn how to type "non-breaking spaces" between the dots of
ellipses: in Word for Windows it's Control-Shift-Spacebar; on a Mac,
it's Option-Spacebar. When writing HTML code to create a Web page, make
a nonbreaking space with this code:
EMAIL/E-MAIL
Although the spelling "email" is extremely popular, some people prefer
"e-mail," which follows the same pattern as "e-commerce." The "E" stands
for "electronic."
EMBARESS/EMBARRASS
You can pronounce the last two syllables as two distinct words as a jog
to memory, except that then the word may be misspelled "embareass,"
which isn't right either. You also have to remember the double R:
"embarrass."
EMERGENT/EMERGENCY
The error of considering "emergent" to be the adjectival form of
"emergency" is common only in medical writing, but it is becoming
widespread. "Emergent" properly means "emerging" and normally refers to
events that are just beginning--barely noticeable rather than
catastrophic. "Emergency" is an adjective as well as a noun, so rather
than writing "emergent care," use the homely "emergency care."
EMIGRATE/IMMIGRATE
To "emigrate" is to leave a country. The E at the beginning of the word
is related to the E in other words having to do with going out, such as
"exit." "Immigrate," in contrast, looks as if it might have something to
do with going in, and indeed it does: it means to move into a new
country. The same distinction applies to "emigration" and "immigration."
Note the double M in the second form. A migrant is someone who
continually moves about.
EMINENT/IMMINENT/IMMANENT
By far the most common of these words is "eminent," meaning "prominent,
famous." "Imminent," in phrases like "facing imminent disaster," means
"threatening." It comes from Latin minere, meaning "to project or
overhang." Think of a mine threatening to cave in. Positive events can
also be imminent: they just need to be coming soon. The rarest of the
three is "immanent," used by philosophers to mean "inherent" and by
theologians to mean "present throughout the universe" when referring to
God. It comes from Latin "manere," "remain." Think of God creating "man"
in his own image.
When a government exercises its power over private property it is
drawing on its eminent status in society, so the proper legal phrase is
"eminent domain."
EMPATHY/SYMPATHY
If you think you feel just like another person, you are feeling empathy.
If you just feel sorry for another person, you're feeling sympathy.
Sometimes people say they "emphasize" with someone when they mean they
"empathize" with him or her.
EMPHASIZE ON/EMPHASIZE
You can place emphasis on something, or you can emphasize it, but you
can't emphasize on it or stress on it, though you can place stress on
it.
EMULATE/IMITATE
People generally know what "imitate" means, but they sometimes don't
understand that "emulate" is a more specialized word with a purely
positive function, meaning to try to equal or match. Thus if you try to
climb the same mountain your big brother did, you're emulating him, but
if you copy his habit of sticking peas up his nose, you're just
imitating him.
ENAMORED BY/ENAMORED OF
If you're crazy about ferrets, you're enamored of them. It is less
common but still acceptable to say "enamored with," but if you say you
are enamored by ferrets, you're saying that ferrets are crazy about you.
ENDEMIC/EPIDEMIC
"Endemic" is in danger of losing its core meaning through confusion with
"epidemic." An endemic condition is one characteristic of a particular
region, population, or environment: "sore thumbs are endemic among teen
text-messagers." A condition need not affect a majority or even a very
large number of people in a population to be endemic. In biology, an
endemic disease is one that is maintained locally without the need for
outside influence: "Cholera is endemic in Kolkata." It keeps recurring
there, but still only a small minority of the population gets cholera.
An epidemic condition is widespread, rampant: " Overindulgence in fatty
foods is epidemic throughout the world." The dominance of the noun
"epidemic" ("the threat of a flu epidemic") may make people reluctant to
use it as an adjective ("flu may become epidemic") but both uses are
legitimate. It's best to stick with "epidemic" unless you have a
specific need for the technical term "endemic."
ENGINE/MOTOR
People who work on them distinguish between the electrically powered
unit called the "motor" and the engine which it starts, but even in
auto-parts stores the stuff which by that logic should be called "engine
oil" is marketed as "motor oil." Similarly, the English go motoring on
motorways. In everyday American discourse, the terms are often
interchangeable (you can buy a powerful engine for your motorboat), but
you may embarrass yourself if you don't make the distinction when
talking to your mechanic.
ENJOY TO/ENJOY -ING
The expression "enjoy to" (or "enjoyed to") is nonstandard, influenced
by "like to." You don't enjoy to jog; you either enjoy jogging or like
to jog.
ENORMITY/ENORMOUSNESS
Originally these two words were synonymous, but "enormity" for a time
got whittled down to meaning something monstrous or outrageous. That
meaning has largely vanished from contemporary usage, with the two words
both meaning "hugeness." But some of us wish you wouldn't refer to the
"enormity" of the Palace of Versailles unless you wish to express horror
at this embodiment of Louis XIV's ego. "Enormity" can also be used as a
noun meaning "monstrosity."
END RESULT/END
Usually a redundancy. Most of the time plain "result" will do fine.
ENQUIRE/INQUIRE
These are alternative spellings of the same word. "Enquire" is perhaps
slightly more common in the UK, but either is acceptable in the US
IN ROUTE/EN ROUTE
"En route" is a French phrase meaning "on the way," as in "En route to
the gallows, Lucky was struck by lightning." Don't anglicize this
expression as "in route."
ENSUITE
Americans who have wandered chilly London hallways in the middle of the
night in search of a toilet will appreciate learning the peculiar
British meaning of the word "ensuite."
In French, a set of two rooms or more forming a single accommodation can
be advertised as rooms "en suite" (forming a suite). But the single word
French word "ensuite" means something entirely different: "then, later."
Around the middle of the 20th century English landlords and hoteliers
began to anglicize the phrase, placing it before the noun, so that
traditional "rooms en suite" became "en suite rooms," Ads read "bath
ensuite" or "toilet ensuite" as if the phrase meant "in the suite." The
phrase "en suite" came to be used solely to designate bathrooms attached
to a bedroom.
Following standard English patterns, they hyphenated the phrase as
"en-suite bath" and often made the phrase into a single word: "ensuite
bath." These have become standard British usage, but hoteliers often go
a step further by writing "all rooms ensuite" (Americans would write
"all rooms with bath").
It is clearly nonstandard to use "ensuite" as if it were a noun
synonymous with "toilet" or "bathroom": "I went to the ensuite to take a
shower." You may puke on your suit, but not into "the ensuite."
ENTHUSE
"Enthuse" is a handy word and "state enthusiastically" is not nearly so
striking, but unfortunately "enthuse" is not acceptable in the most
formal contexts.
ENTOMOLOGY/ETYMOLOGY
Entomology is the study of insects, like ants ("ant" looks like "ent-")
but etymology is the study of the history of words (from Greek,
originally meaning "the true meaning of words").
ENVELOP/ENVELOPE
To wrap something up in a covering is to envelop it (pronounced
"enVELLup"). The specific wrapping you put around a letter is an
envelope (pronounced variously, but with the accent on the first
syllable).
ENVIOUS/JEALOUS
Although these are often treated as synonyms, there is a difference. You
are envious of what others have that you lack. Jealousy, on the other
hand, involves wanting to hold on to what you do have. You can be
jealous of your boyfriend's attraction to other women, but you're
envious of your boyfriend's CD collection.
ENVIROMENT/ENVIRONMENT
The second N in "environment" is seldom pronounced distinctly, so it's
not surprising that is often omitted in writing. If you know the related
word "environs" it may help remind you.
EPIC/EPOCH
An "epoch" is a long period of time, like the Pleistocene Epoch. It
often gets mixed up with "epic" in the sense of "large-scale." Something
really big has "epic proportions," not "epoch proportions."
EPICENTER
The precise location where the earth slips beneath the surface in an
earthquake is its hypocenter (or focus) and the spot up on the surface
where people feel the quake is its epicenter. Geologists get upset when
people use the latter word, designating a point rather removed from the
main action, as if it were a synonym of "epitome" and meant something
like "most important center." The British spell it "epicentre."
EPIGRAM/EPIGRAPH/EPITAPH/EPITHET
An epigram is a pithy saying, usually humorous. Mark Twain was
responsible for many striking, mostly cynical epigrams, such as "Always
do right. That will gratify some of the people, and astonish the rest."
Unfortunately, he was also responsible for an even more famous one that
has been confusing people ever since: "Everyone is a moon, and has a
dark side which he never shows to anybody." it's true that the moon
keeps one side away from the earth, but--if you don't count the faint
glow reflected from the earth--it is not any darker than the side that
faces us. In fact, over time, the side facing us is darkened slightly
more often because it is occasionally eclipsed by the shadow of the
earth.
An epigraph is a brief quotation used to introduce a piece of writing or
the inscription on a statue or building.
An epitaph is the inscription on a tombstone or some other tribute to a
dead person.
In literature, an epithet is a term that replaces or is added to the
name of a person, like "clear-eyed Athena," in which "clear-eyed" is the
epithet. You are more likely to encounter the term in its negative
sense, as a term of insult or abuse: "the shoplifter hurled epithets at
the guard who had arrested her."
EPITOMY/EPITOME
Nothing makes you look quite so foolish as spelling a sophisticated word
incorrectly. Taken directly from Greek, where it means "abridgement,"
"epitome" is now most often used to designate an extremely
representative example of the general class: "Snow White is the epitome
of a Disney cartoon feature." Those who don't misspell this word often
mispronounce it, misled by its spelling, as "EP-i-tohm," but the proper
pronunciation is "ee-PIT-o-mee." The word means "essence," not "climax,"
so instead of writing "the market had reached the epitome of frenzied
selling at noon," use "peak" or a similar word.
EPONYMOUS/SELF-TITLED
It has become popular among certain critics to call recordings named
after their performing artists "eponymous." Thus the album by the
Beatles titled "The Beatles" would be an eponymous album. (Don't
remember it? It's the one most people call "The White Album;" the title
was embossed on the cover rather than printed on it.) This pretentious
term is not only so obscure as to be almost useless, these writers are
not using it in its original sense; it was the person who was eponymous,
not the thing named after the person. I prefer the usage of critics who
call such recordings "self-titled." It's an awkward phrase, but at least
it's easy for the reader to figure out what is meant.
EQUALLY AS/EQUALLY, AS
It is redundant to follow "equally" with "as." If you have written
"using a tanning bed is equally as harmful as sunbathing" you should
drop the "equally": "using a tanning bed is as harmful as sunbathing."
If you've written "equally as delicious is their dulce de leche ice
cream," drop the "as": "equally delicious is their dulce de leche ice
cream."
-ER/-EST
The suffix "-est" is normally used only when comparing three or more
items. If I have three pigs, I say "This is the fattest one." But when
only two items are involved, it is traditional to use the suffix "-er."
If I have two pigs, then I say "This is the fatter one."
In casual English it is very common to use "-est" for comparisons
involving only two items, but it is good to remember the pattern when
writing or speaking formal English.
ERROR/ERR
When you commit an error you err. The expression is "to err is human."
-ES
Latin-derived terms whose singular form ends in "-is" and whose plurals
are made by changing the "-is" to "-es" such as "thesis" (plural:
"theses") have their final syllables pronounced "eez." This pattern
causes some people to do the same in other words without a Latin
singular "-is" form, like "processes" whose last syllable should sound
like "says."
ESPOUSE/EXPOUND/EXPAND
The core meaning of "espouse" is "marry." When you espouse an idea or
cause in public you are proclaiming that you are wed to it; you are
promoting it as yours.
When you expound an idea you are explaining it. Theoretically you could
expound an idea that you don't personally espouse. "Expound" was
traditionally used mainly to refer to detailed examinations of complex
or obscure systems of thought, but it is most often used today to mean
"to speak at length about" and frequently occurs in the phrase "expound
on": "the senator expounded on his love for the traditional family
farm."
Sometimes in such contexts it would be more appropriate to use "expand
on," which means "to speak at further length about." "Expand" in this
sense lacks the systematic analytical connotations of "expound."
You never "espouse on" an idea; you just espouse it.
ET AL.
"Et al." is a scholarly abbreviation of the Latin phrase "et alia,"
which means "and others." It is commonly used when you don't want to
name all the people or things in a list, and works in roughly the same
way as "etc." "The reorganization plan was designed by Alfred E. Newman,
General Halftrack, Zippy the Pinhead, et al.; and it was pretty
useless." The "al." in this phrase needs a period after it to indicate
it is an abbreviation of "alia," but it is incorrect to put a period
after "et."
-ETH
In older English "-eth" performed the same function as "S" in the third
person singular present of verbs, as in "my cup runneth over." People
jokingly trying to make speech sound antique often add "-eth" randomly
to plurals, tenses, and person with which it never belonged. Unless you
are trying to make your characters sound stupid, don't have them say
things like "my cookies crumbleth," "the window broketh," or "you
charmeth me."
ETHICS/MORALS/MORALE
Strictly speaking, ethics are beliefs: if you have poor ethics, you have
lax standards; but your morals are your behavior: if you have poor
morals, you behave badly. You can have high standards but still fail to
follow them: strong ethics and weak morals. "Morale" formerly had both
these meanings and you will find them attached to the word in some
dictionaries, but you would be wise to avoid it in either of these
senses in modern writing. By far the most common current use of "morale"
is to label your state of mind, particularly how contented you are with
life. A person with low morals is bad, but a person with low morale may
be merely depressed.
ETHNIC
it's misleading to refer to minority groups as "ethnics" since everyone
has ethnicity, even a dominant majority.
EVERY
"Every," "everybody" and "everyone" and related expressions are normally
treated as singular in American English: "Every woman I ask out tells me
she already has plans for Saturday night." However, constructions like
"everyone brought their own lunch" are widely accepted now because of a
desire to avoid specifying "his" or "her." See "they/their (singular)."
EVERYONE/EVERY ONE
"Everyone" means "everybody" and is used when you want to refer to all
the people in a group: "Everyone in my family likes spaghetti
carbonara."
But if you're referring to the individuals who make up a group, then the
phrase is "every one." Examples: "God bless us, every one" (may each
individual in the group be blessed). "We wish each and every one of you
a Merry Christmas" (every single one of you). In the phrase "each and
every one" you should never substitute "everyone").
For "everyone" as singular or plural, see "every."
EVER SO OFTEN/EVERY SO OFTEN
In UK English people sometimes speak of something that happens
frequently as happening "ever so often."
But when something happens only occasionally, it happens "every" so
often.
EVERY SINCE/EVER SINCE
The expression is not "every since" but "ever since."
EVERYDAY
"Everyday" is a perfectly good adjective, as in "I'm most comfortable in
my everyday clothes." The problem comes when people turn the adverbial
phrase "every day" into a single word. It is incorrect to write "I take
a shower everyday." It should be "I take a shower every day."
EVERYTIME/EVERY TIME
"Every time" is always two separate words.
EVIDENCE TO/EVIDENCE OF
You can provide evidence to a court, even enough evidence to convict
someone; but the standard expression "is evidence of" requires "of"
rather than "to" in sentences like this: "Driving through the front
entrance of the Burger King is evidence of Todd's inexperience in
driving." You can also omit the pronoun altogether by using "evidences"
or "evidenced": "his driving evidences (or evidenced) his inexperience."
EVOKE/INVOKE
"Evoke" and "invoke" are close together in meaning, and are often
confused with each other.
The action of "invoking" is usually more direct and active. It
originally involved calling upon or summoning up a god or spirit. An
invocation calls upon whatever is invoked to do something or serve a
function. "Invoke" now can also be used to mean "to appeal to, to cite":
"in his closing argument, the lawyer invoked the principle of
self-defense."
"Evoke" is usually less purposefully active, more indirect, often used
to mean "suggest." If you invoke the spirit of Picasso, you're trying to
summon his soul up from the grave; but if your paintings evoke the
spirit of Picasso, it means their style reminds viewers of that artist's
work.
EXACT SAME/EXACTLY THE SAME
In casual speech we often say things like, "The fruitcake he gave me was
the exact same one I'd given him last Christmas," but in formal English
the phrase is "exactly the same."
EXALT/EXULT
When you celebrate joyfully, you exult. When you raise something high
(even if only in your opinion), you exalt it. Neither word has an "H" in
it.
EXCAPE/ESCAPE
The proper spelling is "escape." Say it that way too.
EXASPERATE/EXACERBATE
People get exasperated (irritated); situations get exacerbated (made
worse).
PAR EXCELLANCE/PAR EXCELLENCE
Photoshop is the picture-editing software par excellence. We often
italicize this phrase--meaning roughly "finest or most characteristic of
its type," "exemplary"--to indicate it is French. The French pronounce
the final syllable "-ahnss" (with a nasalized N which is hard for
English-speakers to master), but that is no justification for
misspelling the word as "excellance." Although they pronounce it
differently, they spell "excellence" the same way we do.
EXCRABLE/EXECRABLE
When you execrate (detest) something, you find it execrable. The second
syllable is not often clearly pronounced, but that's no excuse for
leaving it out when you spell the word.
EXCEPTIONAL/EXCEPTIONABLE
If you take exception (object) to something, you find it
"exceptionable." The more common word is "exceptional," applied to
things that are out of the ordinary, usually in a positive way: "these
are exceptional Buffalo wings."
EXECUTE ON/EXECUTE
In the business world you'll see statements like "we need to execute on
the strategy we planned." "Execute" all by itself can mean "carry out."
The "on" is completely unnecessary.
Perhaps these people are influenced by another meaning of the word
"execute": to carry out a sentence of death. Are they thinking there is
something too final about "execute" unless they add "on" to make it
active?
Most of the time "act on" or "carry out" would be better than "execute
on."
EXORCISE/EXERCISE
You can try to exorcise evil spirits using an exorcist, but when you
give your body a workout, it's exercise.
EXHILERATION/EXHILARATION
"Exhilaration" is closely related to "hilarious," whose strongly
accented A should help remind you of the correct spelling.
EXITED/EXCITED
A lot of people get so excited when they're typing that they mistakenly
write they are "exited," and their spelling checkers don't tell them
they've made an error because "exited" is actually a word, meaning "went
out of an exit." Excitement makes you excited.
EXPATRIOT/EXPATRIATE
An expatriot would be somebody who used to be a patriot, but that's not
how people use the term. Instead, it is a common misspelling of
"expatriate," meaning someone who chooses to live abroad.
EXPECIALLY/ESPECIALLY
A spelling checker will catch the common misspelling "expecially," but
there are also many people who mispronounce "especially" with the first
syllable sounding like "ex-" even when they know that the correct
spelling begins with "es-."
EXPLICITLY/IMPLICITLY
To be explicit about soamething is to be clearer than to merely imply
it, so it's not surprising that people wanting to make clear that they
really trust someone often mistakenly say that they trust the person
"explicitly." But the traditional expression is that you trust someone
"implicitly" because your trust is so strong that you don't need to say
anything explicitly--it goes without saying.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
Something grows exponentially when it repeatedly grows by multiples of
some factor in a rapidly accelerating fashion. Don't use the word
loosely to refer to an ordinary rapid, but steady, rate of growth.
See also "orders of magnitude."
EXPRESSED/EXPRESS
One of the meanings of "express" is "explicit": "Izaak claimed that his
old boss had given him express permission to shop on eBay for fishing
rods during work hours." Some people feel the word should be
"expressed," and that form is not likely to get anyone into trouble; but
if you use it you should not presume to correct others who stick with
the traditional form: "express permission" (or orders, or mandate, or
whatever).
EXPRESSES THAT/SAYS THAT
"In her letter Jane expresses that she is getting irritated with me for
not writing" should be corrected to "In her letter Jane says that. . . "
You can express an idea or a thought, but you can't ever express that.
In technical terms, "express" is a transitive verb and requires an
object.
EXPRESSO/ESPRESSO
I've read several explanations of the origin of this word: the coffee is
made expressly for you upon your order, or the steam is expressed
through the grounds, or (as most people suppose--and certainly wrongly)
the coffee is made at express speed. One thing is certain: the word is
"espresso," not "expresso."
While you're at an American espresso stand, you might muse on the fact
that both "biscotti" and "panini" are plural forms, but you're likely to
baffle the barista if you ask in correct Italian for a biscotto or a
panino.
EXTEND/EXTENT
People often write "to a great extend" or "to a lesser extend." "Extend"
is a verb only, and should not be used as a noun. It's "to a great
extent," and "to a lesser extent."
EXTRACT REVENGE/EXACT REVENGE
The use of a rare sense of "exact" confuses people, but the traditional
phrase is "exact revenge", not the seemingly more logical "extract
revenge" or "enact revenge."
IN THE FACT THAT/BY THE FACT THAT
The correct phrase is "by the fact that," not "in the fact that." While
we're at it, "infact" is not a word; "in fact" is always a two-word
phrase.
FACTOID
The "-oid" ending in English is normally added to a word to indicate
that an item is not the real thing. A humanoid is not quite human.
Originally "factoid" was an ironic term indicating that the "fact" being
offered was not actually factual. However, CNN and other sources took to
treating the "-oid" as if it were a mere diminutive, and using the term
to mean "trivial but true fact." As a result, the definition of
"factoid" is hopelessly confused and it's probably better to avoid using
the term altogether.
FAIR/FARE
When you send your daughter off to camp, you hope she'll fare well.
That's why you bid her a fond farewell. When you want to see how
something will work out, you want to see how it fares. "Fair" as a verb
is a rare word meaning "to smooth a surface to prepare it for being
joined to another."
FAITHFUL/FATEFUL
That decisive, highly significant day is not "faithful" but "fateful."
Although the phrase "fateful day" can refer to a day significant in a
positive way ("the fateful day that I first met the my lovely wife"),
"fatal" is always negative ("the fatal day that I first tried to ride my
bike 'no hands'").
FAR BE IT FOR ME/FAR BE IT FROM ME
The mangled expression "far be it for me" is probably influenced by a
similar saying: "it's not for me to say." The standard expression is
"far be it from me" (may this possibility be far away from me).
FARTHER/FURTHER
Some authorities (like the Associated Press) insist on "farther" to
refer to physical distance and on "further" to refer to an extent of
time or degree, but others treat the two words as interchangeable except
for insisting on "further" for "in addition," and "moreover." You'll
always be safe in making the distinction; some people get really testy
about this.
FASTLY/FAST
"Fastly" is an old form that has died out in English. Interest in soccer
is growing fast, not "fastly."
FATAL/FATEFUL
A "fatal" event is a deadly one; a "fateful" one is determined by fate.
If there are no casualties left lying at the scene--whether mangled
corpses or failed negotiations--the word you are seeking is "fateful."
The latter word also has many positive uses, such as "George fondly
remembered that fateful night in which he first met the woman he was to
love to his dying day."
FAUN/FAWN
A faun is a part-goat, part-human mythological being. The most famous
faun in modern literature is Mr. Tumnus in C.S. Lewis' Narnia novels.
A fawn is a young deer; and to fawn over someone is to show exaggerated
affection or admiration for someone, usually to gain some advantage.
FAZE/PHASE
"Faze" means to embarrass or disturb, but is almost always used in the
negative sense, as in "the fact that the overhead projector bulb was
burned out didn't faze her." "Phase" is a noun or verb having to do with
an aspect of something. "He's just going through a temperamental phase."
"They're going to phase in the new accounting procedures gradually."
Unfortunately, Star Trek has confused matters by calling its ray pistols
phasers. Too bad they aren't fazers instead.
FEARFUL/FEARSOME
To be "fearful" is to be afraid. To be "fearsome" is to cause fear in
others. Remember that someone who is fierce is fearsome rather than
fearful.
FEBUARY/FEBRUARY
Few people pronounce the first R in "February" distinctly, so it is not
surprising that it is often omitted in spelling. This poor month is
short on days; don't further impoverish it by robbing it of one of its
letters.
FEDERAL (capitalization)
Some governmental style guidelines call for "federal" to be capitalized
whenever it refers to a function or part of the federal government of
the United States. However, in most contexts it is capitalized only in
the titles of agencies like the "Federal Bureau of Investigation" and
the "Federal Reserve." If you are not required to follow governmental
guidelines it's "the federal budget," "federal courts," and "federal
employees." Of course, in the titles of publications the word is
capitalized like any other noun; and if the source you are quoting
capitalizes it, you should preserve the capitalization.
FEELINGS FOR/FEELINGS ABOUT
When someone says "I'm developing feelings for you," the message is "I'm
falling in love with you." Feelings for are always positive feelings. In
contrast, feelings about something or someone can be either positive or
negative: "I've got a bad feeling about this."
FEINT/FAINT
A feint, whether in chess or on the battlefield, is a maneuver designed
to divert the opponent's attention from the real center of attack. A
feint is a daring move. Do not use this very specialized word in the
expression "faint of heart" (or "faint at heart"), which implies
timidity.
FELLOW CLASSMATE/CLASSMATE
Some redundancies are so common that few people notice them, but it's
worthwhile to be aware of them. A good example is "fellow classmate."
"Fellow" and "-mate" perform the same function. It's better to say
simply "classmate."
The same is true of the equally redundant "fellow shipmate," " fellow
roommate," "fellow co-worker," "fellow comrade," and "fellow colleague."
Even worse is "fellow peer." Your fellows are your peers: same thing.
The only people who should speak of fellow peers are members of the
British peerage referring to others of their social class.
FEMALE/WOMAN
When referring to an adult female of the human species it sounds weird
and may even be considered insulting to use the noun "female" instead of
"woman." "The female pointed the gun at the cop" should be "the woman
pointed the gun at the cop."
In the case of the related adjectives some people argue that since we
say--for instance--"male doctor" we should always say "female doctor"
rather than "woman doctor." It may be inconsistent, but the pattern of
referring to females as women performers, professionals, etc. is very
traditional, dating back at least to the 14th century. People who do
this cannot be accused of committing an error.
Technical adjectival uses defining gender like "female genes" are fine
(but don't confuse them with "women's jeans").
FIANCE/FIANCEE
Your fiance is the man you plan to marry; your fiancee is the woman you
plan to marry.
FILM
In this digital age we rarely use actual �filmΣ to make movies or
videos. Yet we still refer to movies as �films.Σ Events where new
productions are played via DVDs or other disc-based media are referred
to as �film festivals.Σ Language often lags behind technical changes
like this. Modern phones have no dials, but we still �dialΣ numbers.
ItΥs usually useless to complain about this sort of thing, but to speak
of �filmingΣ an event when you are actually making a video of it seems
wrong to me; but then if you are using a modern digital camera you are
likely say you are �tapingΣ it, which is technically not right
eitherΡthough it is widely accepted usage despite the fact that most
dictionaries do not recognize it.
FINE TOOTHCOMB/FINE-TOOTH COMB
Brush your teeth, but don't comb them. Although the spelling "fine
toothcomb" is common enough to be listed as a variant in dictionaries,
it looks pretty silly to people who prefer the traditional expression
used to describe examining a territory or subject minutely: going over
it with a "fine-tooth comb"--a comb with fine teeth. Some people prefer
"fine-toothed comb."
FIREY/FIERY
it's "fire," so why isn't it "firey"? If you listen closely, you hear
that "fire" has two distinct vowel sounds in it: "fi-er." Spelling the
adjective "fiery" helps to preserve that double sound.
'50's/'50s/50's/50s
There's no requirement for the apostrophe before the "S" in decade names
like 50s and 60s, since there are no omitted letters, though it's also
acceptable to include one. The term may be written "'50s" since "19" is
being omitted, but "50s" is fine too. Logically one should be able to
use both apostrophes, writing '50's, but this looks awkward and is
seldom done. Personally I prefer to omit both apostrophes.
Writers who wish to have their references to decades clearly understood
in the twenty-first century would be well advised not to omit the first
two digits.
Note that you may have to turn off "smart quotes" in your word processor
to get a leading apostrophe like the one in "'50s" to curl correctly
unless you know how to type the character directly. Or you can just type
two and delete the first one. FINALIZE/FINISH, PUT INTO FINAL FORM
"Finalize" is very popular among bureaucrats, but many people hate it.
Avoid it unless you know that everyone in your environment uses it too.
FIRST ANNUAL
Some people get upset when the "first annual" occurrence of some event
is announced, arguing that it doesn't become annual until it's been
repeated. But "first annual" simply means "the first of what is planned
to be an annual series of events"--it's a fine expression.
FIRST PERSON
Some teachers frown on the first-person voice in student writing,
striking out "I," "me," and "myself" whenever they encounter them; but
although there are times when it is inappropriate to call attention to
yourself, writing something like "public displays of affection are
disgusting" is not more modest than "public displays of affection
disgust me." The impersonal form arrogantly implies that you are the
final authority and that all right-minded people must agree with you.
The phrase "the author" substituted for "I" is no longer generally used
even in the most formal writing. When you are arguing for a theory or
opinion, it is often best to stand squarely behind it by using the
first-person voice.
FIRSTABLE/FIRST OF ALL
The odd word "firstable" seems to be based on a mishearing of the
expression "first of all."
FISCAL/PHYSICAL
The middle syllable of "physical" is often omitted in pronunciation,
making it sound like the unrelated word "fiscal." Sound that unaccented
"I" distinctly.
FIT THE BILL/FILL THE BILL
Originally a "bill" was any piece of writing, especially a legal
document (we still speak of bills being introduced into Congress in this
sense). More narrowly, it also came to mean a list such as a restaurant
"bill of fare" (menu) or an advertisement listing attractions in a
theatrical variety show such as might be posted on a "billboard." In
nineteenth-century America, when producers found short acts to
supplement the main attractions, nicely filling out an evening's
entertainment, they were said in a rhyming phrase to "fill the bill."
People who associate bills principally with shipping invoices frequently
transform this expression, meaning "to meet requirements or desires,"
into "fit the bill." They are thinking of bills as if they were orders,
lists of requirements. It is both more logical and more traditional to
say "fill the bill."
FITTEST
In evolutionary terms, "the survival of the fittest" refers not to
physical fitness in the sense of vigor and strength, but to the ability
to reproduce successfully. Rabbits and ants are fitter to survive in
most environments than lions: that's why there are so many more of them.
If you use the phrase "survival of the fittest" as if it referred to a
contest of brute strength, you will annoy biologists and some editors,
who will judge your usage as unfit to survive.
FIXING/PREPARING
"Fixing" as a synonym of "getting ready" is a feature of several
dialects of US English, especially rural and Southern ones: "I'm fixin'
to take this pie over to the parsonage." Using it outside of these
dialects risks making you sound unsophisticated.
FLAIR/FLARE
"Flair" is conspicuous talent: "She has a flair for organization."
"Flare" is either a noun meaning "flame" or a verb meaning to blaze with
light or to burst into anger.
FLAK/FLACK
"Flak" is WW II airman's slang for shells being fired at you in the air,
so to catch a lot of flak is to feel in danger of being shot down.
However, most civilians these days have never heard of "flak," so they
use "flack" instead, which originally meant "salesman" or "huckster."
You need to worry about this only if you're among old-time veterans.
You're more likely to embarrass yourself if you mix up the expression
"catch a lot of flak" with "give a lot of slack," which has almost the
opposite meaning. You can't catch slack.
FLAMMABLE/INFLAMMABLE
The prefix "in-" does not indicate negation here; it comes from the word
"inflame." "Flammable" and "inflammable" both mean "easy to catch on
fire," but so many people misunderstand the latter term that it's better
to stick with "flammable" in safety warnings.
FLAUNT/FLOUT
To flaunt is to show off: you flaunt your new necklace by wearing it to
work. "Flout" has a more negative connotation; it means to treat with
contempt some rule or standard. The cliche is "to flout convention."
Flaunting may be in bad taste because it's ostentatious, but it is not a
violation of standards.
FLESH OUT/FLUSH OUT
To "flesh out" an idea is to give it substance, as a sculptor adds clay
flesh to a skeletal armature. To "flush out" a criminal is to drive him
or her out into the open. The latter term is derived from bird-hunting,
in which one flushes out a covey of quail. If you are trying to develop
something further, use "flesh," but if you are trying to reveal
something hitherto concealed, use "flush."
FLOE/FLOW
Only ice floating on water produces a floe. Volcanoes produce lava
flows.
FLOPPY DISK/HARD DISK
Floppy disks are fast disappearing from the computer world, but it's
been many years since they were literally floppy. The fact that a 3 1/2"
diskette is enclosed in a hard plastic case should not lead you to call
it a "hard disk." That's a high-capacity storage medium like the main
disk inside your computer on which your programs, operating system, and
data are stored.
FLOUNDER/FOUNDER
As a verb, "founder" means "to fill with water and sink." It is also
used metaphorically of various kinds of equally catastrophic failures.
In contrast, to flounder is to thrash about in the water (like a
flounder), struggling to stay alive. "Flounder" is also often used
metaphorically to indicate various sorts of desperate struggle. If
you're sunk, you've foundered. If you're still struggling, you're
floundering.
FLUKE
A fluke was originally a lucky stroke in billiards, and it still means a
fortunate chance event. It is nonstandard to use the word to label an
unfortunate chance event. There are lucky flukes, but no unlucky ones.
FLUSTRATED, FUSTRATED/FRUSTRATED
People often get flustered and mispronounce (and sometimes misspell)
"frustrated" as "flustrated." Another common mispronunciation is
"fustrated."
FLYS/FLIES
"Flys" is a misspelling of "flies" except when the word is being
deliberately changed from its traditional spelling as in the name of the
popular music group, "The Flys."
FOCUS AROUND/FOCUS ON
The popular expression "focus around" makes little sense. An example:
"Next quarter's advertising will focus around our line of computer
games." It is presumably meant to convey something like "concentrate on
a number of different items in a single category." But "focus on" better
conveys the idea of a sharp focus. "Focus around" suggests a jittery,
shifting view rather than determined concentration.
FOLLOWUP/FOLLOW UP, FOLLOW-UP
A doctor can follow up with a patient during a follow-up visit (note
that the adjectival form requires a hyphen). Neither phrase should be
turned into a single hyphenless word.
FONT/TYPEFACE
Although "font" has largely replaced "typeface" in common usage,
professionals who deal with type prefer to distinguish between the two.
"Typeface" refers to letter design; Times, Helvetica, and Garamond are
all typefaces. Typefaces are usually made up of a number of fonts:
complete sets of characters in that style, like Times Roman, Times
Italic, and Times Bold. The distinction is important only when dealing
with such professionals.
FOOT/FEET
You can use eight-foot boards to side a house, but "foot" conveys a
plural sense only in this sort of adjectival phrase combined with a
number (and usually hyphenated). The boards are eight feet (not foot)
long. It's always X feet per second and X feet away.
FOOTNOTES/ENDNOTES
About the time that computers began to make the creation and printing of
footnotes extremely simple and cheap, style manuals began to urge a
shift away from them to endnotes printed at the ends of chapters or at
the end of a book or paper rather than at the foot of the page. I happen
to think this was a big mistake; but in any case, if you are using
endnotes, don't call them "footnotes."
FOR
Sentences like "I want for you to weed the garden" and "I asked for you
to bring a dessert" are not formal English. You can improve either sort
of expression by leaving out the "for."
FOR/FORE/FOUR
The most common member of this trio is the preposition "for," which is
not a problem for most people. "Fore" always has to do with the front of
something (it's what you shout to warn someone when you've sent a golf
ball their way). "Four" is just the number "4."
FOR ALL INTENSIVE PURPOSES/FOR ALL INTENTS AND PURPOSES
Another example of the oral transformation of language by people who
don't read much. "For all intents and purposes" is an old cliche which
won't thrill anyone, but using the mistaken alternative is likely to
elicit guffaws.
FOR FREE/FREE
Some people object to "for free" because any sentence containing the
phrase will read just as well without the "for," but it is standard
English.
FOR GOODNESS' SAKES/FOR GOODNESS' SAKE
Picky folks point out that since the mild expletive "for goodness' sake"
is a euphemism for "for God's sake" the second word should not be
pluralized to "sakes"; but heavens to Betsy, if little things like that
are going to bother you, you'll have your dander up all the time.
FOR ONE/FOR ONE THING
People often say "for one" when they mean "for one thing": "I really
want to go to the movie. For one, Kevin Spacey is my favorite actor."
(One what?) The only time you should use "for one" by itself to give an
example of something is when you have earlier mentioned a class to which
the example belongs: "There are a lot of reasons I don't want your old
car. For one, there are squirrels living in the upholstery." (One
reason.)
FOR SALE/ON SALE
If you're selling something, it's for sale; but if you lower the price,
it goes on sale.
FOR SELL/FOR SALE
If you have things to sell, they are for sale. Nothing is ever "for
sell."
FOR SURE/SURE
In casual speech, when you agree with somebody's statement, you may say
"for sure." Your date says "That was outstanding tiramisu," and you,
wanting to show how in tune you are, reply "For sure!" You can also use
the phrase to mean "for certain," as in "I couldn't tell for sure that
the bench was wet until I sat on it."
But people often substitute this phrase when they should use plain old
"sure," as in "I couldn't be for sure." That should be "I couldn't be
sure."
FORBIDDING/FOREBODING/FORMIDABLE
"Foreboding" means "ominous," as in "The sky was a foreboding shade of
gray" (i.e. predictive of a storm). The prefix "fore-" with an E, often
indicates futurity, e. g. "forecast," "foreshadowing" and "foreword" (a
prefatory bit of writing at the beginning of a book, often misspelled
"forword"). A forbidding person or task is hostile or dangerous: "The
trek across the desert to the nearest latte stand was forbidding." The
two are easily confused because some things, like storms, can be both
foreboding and forbidding.
"Formidable," which originally meant "fear-inducing" ("Mike Tyson is a
formidable opponent") has come to be used primarily as a compliment
meaning "awe-inducing" ("Gary Kasparov's formidable skills as a chess
player were of no avail against Deep Blue").
See also "fearful/fearsome."
FORCEFUL, FORCIBLE, FORCED
These words sometimes overlap, but generally "forceful" means "powerful"
("he imposed his forceful personality on the lions") while "forcible"
must be used instead to describe the use of force ("the burglar made a
forcible entry into the apartment"). "Forced" is often used for the
latter purpose, but some prefer to reserve this word to describe
something that is done or decided upon as a result of outside causes
without necessarily being violent: "a forced landing," "a forced smile,"
"forced labor."
FOREGO/FORGO
The E in "forego" tells you it has to do with going before. It occurs
mainly in the expression "foregone conclusion," a conclusion arrived at
in advance. "Forgo" means to abstain from or do without. "After
finishing his steak, he decided to forgo the blueberry cheesecake."
FOREVER/FOR EVER
UK writers most often use the two-word phrase "for ever," whereas
Americans strongly prefer the one-word form "forever." Each nationality
is liable to think the other is making a mistake.
FORMALLY/FORMERLY
These two are often mixed up in speech. If you are doing something in a
formal manner, you are behaving formally; but if you previously behaved
differently, you did so formerly.
FORESEE/FORSEE
"Foresee" means "to see into the future." There are lots of words with
the prefix "fore-" which are future-oriented, including "foresight,"
"foretell," "forethought," and "foreword," all of which are often
misspelled by people who omit the E. Just remember: what golfers shout
when they are warning people ahead of them about the shot they are about
to make is "fore!"
FORTUITOUS/FORTUNATE
"Fortuitous" events happen by chance; they need not be fortunate events,
only random ones: "It was purely fortuitous that the meter reader came
along five minutes before I returned to my car." Although fortunate
events may be fortuitous, when you mean "lucky," use "fortunate."
FORWARD/FORWARDS/FOREWORD
Although some style books prefer "forward" and "toward" to "forwards"
and "towards," none of these forms is really incorrect, though the forms
without the final S are perhaps a smidgen more formal. The same
generally applies to "backward" and "backwards." There are a few
expressions in which only one of the two forms works: step forward,
forward motion, a backward child. The spelling "foreword" applies
exclusively to the introductory matter in a book.
FOUL/FOWL
A chicken is a fowl. A poke in the eye is a foul.
FOURTY/FORTY
"Four" loses its U when it changes to "forty."
FOWL SWOOP/FELL SWOOP
Poor Macduff, learning that Macbeth has had his wife and children
murdered, cries "What, all my pretty chickens and their dam/At one fell
swoop?" Thus enters the language a popular phrase meaning "terrible
blow" (the image is of a ruthless hawk swooping down to slaughter
helpless chicks).
The old meaning of "fell" to mean "savage," "cruel," or "ruthless" has
otherwise pretty much died out, so that many people mistakenly
substitute "foul" or "fowl" for "fell." "Fell" in this sense is related
to words like "felon" and "felony."
The mangled form "swell foop" is a popular bit of humor which should at
least remind you that the first word in the phrase has to rhyme with
"swell."
FRAMEWORK/GROUNDWORK
You lay groundwork; you erect, build, or construct a framework.
FRANKENSTEIN
"Frankenstein" is the name of the scientist who creates the monster in
Mary Shelley's novel. The monster itself has no name, but is referred to
popularly as "Frankenstein's monster."
FRANKLY
Sentences beginning with this word are properly admissions of something
shocking or unflattering to the speaker, but when a public spokesperson
for a business or government is speaking, it almost always precedes a
self-serving statement. "Frankly, my dear, I don't give a damn" is
correct; but "Frankly, I think the American people can make their own
decisions about health care" is an abuse of language. The same
contortion of meaning is common in related phrases. When you hear a
public figure say, "to be completely honest with you," expect a lie.
FRENCH DIP WITH AU JUS
This diner classic consists of sliced roast beef on a more or less firm
bun, with a side dish of broth in which to dip it. "Au jus" means "with
broth"; so adding "with" to "au jus" is redundant. In fancier
restaurants, items are listed entirely in French with the English
translation underneath:
Tete de cochon avec ses tripes farcies Pig's head stuffed with tripe
Mixing the languages is hazardous if you don't know what the original
means. "With au jus broth" is also seen from time to time. People
generally know what a French dip sandwich is, and they'll see the broth
when it comes. Why not just call it a "French dip?"
FRESHMAN/FRESHMEN
"Freshman" is the singular noun: "Birgitta is a freshman at Yale."
"Freshmen" is the plural: "Patricia and Patrick are freshmen at
Stanford." But the adjective is always singular: "Megan had an
interesting freshman seminar on Romanesque architecture at Sarah
Lawrence."
FROM . . . TO
"From soup to nuts" makes sense because soup was the traditional first
course in a formal meal, nuts the last. Similarly "from A to Z" makes
sense because these are the first and last letters of the alphabet. But
this construction, which identifies the extremes of a spectrum or range
is often improperly used when no such extremes are being identified, as
in "She tried everything from "penicillin to sulfa drugs." These are not
extremes, just examples of different sorts of drugs. Even worse is "He
gave his daughter everything from a bicycle to lawn darts to a teddy
bear." A range can't have more than two extremes. "He gave his daughter
everything from paper dolls to a Cadillac" conveys the notion of a
spectrum from very cheap to very expensive, and is fine. Often when
people are tempted to use "from . . . to" they would be better off using
a different expression, as, for example, in this sentence: "She tried
all sorts of medicines, including penicillin and sulfa drugs."
MOUNT FUJIYAMA/FUJIYAMA
"Yama" means "mountain" in Japanese, so when you say "Mount Fujiyama"
you are saying "Mount Fuji Mountain." The Japanese usually say
"Fujisan," but "Fujiyama," or "Mount Fuji" is standard in English--just
be aware that both sound "foreign" to Japanese native speakers.
-FUL/-FULS
it's one cupful, but two cupfuls, not "two cupsful." The same goes for
"spoonfuls" and "glassfuls."
FULL PROOF/FOOLPROOF
If you want to get credit for solving a complicated mathematical
problem, you will have to provide a full proof. But if you're trying to
make something as easy as possible, you want to make it foolproof--so
simple even a fool couldn't screw it up.
FULLY WELL/FULL WELL
Back in the Middle Ages and Renaissance it was common for "full" to
modify adverbs. The only instance in which this continues today is the
traditional phrase "full well," mostly in "knowing full well." People
who "correct" this to "knowing fully well" may have modern grammar on
their side, but they sound as if they aren't acquainted with the
standard idiom.
FULSOME
In modern usage, "fulsome" has two inconsistent meanings. To some people
it means "offensive, overdone," so "fulsome praise" to them would be
disgustingly exaggerated praise.
To other people it means "abundant," and for them "fulsome praise" is
glowingly warm praise.
The first group tends to look down on the second group, and the second
group tends to be baffled by the first. Best to just avoid the word
altogether.
FUNCTIONALITY
You'll find "functionality" in dictionaries, but it's almost always used
as a pretentious and inaccurate substitute for "function" or
"usefulness."
FURL/FURROW
When you concentrate really hard so that furrows appear in your
forehead, you furrow your brow--an expression that means "worry, puzzle
over." When you lower a sail and wrap it tightly around the mast to
secure it you furl it. If you can furl your brow you belong in a
sideshow.
FUSHIA/FUCHSIA
The flowers known as "fuchsias" are named after German Renaissance
botanist Leonhard Fuchs. Although the word is pronounced "FYOO-sha" in
English, it should not be misspelled "fushia."
G/Q
Lower-case "q" strongly resembles lower-case "g" in many typefaces, and
the two are often confused with each other and the resulting misspelling
missed in proofreading, for instance "quilt" when "guilt" is intended.
GP PRACTICE/GENERAL PRACTICE
"GP" stands for "general practitioner," so a "GP practice is a "general
practitioner practice," which isn't exactly redundant, but strikes some
people as awkward. However, if you don't want to spell the phrase out,
there doesn't seem to be a good substitute for "GP practice"--it won't
bother many people.
GAFF/GAFFE
"Gaffe" means "embarrassing mistake," and should not be mixed up with
"gaff": a large hook.
GAMUT/GAUNTLET
To "run a gamut" is to go through the whole scale or spectrum of
something. To "run the gauntlet" (also gantlet) is to run between two
lines of people who are trying to beat you. And don't confuse "gamut"
with "gambit," a play in chess, and by extension, a tricky maneuver of
any kind.
GANDER/DANDER
When you get really angry you "get your dander up." The derivation of
"dander" in this expression is uncertain, but you can't replace it with
"dandruff" or "gander." The only way to get a gander up is to awaken a
male goose.
GARDENER SNAKE/GARTER SNAKE
"Garter snake" is a traditional American term for small harmless snakes
with stripes running lengthwise along their bodies, resembling
old-fashioned garters. It is more broadly used for all manner of small
non-venomous snakes. Many folks don't get the allusion, and call them
"gardener snakes" instead. Although you may find these little critters
in your yard, they are unlikely to do much gardening. For that you need
earthworms.
GARNISH/GARNER
A garner was originally a granary, and to garner something is to gather
it in. Today the word rarely has to do with agriculture: we garner
attention, praise, awards, evidence, and sympathy.
To garnish something is to decorate it. You can garnish a pork chop by
placing a sprig of rosemary next to it. Quite a few people use "garnish"
when they should be using "garner."
GAURD/GUARD
Too bad the Elizabethan "guard" won out over the earlier, French-derived
spelling "garde"; but the word was never spelled "gaurd." The standard
spelling is related to Italian and Spanish "guarda," pronounced
"gwarda."
GENIUS/BRILLIANT
In standard English "genius" is a noun, but not an adjective. In slang,
people often say things like "Telling Mom your English teacher is
requiring the class to get HBO was genius!" The standard way to say this
is "was brilliant."
GENUINE
The pronunciation of "genuine" with the last syllable rhyming with
"wine" is generally considered less classy than the more common
pronunciation in which the last syllable rhymes with "won."
GERUNDS AND PRONOUNS
This is a subtle point, and hard to explain without using the sort of
technical language I usually try to avoid; but if you can learn how to
precede gerunds with possessive pronouns, your writing will definitely
improve in the eyes of many readers. Verb forms ending in "-ing" can
function as nouns and are sometimes preceded by pronouns. Such verb/noun
forms are called "gerunds." You'll often see sentences like this: "I
didn't appreciate him returning the car with the gas tank empty." But
"returning" is a gerund, so it should be preceded by a possessive
pronoun: "I didn't appreciate his returning the car. . . ." Other
examples of standard usage: "Their coming to my birthday party was a
nice surprise." "I didn't like his being rude to his teacher." "They
weeded the garden without our having to tell them to." "Coming,"
"being," and "having" are all gerunds, and require preceding possessive
pronouns ("their," "his," and "our"). If a person's name appears just
before the gerund, that too needs to be in the possessive form: "We're
excited about Bob's winning the tournament."
Not all verb forms ending in "-ing" are gerunds. Some are present
participles, and function as adjectives: "a sailing ship," "a running
joke," "aching back." These can be preceded by possessive pronouns ("my
aching back"), but few people are tempted to use a non-possessive
pronoun in this context except in certain dialects ("me aching back").
Confused? Try this simple rule of thumb: if you have to put a pronoun or
noun in front of an "-ing" word, try a possessive one first. If the
"-ing" word seems like a thing or an action that could be possessed,
it's probably a gerund. If using a possessive form makes sense, go with
it.
GET ME/GET MYSELF
"I gotta get me a new carburetor," says Joe-Bob. Translated into
standard English, this would be "I have to get myself a new carburetor."
Even better: leave out the "myself."
GHANDI/GANDHI
Mohandas K. Gandhi's name has an H after the D, not after the G. Note
that "Mahatma" ("great soul") is an honorific title, not actually part
of his birth name. The proper pronunciation of the first syllable should
rhyme more with "gone" than "can." Among Indians, his name is usually
given a respectful suffix and rendered as Gandhiji, but adding Mahatma
to that form would be honorific overkill.
GIBE/JIBE/JIVE
"Gibe" is a now rare term meaning "to tease." "Jibe" means "to agree,"
but is usually used negatively, as in "the alibis of the two crooks
didn't jibe." The latter word is often confused with "jive," which
derives from slang which originally meant to treat in a jazzy manner
("Jivin' the Blues Away") but also came to be associated with deception
("Don't give me any of that jive").
GIFT/GIVE
Conservatives are annoyed by the use of "gift" as a verb. If the ad says
"gift her with jewelry this Valentine's Day," she might prefer that you
give it to her.
GIG/JIG
"The jig is up" is an old slang expression meaning "the game is
over--we're caught." A musician's job is a gig.
GILD/GUILD
You gild an object by covering it with gold; you can join an
organization like the Theatre Guild.
GOAL/OBJECTIVE
Most language authorities consider "goal" to be a synonym of
"objective," and some dismiss the popular bureaucratic phrase "goals and
objectives" as a meaningless redundancy.
However, if you have to deal with people who insist there is a
distinction, here is their usual argument: goals are general, objectives
are more specific. If your goal is to create a safer work environment,
your objective might be to remove the potted poison ivy plant from your
desk. In education, a typical example would be that if your goal is to
improve your French, one objective might be to master the subjunctive.
GOD
When "God" is the name of a god, as in Judaism, Christianity and Islam
("Allah" is just Arabic for "God," and many modern Muslims translate the
name when writing in English), it needs to be capitalized like any other
name. When it is used as a generic term, as in "He looks like a Greek
god," it is not capitalized.
If you see the word rendered "G*d" or "G-d" it's not an error, but a
Jewish writer reverently following the Orthodox prohibition against
spelling out the name of the deity in full.
GOES
"So he goes" I thought your birthday was tomorrow," and I'm--like--"
well, duh!" Perhaps this bizarre pattern developed in analogy to
childish phrases such as "the cow goes "moo" and "the piggy goes "oink,
oink." Is there any young person unaware that the use of "go" to mean
"say" drives most adults crazy? Granted, it's deliberate slang rather
than an involuntary error, but if you get into the habit of using it all
the time, you may embarrass yourself in front of a class by saying
something witless like "So then Juliet goes "A rose by any other name
would smell as sweet."
GOING FORWARD
Speakers in the business world and in government are fond of saying
"going forward" to mean "from now on," "in the future," or even "now."
It gives a sense of action, purpose, and direction that appeals to many
people.
However many other people find it pretentious and annoying, especially
when it is used simply to indicate that the future is being talked
about. Since in English our verbs do this job nicely, "going forward" is
often superfluous. In a statement like "Going forward, we're going to
have to budget more for advertising," the sentence would be just as
clear and less cluttered if the first two words were dropped.
GONE/WENT
This is one of those cases in which a common word has a past participle
which is not formed by the simple addition of -ED and which often trip
people up. "I should have went to the business meeting, but the game was
tied in the ninth" should be "I should have gone. . . ." The same
problem crops up with the two forms of the verb "to do." Say "I should
have done my taxes before the IRS called" rather than "I should have
did. . . ."
See "drank/drunk."
GONNA/GOING TO
How do you pronounce "going to" in phrases like "going to walk the dog"?
"Gonna," right? Almost everyone uses this slurred pronunciation, but
it's not acceptable in formal writing except when you're deliberately
trying to convey the popular pronunciation. In very formal spoken
contexts you might want to (not "wanna") pronounce the phrase
distinctly.
GOOD/WELL
You do something well, but a thing is good. The exception is verbs of
sensation in phrases such as "the pie smells good," or "I feel good."
Despite the arguments of nigglers, this is standard usage. Saying "the
pie smells well" would imply that the pastry in question had a nose.
Similarly, "I feel well" is also acceptable, especially when discussing
health; but it is not the only correct usage.
GOT/GOTTEN
In the UK, the old word "gotten" dropped out of use except in such stock
phrases as "ill-gotten" and "gotten up," but in the US it is frequently
used as the past participle of "get." Sometimes the two are
interchangeable. However, "got" implies current possession, as in "I've
got just five dollars to buy my dinner with." "Gotten," in contrast,
often implies the process of getting hold of something: "I've gotten
five dollars for cleaning out Mrs. Quimby's shed" emphasizing the
earning of the money rather than its possession. Phrases that involve
some sort of process usually involve "gotten": "My grades have gotten
better since I moved out of the fraternity." When you have to leave,
you've got to go. If you say you've "gotten to go" you're implying
someone gave you permission to go.
GOT TO/HAVE GOT TO
"Gotta go now. Bye!" This is a common casual way to end a phone
conversation. But it's good to remember that it's a slangy abbreviation
of the more formal "I have got to go now." In writing, at least,
remember the "have" before the "got" in this phrase meaning "have to."
In fact, you can omit the "got" altogether and say simply "I have to
go." For a slightly less formal effect, contract "have" thus: "I've got
to go."
GOVERNMENT
Be careful to pronounce the first "N" in "government."
GRADUATE/GRADUATE FROM
In certain dialects (notably that of New York City) it is common to say
"he is going to graduate high school in June" rather than the more
standard "graduate from." When writing for a national or international
audience, use the "from."
GRAMMER/GRAMMAR
it's amazing how many people write to thank me for helping them with
their "grammer." It's "grammar." The word is often incorrectly used to
label patterns of spelling and usage that have nothing to do with the
structure of language, the proper subject of grammar in the most
conservative sense. Not all bad writing is due to bad grammar.
GRASPING FOR STRAWS/GRASPING AT STRAWS
To grasp at straws is to make desperate but futile attempts to escape
from a problem. The image is of a drowning person wildly thrashing about
trying to find something to keep afloat with, madly grasping even a wisp
of straw which is plainly incapable of doing the job. "Grasping for
straws" suggests that the person is deliberately trying to find straws
rather than blindly grabbing them.
GRATIS/GRATUITOUS
If you do something nice without being paid, you do it "gratis."
Technically, such a deed can also be "gratuitous," but if you do or say
something obnoxious and uncalled for, it's always "gratuitous," not
"gratis."
GRAY/GREY
"Gray" is the American spelling, "grey" the British spelling of this
color/colour. When it's part of a British name--like Tarzan's title,
"Lord Greystoke"--or part of a place name--like "Greyfriars"--it should
retain its original spelling even if an American is doing the writing.
GREATFUL/GRATEFUL
Your appreciation may be great, but you express gratitude by being
grateful.
GRIEVIOUS/GRIEVOUS
There are just two syllables in "grievous," and it's pronounced
"grieve-us."
GRILL/GRILLE
You cook on a grill (perhaps in a "bar and grill"), but the word for a
metal framework over the front of an opening is most often grille. When
speaking of intensive questioning "grill" is used because the process is
being compared to roasting somebody over hot coals: "whenever I came in
late, my parents would grill me about where I'd been."
GRILL CHEESE/GRILLED CHEESE
The popular fried sandwich is properly called "grilled cheese."
GRISLY/GRIZZLY
"Grisly" means "horrible"; a "grizzly" is a bear. "The grizzly left
behind the grisly remains of his victim." "Grizzled," means "having gray
hairs," not to be confused with "gristly," full of gristle.
GROUND ZERO
"Ground zero" refers to the point at the center of the impact of a
nuclear bomb, so it is improper to talk about "building from ground
zero" as if it were a place of new beginnings. You can start from
scratch, or begin at zero, but if you're at ground zero, you're at the
end.
The metaphorical extension of this term to the site of the destruction
of the World Trade Center towers is, however, perfectly legitimate, but
because in this case it is a place name it needs to be capitalized:
"Ground Zero."
GROUP (PLURAL VS. SINGULAR)
When the group is being considered as a whole, it can be treated as a
single entity: "the group was ready to go on stage." But when the
individuality of its members is being emphasized, "group" is plural:
"the group were in disagreement about where to go for dinner."
GROW
We used to grow our hair long or grow tomatoes in the yard, but now we
are being urged to "grow the economy" or "grow your investments."
Business and government speakers have extended this usage widely, but it
irritates traditionalists. Use "build," "increase," "expand," "develop,"
or "cause to grow" instead in formal writing.
GUESS WHO?/GUESS WHO!
Since "Guess who" is a command rather than a real question, technically
it should not be followed by a question mark. A period or exclamation
point will do fine. Similarly, there should be no question mark after
the simple command "Guess!"
GULL/GALL
"How could you have the nerve, the chutzpah, the effrontery, the
unmitigated gall to claim you didn't cheat because it was your
girlfriend who copied from the Web when she wrote your paper for you?"
This sense of "gall" has nothing to do with seabirds, so don't say "How
could you have the gull?"
GUT-RENDING, HEART-WRENCHING/GUT-WRENCHING, HEART-RENDING
To wrench is to twist; to rend is to tear. Upsetting events can be
stomach- or gut-wrenching (agonizing) or heart-rending (heartbreaking,
making you feel terribly sad), but many people confuse the two and come
up with "heart-wrenching." "Gut-rending" is also occasionally seen.
GYP/CHEAT
Gypsies complain that "gyp" ("cheat") reflects bias, but the word is so
well entrenched and its origin so obscure to most users that there is
little hope of eliminating it from standard use any time soon.
Note that the people commonly called "Gypsies" strongly prefer the name
Rom (plural form Roma or Romanies).
HIV VIRUS
"HIV" stands for "human immunodeficiency virus," so adding the word
"virus" to the acronym creates a redundancy. "HIV" is the name of the
organism that is the cause of AIDS, not a name for the disease itself. A
person may be HIV-positive (a test shows the person to be infected with
the virus) without having yet developed AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome). HIV is the cause, AIDS the result.
HADN'T HAVE/HADN'T
Many people throw in an extra "have" when they talk about things that
might have happened otherwise: "If he hadn't have checked inside the
truck first he wouldn't have realized that the floorboards were rusted
out." This is often rendered "hadn't of" and pronounced "hadn'ta." In
standard English, omit the second word: "If he hadn't checked inside the
truck. . . ."
HAIL/HALE
One old meaning of the word "hale" is "to drag," especially by force. In
modern usage it has been replaced with "haul" except in the standard
phrase "hale into court." People who can't make sense of this form often
misspell the phrase as "hail into court." To be hailed is to be greeted
enthusiastically, with praise. People haled into court normally go
reluctantly, not expecting any such warm reception.
HAIRBRAINED/HAREBRAINED
Although "hairbrained" is common, the original word "harebrained" means
"silly as a hare" (the little rabbit-like creature) and is preferred in
writing.
HAND AND HAND/HAND IN HAND
"Poverty goes hand in hand with malnutrition." The image here is of the
two subjects holding hands, one hand in the other. The phrase is very
frequently misspelled "hand and hand," which does not convey the same
sort of intimate connection.
HANDICAP/DISABILITY
In normal usage, a handicap is a drawback you can easily remedy, but a
disability is much worse: you're just unable to do something. But many
people with disabilities and those who work with them strongly prefer
"disability" to "handicap," which they consider an insulting term. Their
argument is that a disability can be compensated for by--for instance--a
wheelchair, so that the disabled person is not handicapped. Only the
person truly unable by any means to accomplish tasks because of a
disability is handicapped. The fact that this goes directly counter to
ordinary English usage may help to explain why the general public has
been slow to adopt it; but if you want to avoid offending anyone, you're
safer using "disability" than "handicap."
Many of the people involved also resent being called "disabled people";
they prefer "people with disabilities."
HANGED/HUNG
Originally these words were pretty much interchangeable, but "hanged"
eventually came to be used pretty exclusively to mean "executed by
hanging." Does nervousness about the existence of an indelicate
adjectival form of the word prompt people to avoid the correct word in
such sentences as "Lady Wrothley saw to it that her ancestors' portraits
were properly hung"? Nevertheless, "hung" is correct except when capital
punishment is being imposed or someone commits suicide.
HANGING INDENTS
Bibliographies are normally written using hanging indents, where the
first line extends out to the left-hand margin, but the rest of the
entry is indented.
Twain, Mark. Mark Twain at the Buffalo Express: Articles and Sketches by
America's Favorite Humorist, edited by Joseph B. McCullough and Janice
McIntire-Strasburg (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000).
These are extremely easy to create on a word processor, but many people
have never mastered the technique. Normally the left-hand margin marker
at the top of the page consists of two small arrows. Drag the top one to
the right to make a normal indent, the bottom one to create a hanging
indent. In most programs, you have to hold down the Shift key while
dragging the bottom marker to leave the top part behind. Don't get into
the habit of substituting a carriage return and a tab or spaces to
create hanging indents because when your work is transferred to a
different computer the result may look quite different--and wrong.
HANUKKAH, CHANUKAH
This Jewish holiday is misspelled in a host of ways, but the two
standard spellings are "Hanukkah" (most common) and "Chanukah" (for
those who want to remind people that the word begins with a guttural
throat-clearing sound).
HAPPY BELATED BIRTHDAY/BELATED HAPPY BIRTHDAY
When someone has forgotten your birthday, they're likely to send you a
card reading "Happy Belated Birthday." But this is a mistake. The
birthday isn't belated; the wishes are.
Better-phrased cards read "Belated Happy Birthday." This form treats
"Happy Birthday" as a phrase equivalent to something like "Late
Congratulations." (If you sent out your holiday cards in early January
you might wish someone a "Belated Merry Christmas.") Even clearer would
be "Belated Happy Birthday Wishes," but most people seem to consider
this too wordy.
HARD/HARDLY
Everybody knows "hard" as an adjective: "Starfleet requires a hard
entrance exam." The problem arises when people needing an adverb try to
use the familiar pattern of adding -ly to create one, writing things
like "we worked hardly at completing the test." The adverbial form of
this word is in fact the same as the adjectival form: "hard." So it
should be "we worked hard at completing the test."
In American English "hardly" always means something like "scarcely," as
in "we hardly worked on the test." In British English the word "hardly"
is sometimes used to mean "severely, harshly," as in "Trevor felt
himself to have been used hardly [badly treated] by the executive
committee"; but this pattern is unfamiliar to most American readers.
HARDLY
When Bill says "I can't hardly bend over with this backache," he means
he can hardly bend over, and that's what he should say. Similarly, when
Jane says "you can feed the cat without hardly bending over" she means
"almost without bending over."
HARDLY NEVER/HARDLY EVER
The expression is "hardly ever" or "almost never."
HARDY/HEARTY
These two words overlap somewhat, but usually the word you want is
"hearty." The standard expressions are "a hearty appetite," "a hearty
meal," a "hearty handshake," "a hearty welcome," and "hearty applause."
Something difficult to kill is described as a "hardy perennial," but
should not be substituted for "hearty" in the other expressions. "Party
hearty" and "party hardy" are both common renderings of a common youth
saying, but the first makes more sense.
HARK/HEARKEN
One old use of the word "hark" was in hunting with hounds, meaning to
turn the dogs back on their course, reverse direction. It was this use
that gave rise to the expression "hark back." It refers to returning in
thought to an earlier time or returning to an earlier discussion: "That
tie-died shirt harks back to the days we used to go to rock festivals
together."
The expression is not "hearkens back." Although "hark" and "hearken" can
both mean "listen," only "hark" can mean "go back."
HAY DAY/HEYDAY
The period when something is in its prime is its "heyday." Your spelling
checker should catch it if you misspell this word "hayday," but if you
write "hay day," it won't.
HE DON'T/HE DOESN'T
In formal English, "don't" is not used in the third person singular. "I
don't like avocado ice cream" is correct, and so is "they don't have
their passports yet" and "they don't have the sense to come in out of
the rain"; but "he don't have no money," though common in certain
dialects, is nonstandard on two counts: it should be "he doesn't" and
"any money." The same is true of other forms: "she don't" and "it don't"
should be "she doesn't" and "it doesn't."
HEADING/BOUND
If you're reporting on traffic conditions, it's redundant to say
"heading northbound on I-5." it's either "heading north" or
"northbound."
HEAL/HEEL
Heal is what you do when you get better. Your heel is the back part of
your foot. Achilles' heel was the only place the great warrior could be
wounded in such a way that the injury wouldn't heal. Thus any striking
weakness can be called an "Achilles' heel." To remember the meaning of
"heal," note that it is the beginning of the word "health."
HEAR/HERE
If you find yourself writing sentences like "I know I left my wallet
hear!" you should note that "hear" has the word "ear" buried in it and
let that remind you that it refers only to hearing and is always a verb
(except when you are giving the British cheer "Hear! Hear!" ). "I left
my wallet here" is the correct expression. "Here" is where you are,
never something you do.
HEARING-IMPAIRED/DEAF
"Hearing-impaired" is not an all-purpose substitute for "deaf" since it
strongly implies some residual ability to hear.
HEAVILY/STRONGLY
"Heavily" is not an all-purpose synonym for "strongly." It should be
reserved for expressions in which literal or metaphorical weight or
density is implied, like "heavily underlined," "heavily influenced,"
"heavily armed," or "heavily traveled." Not standard are expressions
like "heavily admired" or "heavily characteristic of." People sometimes
use "heavily" when they mean "heartily," as in "heavily praised."
HEIGHTH/HEIGHT
"Width" has a "TH" at the end, so why doesn't "height"? In fact it used
to, but the standard pronunciation today ends in a plain "T" sound.
People who use the obsolete form misspell it as well, so pronunciation
is no guide. By the way, this is one of those pesky exceptions to the
rule, "I before E except after C," but the vowels are seldom switched,
perhaps because we see it printed on so many forms along with "age" and
"weight."
HELP THE PROBLEM
People say they want to help the problem of poverty when what they
really mean is that they want to help solve the problem of poverty.
Poverty flourishes without any extra help, thank you. I guess I know
what a "suicide help line" is, but I'd rather it were a "suicide
prevention help line." I suppose it's too late to ask people to rename
alcoholism support groups as sobriety support groups, but it's a shoddy
use of language.
HENCE WHY/HENCE
Shakespeare and the Bible keep alive one meaning of the old word
"hence": "away from here" ("get thee hence"). There's no need to add
"from" to the word, though you often see "from hence" in pretentious
writing, and it's not likely to bother many readers.
But another sense of the word "hence" ("therefore") causes more trouble
because writers often add "why" to it: "I got tired of mowing the lawn,
hence why I bought the goat." "Hence" and "why" serve the same function
in a sentence like this; use just one or the other, not both: "hence I
bought the goat" or "that's why I bought the goat."
HERBS/SPICES
People not seriously into cooking often mix up herbs and spices.
Generally, flavorings made up of stems, leaves, and flowers are herbs;
and those made of bark, roots, and seeds and dried buds are spices.
However saffron, made of flower stamens, is a spice. The British
pronounce the H in "herb" but Americans follow the French in dropping
it.
HERO/PROTAGONIST
In ordinary usage "hero" has two meanings: "leading character in a
story" and "brave, admirable person." In simple tales the two meanings
may work together, but in modern literature and film the leading
character or "protagonist" (a technical term common in literary
criticism) may behave in a very unheroic fashion. Students who express
shock that the "hero" of a play or novel behaves despicably reveal their
inexperience. In literature classes avoid the word unless you mean to
stress a character's heroic qualities. However, if you are discussing
the main character in a traditional opera, where values are often
simple, you may get by with referring to the male lead as the
"hero"--but is Don Giovanni really a hero?
See also "heroin/heroine."
HEROIN/HEROINE
Heroin is a highly addictive opium derivative; the main female character
in a narrative is a heroine.
HEW AND CRY/HUE AND CRY
If you were to accidentally whack your leg with a hatchet you might be
said to hew it, and you would certainly be justified in crying.
But in the expression "hue and cry" "hue" means "shout" and is derived
from an Old French verb "huer," designating the shouts that soldiers or
hunters make when they are on the assault. It's a bit redundant, like
"screaming and shouting"; but the spelling in this expression is
definitely the same as that of the word meaning "color": hue.
HIGHBRED/HYBRID
"Highbred" (often spelled "high-bred") is occasionally used to label
animals with superior ancestry. Snobs used to refer to members of the
nobility as "highbred."
But this rare word is often confused with "hybrid," which describes
plants, animals, and people that are the product of mixed heritage.
The offspring of a line of prize-winning dogs would be "highbred," but a
dog could be called "hybrid" if its ancestry were mixed. It might be a
prizewinner, but it might also be a mutt. Except in a context where
"highbred" is routinely used in this technical context, stick with
"hybrid." It's almost certain to be the word you need.
HIGHLY LOOKED UPON/HIGHLY REGARDED
Many people, struggling to remember the phrase "highly regarded," come
up with the awkward "highly looked upon" instead; which suggests that
the looker is placed in a high position, looking down, when what is
meant is that the looker is looking up to someone or something
admirable.
HIM, HER/HE, SHE
There is a group of personal pronouns to be used as subjects in a
sentence, including "he," "she," "I," and "we." Then there is a separate
group of object pronouns, including "him," "her," "me," and "us." The
problem is that the folks who tend to mix up the two sets often don't
find the subject/object distinction clear or helpful, and say things
like "Her and me went to the movies."
A simple test is to substitute "us" for "her and me." Would you say "us
went to the movies"? Obviously not. You'd normally say "we went to the
movies," so when "we" is broken into the two persons involved it becomes
"she and I went to the movies."
But you would say "the murder scene scared us," so it's correct to say
"the murder scene scared her and me."
If you aren't involved, use "they" and "them" as test words instead of
"we" and "us." "They won the lottery" becomes "he and she won the
lottery," and "the check was mailed to them" becomes "the check was
mailed to him and her."
See also "I/me/myself"
HINDI/HINDU
Hindi is a language. Hinduism is a religion, and its believers are
called "Hindus." Not all Hindus speak Hindi, and many Hindi-speakers are
not Hindus.
HIPPIE/HIPPY
A long-haired 60s flower child was a "hippie." "Hippy" is an adjective
describing someone with wide hips. The IE is not caused by a Y changing
to IE in the plural as in "puppy" and "puppies." It is rather a
dismissive diminutive, invented by older, more sophisticated hipsters
looking down on the new kids as mere "hippies." Confusing these two is
definitely unhip.
HIS AND HER'S/HIS AND HERS
Possessive pronouns don't take apostrophes. It's not "hi's" (but you
knew that), and it's not "her's," even in the popular phrase "his and
hers."
HISSELF/HIMSELF
In some dialects people say "hisself" for "himself," but this is
nonstandard.
AN HISTORIC/A HISTORIC
You should use "an" before a word beginning with an "H" only if the "H"
is not pronounced: "an honest effort"; it's properly "a historic event"
though many sophisticated speakers somehow prefer the sound of "an
historic," so that version is not likely to get you into any real
trouble.
HIT AND MISS/HIT OR MISS
Something done in a careless, haphazard way is done in a hit-or-miss
fashion. The person acting doesn't seem to care whether the action is
successful (a "hit") or unsuccessful (a "miss").
The variation "hit and miss" is very popular, but makes less sense. This
phrase has traditionally been used to describe certain mechanical
devices; but that meaning is rare and antiquated. In almost all
contexts, the better form is "hit or miss."
HOARD/HORDE
A greedily hoarded treasure is a hoard. A herd of wildebeests or a mob
of people is a horde.
HOCK/HAWK
People who pawn goods at a pawnshop hock them. That's why such places
are sometimes called "hock shops."
Vendors who proclaim aloud the availability of their goods on the street
hawk them. Such people are called "hawkers."
The latter word is used metaphorically of people or businesses
aggressively promoting anything for sale. They are not "hocking their
wares" (or worse, "hocking their wears"), but "hawking their wares."
HOI POLLOI
Hoi polloi is Greek for "the common people," but it is often misused to
mean "the upper class" (does "hoi" make speakers think of "high" or
"hoity-toity"?). Some urge that since "hoi" is the article "the hoi
polloi" is redundant, but the general rule is that articles such as
"the" and "a" in foreign language phrases cease to function as such in
place names, brands, and catch phrases except for some of the most
familiar ones in French and Spanish, where everyone recognizes "la"--for
instance--as meaning "the." "The El Nino" is redundant, but "the hoi
polloi" is standard English.
HOLD YOUR PEACE/SAY YOUR PIECE
Some folks imagine that since these expressions are opposites, the last
word in each should be the same, but in fact they are unrelated
expressions. The first means "maintain your silence," and the other
means literally "speak aloud a piece of writing" but is used to express
the idea of making a statement.
HOLE/WHOLE
"Hole" and "whole" have almost opposite meanings. A hole is a lack of
something, like the hole in a doughnut (despite the confusing fact that
the little nubbins of fried dough are called "doughnut holes"). "Whole"
means things like entire, complete, and healthy and is used in
expressions like "the whole thing," "whole milk," "whole wheat," and
"with a whole heart."
HOLOCAUST
"Holocaust" is a Greek-derived translation of the Hebrew term "olah,"
which denotes a sort of ritual sacrifice in which the food offered is
completely burnt up rather than being merely dedicated to God and then
eaten. It was applied with bitter irony by Jews to the destruction of
millions of their number in the Nazi death camps. Although phrases like
"nuclear holocaust" and "Cambodian holocaust" have become common, you
risk giving serious offense by using the word in less severe
circumstances, such as calling a precipitous decline in stock prices a
"sell-off holocaust."
HOME PAGE
On the World Wide Web, a "home page" is normally the first page a person
entering a site encounters, often functioning as a sort of table of
contents for the other pages. People sometimes create special pages
within their sites introducing a particular topic, and these are also
informally called "home pages" (as in "The Emily Dickinson Home Page");
but it is a sure sign of a Web novice to refer to all Web pages as home
pages.
HOMOPHOBIC
Some object to this word--arguing that it literally means "man-fearing,"
but the "homo" in "homosexual" and in this word does not refer to the
Latin word for "man," but is derived from a Greek root meaning "same"
while the "-phobic" means literally "having a fear of," but in English
has come to mean "hating." "Homophobic" is now an established term for
"prejudiced against homosexuals."
HONE IN/HOME IN
You home in on a target (the center of the target is "home"). "Honing"
has to do with sharpening knives, not aim.
HORS D'OEUVRES
If you knew only a little French, you might interpret this phrase as
meaning "out of work," but in fact it means little snack foods served
before or outside of ("hors") the main dishes of a meal (the "oeuvres").
English speakers have trouble mastering the sounds in this phrase, but
it is normally rendered "or-DERVES," in a rough approximation of the
original. Mangled spellings like "hors' dourves" are not uncommon.
Actually, many modern food writers have decided we needn't try to wrap
our tongues around this peculiar foreign phrase and now prefer
"starters." They are also commonly called "appetizers."
HOW COME/WHY
"How come?" is a common question in casual speech, but in formal
contexts use "why?"
HOW TO/HOW CAN I
You can ask someone how to publish a novel, but when you do, don't write
"How to publish a novel?" Instead ask "How can I publish a novel?" or
"How does someone publish a novel?" If you're in luck, the person you've
asked will tell you how to do it. "How to" belongs in statements, not
questions.
HUMANITY
When radio reporter Herb Morrison saw the airship Hindenberg burst into
flames in 1937, he blurted "Oh, the humanity!" meaning something like
"what terrible human suffering!" Writers who use this phrase
today--usually jokingly--are referring back to this famous incident.
Just be aware of this context if you're tempted to use the word
"humanity" in this way yourself.
HUMUS/HUMMUS
The rotted plant matter you spread on your garden to enrich it is humus.
The chickpea spread you dip your pita into is "hummus" (or "hoummos").
Turks call it "humus," but that spelling of the word is better avoided
in English: your guests might suspect you are serving them dirt.
HUNDREDS/CENTURY
"Eighteen hundreds," "sixteen hundreds" and so forth are not exactly
errors; the problem is that they are used almost exclusively by people
who are nervous about saying "nineteenth century" when, after all, the
years in that century begin with the number eighteen. This should be
simple: few people are unclear about the fact that this is the
twenty-first century even though our dates begin with twenty. For most
dates you can just add one to the second digit in a year and you've got
the number of its century. It took a hundred years to get to the year
100, so the next hundred years, which are named "101," "102," etc. were
in the second century. This also works BC. The four hundreds BC are the
fifth century BC. Using phrases like "eighteen hundreds" is a signal to
your readers that you are weak in math and history alike.
HYPERDERMIC/HYPODERMIC
Do you get a little hyper when you have to go to the doctor for a shot?
The injection is made with a hypodermic needle. The prefix "hypo-" means
"under," and the needle slides under your skin (your epidermis).
HYPHENATION
The Chicago Manual of Style contains a huge chart listing various sorts
of phrases that are or are not to be hyphenated. Consult such a
reference source for a thorough-going account of this matter, but you
may be able to get by with a few basic rules. An adverb/adjective
combination in which the adverb ends in "-LY" is never hyphenated: "His
necktie reflected his generally grotesque taste." Other sorts of adverbs
are followed by a hyphen when combined with an adjective: "His
long-suffering wife finally snapped and fed it through the office
shredder." The point here is that "long" modifies "suffering," not
"wife." When both words modify the same noun, they are not hyphenated. A
"light-green suitcase" is pale in color, but a "light green suitcase" is
not heavy. In the latter example "light" and "green" both modify
"suitcase," so no hyphen is used.
Adjectives combined with nouns having an "-ED" suffix are hyphenated:
"Frank was a hot-headed cop."
Hyphenate ages when they are adjective phrases involving a unit of
measurement: "Her ten-year-old car is beginning to give her trouble." A
girl can be a "ten-year-old" ("child" is implied). But there are no
hyphens in such an adjectival phrase as "Her car is ten years old." In
fact, hyphens are generally omitted when such phrases follow the noun
they modify except in phrases involving "all" or "self" such as
"all-knowing" or "self-confident." Fractions are almost always
hyphenated when they are adjectives: "He is one-quarter Irish and
three-quarters Nigerian." But when the numerator is already hyphenated,
the fraction itself is not, as in "ninety-nine and forty-four one
hundredths." Fractions treated as nouns are not hyphenated: "He ate one
quarter of the turkey."
A phrase composed of a noun and a present participle ("-ing" word) must
be hyphenated: "The antenna had been climbed by thrill-seeking teenagers
who didn't realize the top of it was electrified."
These are the main cases in which people are prone to misuse hyphens. If
you can master them, you will have eliminated the vast majority of such
mistakes in your writing. Some styles call for space around dashes (a
practice of which I strongly disapprove), but it is never proper to
surround hyphens with spaces, though in the following sort of pattern
you may need to follow a hyphen with a space: "Stacy's pre- and post-
haircut moods."
HYPHENS & DASHES
Dashes are longer than hyphens, but since older browsers do not reliably
interpret the code for dashes, they are usually rendered on the Web as
they were on old-fashioned typewriters, as double hyphens--like that.
Dashes tend to separate elements and hyphens to link them. Few people
would substitute a dash for a hyphen in an expression like "a
quick-witted scoundrel," but the opposite is common. In a sentence like
"Astrud--unlike Inger--enjoyed vacations in Spain rather than England,"
one often sees hyphens incorrectly substituted for dashes.
When you are typing for photocopying or direct printing, it is a good
idea to learn how to type a true dash instead of the double hyphen
(computers differ). In old-fashioned styles, dashes (but never hyphens)
are surrounded by spaces -- like this. With modern computer output which
emulates professional printing, this makes little sense. Skip the spaces
unless your editor or teacher insists on them.
There are actually two kinds of dashes. The most common is the "em dash"
(theoretically the width of a letter "M"--but this is often not the
case). To connect numbers, it is traditional to use an "en dash" which
is somewhat shorter, but not as short as a hyphen: "cocktails 5-7 pm."
All modern computers can produce en dashes, but few people know how to
type them. For most purposes you don't have to worry about them, but if
you are preparing material for print, you should learn how to use them.
In HTML, the code for an em dash is — and – is the code for
an en dash.
HYPOCRITICAL
"Hypocritical" has a narrow, very specific meaning. It describes
behavior or speech that is intended to make one look better or more
pious than one really is. It is often wrongly used to label people who
are merely narrow-minded or genuinely pious. Do not confuse this word
with "hypercritical," which describes people who are picky.
HYSTERICAL/HILARIOUS
People say of a bit of humor or a comical situation that it was
"hysterical"--shorthand for "hysterically funny"--meaning "hilarious."
But when you speak of a man being "hysterical" it means he is having a
fit of hysteria, and that may not be funny at all.
I/ME/MYSELF
In the old days when people studied traditional grammar, we could simply
say, "The first person singular pronoun is 'I' when it's a subject and
'me' when it's an object," but now few people know what that means.
Let's see if we can apply some common sense here. The misuse of "I" and
"myself" for "me" is caused by nervousness about "me." Educated people
know that "Jim and me are goin' down to slop the hogs," is not elegant
speech, not "correct." It should be "Jim and I" because if I were
slopping the hogs alone I would never say "Me is going. . . ." If you
refer to yourself first, the same rule applies: It's not "Me and Jim are
going" but "I and Jim are going."
So far so good. But the notion that there is something wrong with "me"
leads people to overcorrect and avoid it where it is perfectly
appropriate. People will say "The document had to be signed by both
Susan and I" when the correct statement would be, "The document had to
be signed by both Susan and me."
All this confusion can easily be avoided if you just remove the second
party from the sentences where you feel tempted to use "myself" as an
object or feel nervous about "me." You wouldn't say, "The IRS sent the
refund check to I," so you shouldn't say "The IRS sent the refund check
to my wife and I" either.
Trying even harder to avoid the lowly "me," many people will substitute
"myself," as in "the suspect uttered epithets at Officer O'Leary and
myself." Conservatives often object to this sort of use of "myself" when
"me" or "I" would do. It's usually appropriate to use "myself" when you
have used "I" earlier in the same sentence: "I am not particularly fond
of goat cheese myself." "I kept half the loot for myself." "Myself" is
also fine in expressions like "young people like myself" or "a picture
of my boyfriend and myself." In informal English, beginning a sentence
with "myself" to express an opinion is widely accepted: "Myself, I can't
stand dried parmesan cheese." In all of these instances you are
emphasizing your own role in the sentence, and "myself" helps do that.
On a related point, those who continue to announce "It is I" have
traditional grammatical correctness on their side, but they are vastly
outnumbered by those who proudly boast "it's me!" There's not much that
can be done about this now. Similarly, if a caller asks for Susan and
Susan answers "This is she," her somewhat antiquated correctness may to
startle the questioner into confusion.
-IC
In the Cold War era, anti-socialists often accused their enemies of
being "socialistic" by which they meant that although they were not
actually socialists, some of their beliefs were like those of
socialists. But the "-ic" suffix is recklessly used in all kinds of
settings, often without understanding its implications. Karl Marx was
not "socialistic," he was actually socialist.
ICE TEA/ICED TEA
Iced tea is not literally made of ice, it simply is �icedΣ: has ice put
into it.
IDEA/IDEAL
Any thought can be an idea, but only the best ideas worth pursuing are
ideals.
IDLE/IDOL
Something or someone inactive is idle. The word can also mean "lazy"
("the idle rich"). Unemployed workers are said to be idle, fired ones to
have been idled. A car engine can idle.
Someone you admire or something you worship is an idol. But no matter
how much you admire the former "Monty Python" actor, Eric Idle's name
should not be misspelled "Eric Idol."
IF I WAS/IF I WERE
The subjunctive mood, always weak in English, has been dwindling away
for centuries until it has almost vanished. According to traditional
thought, statements about the conditional future such as "If I were a
carpenter . . ." require the subjunctive "were"; but "was" is certainly
much more common. Still, if you want to impress those in the know with
your usage, use "were" when writing of something hypothetical, unlikely,
or contrary to fact.
The same goes for other pronouns: "you," "she," "he," and "it." In the
case of the plural pronouns "we" and "they" the form "was" is definitely
nonstandard, of course, because it is a singular form.
IF NOT
"He was smart if not exactly brilliant." In this sort of expression, "if
not" links a weaker with a stronger word with a related meaning. Other
examples: "unattractive if not downright ugly," "reasonably priced if
not exactly cheap," "interested if not actually excited."
But this sort of "if not" is often misused to link words that don't form
a weaker/stronger pair: "obscure if not boring," "happy if not
entertained," "anxious if not afraid." The linked terms in these
examples do have some logical relationship, but they do not form a
weaker/stronger pair.
IGNORANT/STUPID
A person can be ignorant (not knowing some fact or idea) without being
stupid (incapable of learning because of a basic mental deficiency). And
those who say, "That's an ignorant idea" when they mean "stupid idea"
are expressing their own ignorance.
ILLINOIS
It annoys people from this state when people pronounce the final
syllable in "Illinois" to rhyme with "noise." The final "S" in
"Illinois" is silent.
ILLUDE/ELUDE
"Illude" is a very rare word, most of whose former meanings are
obsolete, but which can mean "to deceive, lead astray." But in modern
usage this word is almost always used as an error for "elude," meaning
"escape, evade." Similarly, you would be better off avoiding the word
"illusive" and using the much more common word "illusory" to mean
"deceptive." "Illusive" is almost always an error for "elusive."
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION/VIRGIN BIRTH
The doctrine of "immaculate conception" (the belief that Mary was
conceived without inheriting original sin) is often confused with the
doctrine of the "virgin birth" (the belief that Mary gave birth to Jesus
while remaining a virgin).
IMPACT
One (very large) group of people thinks that using "impact" as a verb is
just nifty: "The announcement of yet another bug in the software will
strongly impact the price of the company's stock." Another (very
passionate) group of people thinks that "impact" should be used only as
a noun and considers the first group to be barbarians. Although the
first group may well be winning the usage struggle, you risk offending
more people by using "impact" as a verb than you will by substituting
more traditional words like "affect" or "influence."
IMPACTFUL/INFLUENTIAL
Many people in business and education like to speak of things that have
an impact as being "impactful," but this term does not appear in most
dictionaries and is not well thought of by traditionalists. Use
"influential" or "effective" instead.
IMPASSIBLE/IMPASSABLE
"Impassible" is an unusual word meaning "incapable of suffering" or
"unfeeling." The normal word for the latter meaning is "impassive." But
"impassible" is most often a spelling error for "impassable" referring
to mountain ranges, blocked roads, etc.
IMPEACH
To impeach a public official is to bring formal charges against him or
her. It is not, as many people suppose, to remove the charged official
from office. Impeachment must be followed by a formal trial and
conviction to achieve that result.
A person you would never think of accusing of any wrongdoing is
"unimpeachable."
IMPERTINENT/IRRELEVANT
"Impertinent" looks as if it ought to mean the opposite of "pertinent,"
and indeed it once did; but for centuries now its meaning in ordinary
speech has been narrowed to "impudent," specifically in regard to
actions or speech toward someone regarded as socially superior. Only
snobs and very old-fashioned people use "impertinent" correctly; most
people would be well advised to forget it and use "irrelevant" instead
to mean the opposite of "pertinent."
IMPLY/INFER
These two words, which originally had quite distinct meanings, have
become so blended together that most people no longer distinguish
between them. If you want to avoid irritating the rest of us, use
"imply" when something is being suggested without being explicitly
stated and "infer" when someone is trying to arrive at a conclusion
based on evidence. "Imply" is more assertive, active: I imply that you
need to revise your paper; and, based on my hints, you infer that I
didn't think highly of your first draft.
IN MASS/EN MASSE
We borrowed the phrase en masse from the French: "The mob marched en
masse to the Bastille." It does indeed mean "in a mass," and you can use
that English expression if you prefer, but "in mass" is an error.
IN REGARDS TO/WITH REGARD TO
Business English is deadly enough without scrambling it. "As regards
your downsizing plan . . ." is acceptable, if stiff. "In regard to" and
"with regard to" are also correct. But "in regards to" is nonstandard.
You can also convey the same idea with "in respect to" or "with respect
to," or--simplest of all--just plain "regarding."
IN SHAMBLES/A SHAMBLES
Your clothes are in tatters, your plans are in ruins, but you can
console yourself that your room cannot be "in shambles."
The expression meaning "like a wreck" is "a shambles": "Your room is a
shambles! It looks like a cyclone hit it."
A shambles used to be the counter in a meat stall and later, a bloody
butchery floor. Settings like the throne room at the end of Hamlet or a
disastrous battlefield strewn with body parts can be called "a shambles"
in the traditional sense. Now the phrase usually means just "a mess."
IN SPITE OF/ DESPITE
Although "in spite of" is perfectly standard English, some people prefer
"despite" because it is shorter. Be careful not to mix the two together
by saying "despite of" except as part of the phrase "in despite of"
meaning "in defiance of."
And note that unlike "despite," "in spite" should always be spelled as
two separate words.
IN STORE
Some people say things like "he is in store for a surprise on his
birthday" when they mean he is in line for a surprise. The metaphor is
not based on the image of going shopping in a store but of something
awaiting you--stored up for you--so the correct form would be "a
surprise is in store for him on his birthday."
IN TACT/INTACT
Often common two-word phrases are smooshed into a single word
("anymore," "alot," "everytime," "incase," "infact"). Here's an example
where some people err in the other direction. When something survives
undamaged, whole, it is not "in tact" but "intact"--one word, unbroken.
IN TERMS OF
Originally this expression was used to explain precise quantifiable
relationships: "We prefer to measure our football team's success in
terms of the number of fans attending rather than the number of games
won." But it has for a long time now been greatly overused in all kinds
of vague ways, often clumsily.
Here are some awkward uses followed by recommended alternatives: "We
have to plan soon what to do in terms of Thanksgiving." (for) "What are
we going to do in terms of paying these bills?" (about) "A little chili
powder goes a long way in terms of spicing up any dish." (toward). "What
do you like in terms of movies?" (What kind of movies do you like?)
IN THE FACT THAT/IN THAT
Many people mistakenly write "in the fact that" when they mean simply
"in that" in sentences like "It seemed wiser not to go to work in the
fact that the boss had discovered the company picnic money was missing."
Omit "the fact." While we're at it, "infact" is not a word; "in fact" is
always a two-word phrase.
IN THE MIST/IN THE MIDST
When you are surrounded by something, you're in the midst of it--its
middle. If you're in a mist, you're just in a fog.
INCASE/IN CASE
Just in case you haven't figured this out already: the expression "in
case" is two words, not one. There is a brand of equipment covers sold
under the InCase brand, but that's a very different matter, to be used
only when you need something in which to encase your iPad.
INCENT, INCENTIVIZE
Business folks sometimes use "incent" to mean "create an incentive," but
it's not standard English. "Incentivize" is even more widely used, but
strikes many people as an ugly substitute for "encourage."
INCIDENCE/INCIDENTS/INSTANCES
These three overlap in meaning just enough to confuse a lot of people.
Few of us have a need for "incidence," which most often refers to degree
or extent of the occurrence of something: "The incidence of measles in
Whitman County has dropped markedly since the vaccine has been provided
free." "Incidents," which is pronounced identically, is merely the
plural of "incident," meaning "occurrences": "Police reported damage to
three different outhouses in separate incidents last Halloween".
Instances (not "incidences") are examples: "Semicolons are not required
in the first three instances given in your query." Incidents can be used
as instances only if someone is using them as examples.
INCIDENTLY/INCIDENTALLY
"Incidently" is an unusual spelling of "incidentally" that will be
considered a spelling error by spelling checkers and by many people.
INCLUDES
When listing members of a group, use "includes" only if your list is
incomplete. A baseball team includes a pitcher, a right fielder, and a
catcher. If you are going to list every single member of a group, you
can say it consists of, is composed of, or is made up of them--but not
that it includes them.
INCREDIBLE
The other day I heard a film reviewer praise a director because he
created "incredible characters," which would literally mean unbelievable
characters. What the reviewer meant to say, of course, was precisely the
opposite: characters so lifelike as to seem like real people.
Intensifiers and superlatives tend to get worn down quickly through
overuse and become almost meaningless, but it is wise to be aware of
their root meanings so that you don't unintentionally utter absurdities.
"Fantastic" means "as in a fantasy" just as "fabulous" means "as in a
fable." A "wonderful" sight should make you pause in wonder. Some of
these words are worn down beyond redemption, however. For instance, who
now expects a "terrific" sight to terrify? And the most overused of all
these words--"awesome"--now rarely conveys a sense of awe.
INCREDULOUS/INCREDIBLE
"When Jessica said that my performance at the karaoke bar had been
incredible, I was incredulous." I hope Jessica was using "incredible" in
the casual sense of "unbelievably good" but I knew I used "incredulous"
to mean "unbelieving, skeptical," which is the only standard usage for
this word.
INDEPTH/IN DEPTH
You can make an "in-depth" study of a subject by studying it "in depth,"
but never "indepth." Like "a lot" this expression consists of two words
often mistaken for one. The first, adjectival, use of the phrase given
above is commonly hyphenated, which may lead some people to splice the
words even more closely together. "Indepth" is usually used as an adverb
by people of limited vocabulary who would be better off saying
"profoundly" or "thoroughly." Some of them go so far as to say that they
have studied a subject "indepthly." Avoid this one if you don't want to
be snickered at.
INDIAN/NATIVE AMERICAN
Although academics have long promoted "Native American" as a more
accurate label than "Indian," most of the people so labeled continue to
refer to themselves as "Indians" and prefer that term. In Canada, there
is a move to refer to descendants of the original inhabitants as "First
Nations" or "First Peoples," but so far that has not spread to the US.
INDITE/INDICT
"Indite" is a rare word meaning "to write down."
Authorities indict a person charged with a crime. This act is called an
"indictment." The C is not pronounced in these words, so that "indict"
sounds exactly like "indite," but don't let that cause you to misspell
them.
UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA
There is no such place as "the University of Indiana"; it's "Indiana
University."
I should know; I went there.
INDIVIDUAL/PERSON
Law-enforcement officers often use "individual" as a simple synonym for
"person" when they don't particularly mean to stress individuality: "I
pursued the individual who had fired the weapon at me for three blocks."
This sort of use of "individual" lends an oddly formal air to your
writing. When "person" works as well, use it.
INFAMOUS/NOTORIOUS
"Infamous" means famous in a bad way. It is related to the word
"infamy." Humorists have for a couple of centuries jokingly used the
word in a positive sense, but the effectiveness of the joke depends on
the listener knowing that this is a misuse of the term. Because this is
a very old joke indeed you should stick to using "infamous" only of
people like Hitler and Billy the Kid.
"Notorious" means the same thing as "infamous" and should also only be
used in a negative sense.
INFACT/IN FACT
"In fact" is always two words.
INFINITE
When Shakespeare's Enobarbus said of Cleopatra that "age cannot wither
her, nor custom stale her infinite variety," he was obviously
exaggerating. So few are the literal uses of "infinite" that almost
every use of it is metaphorical. There are not an infinite number of
possible positions on a chessboard, nor number of stars in the known
universe. To say of snowflakes that the possible variety of their shape
is infinite is incorrect: surely one could theoretically calculate the
maximum possible size of something one could justly call a "snowflake,"
calculate the number of molecules possible in that volume, and the
number of possible arrangements of those molecules. The result would be
a very large number, but not an infinity. Things can be innumerable (in
one sense of the word) without being infinite; in other words, things
which are beyond the human capacity to count can still be limited in
number. "Infinite" has its uses as a loose synonym for "a very great
many," but it is all too often lazily used when one doesn't want to do
the work to discover the order of magnitude involved. When you are
making quasi-scientific statements you do a disservice to your reader by
implying infinity when mere billions are involved.
INFLAMMABLE
"Inflammable" means the same thing as "flammable": burnable, capable of
being ignited or inflamed. So many people mistake the "in-" prefix as a
negative, however, that it has been largely abandoned as a warning
label.
INFLUENCIAL/INFLUENTIAL
If you have influence, you are "influential," not "influencial."
-ING
What's the point of urging people to pronounce the "G" in words ending
in "-ing" when all manner of public leaders proudly proclaim they are
"runnin' for office" and "savin' the planet"? Well, some people still
care and think dropping the "G" sounds sloppy and unsophisticated.
INK PEN/PEN
If there were any danger of confusing pens for writing with other kinds
of pens (light-, sea-, pig-) the phrase "ink pen" might be useful, but
it seems to be mainly a way of saying "not a pencil." Plain old "pen"
will do fine.
IN MEMORIAL/IMMEMORIAL
The word "immemorial" means "longer than anyone can remember." It occurs
in modern English almost exclusively in the phrase "from time
immemorial." People often hear the phrase as "in memorial," and that's
how they misspell it.
INPUT
Some people object to "input" as computer jargon that's proliferated
unjustifiably in the business world. Be aware that it's not welcome in
all settings; but whatever you do, don't misspell it "imput."
INSIGHT/INCITE
An insight is something you have: an understanding of something, a
bright idea about something.
To incite is to do something: to stimulate some action or other to be
taken. You can never have an incite.
INSTALL/INSTILL
People conjure up visions of themselves as upgradable robots when they
write things like "My Aunt Tillie tried to install the spirit of giving
in my heart." The word they are searching for is "instill." You install
equipment, you instill feelings or attitudes.
INSUNDRY/AND SUNDRY
"Sundry" means "various" in modern English, so strictly speaking
expressions like "various and sundry" and "all and sundry" are
redundant; but many redundant expressions are standard in English, as
are these. "Sundry" used to mean "different from each," which explains
why the expressions weren't redundant when thet first evolved. They were
a little like "each and every": each single individual and all of them
collectively.
The fact that "and sundry" now doesn't really add anything except a
rhetorical flourish to the expression may help to explain why some folks
mishear this phrase as "insundry."
INSTANCES/INSTANTS
Brief moments are "instants," and examples of anything are "instances."
INTEND ON/INTEND TO
You can plan on doing something, but you intend to do it. Many people
confuse these two expressions with each other and mistakenly say "intend
on." Of course if you are really determined, you can be intent on doing
something.
INTENSE/INTENSIVE
If you are putting forth an intense effort, your work is "intense": "My
intense study of Plato convinced me that I would make a good leader."
But when the intensity stems not so much from your effort as it does
from outside forces, the usual word is "intensive": "the village endured
intensive bombing."
INTENSIFIERS
People are always looking for ways to emphasize how really, really
special the subject under discussion is. (The use of "really" is one of
the weakest and least effective of these.) A host of words have been
worn down in this service to near-meaninglessness. It is good to
remember the etymological roots of such words to avoid such absurdities
as "fantastically realistic," "absolutely relative," and "incredibly
convincing." When you are tempted to use one of these vague intensifiers
consider rewriting your prose to explain more precisely and vividly what
you mean: "Fred's cooking was incredibly bad" could be changed to "When
I tasted Fred's cooking I almost thought I was back in the middle-school
cafeteria."
See also "Incredible."
INTERCESSION/INTERSESSION
In theology, "intercession" is a prayer on behalf of someone else, but
an alarming number of colleges use the word to label the period between
regular academic sessions. Such a period is properly an "intersession."
INTERGRATE/INTEGRATE
There are lots of words that begin with "inter-" but this is not one of
them. The word is "integrate" with just one R.
INTERESTING
The second syllable is normally silent in "interesting." It's
nonstandard to go out of your way to pronounce the "ter," and definitely
substandard to say "innaresting."
INTERFACE/INTERACT
The use of the computer term "interface" as a verb, substituting for
"interact," is widely objected to.
INTERMENT/INTERNMENT
Interment is burial; internment is merely imprisonment.
INTERMURAL/INTRAMURAL/EXTRAMURAL
"Intramural" means literally "within the walls" and refers to activities
that take place entirely within an institution. When at Macbeth State
University the Glamis Hall soccer team plays against the one from
Dunsinane Hall, that's an intramural game. But when MSU's Fighting Scots
travel to go up against Cawdor U. in the Porter's Bowl, the game is
"extramural" ("outside the walls")--though the perfectly correct
"intercollegiate" is more often used instead). "Intermural," a rare word
that means "between the walls,"is constantly both said and written when
"intramural" is meant.
INTERNET/INTRANET
"Internet" is the proper name of the network most people connect to, and
the word needs to be capitalized. However "intranet," a network confined
to a smaller group, is a generic term which does not deserve
capitalization. In advertising, we often read things like "unlimited
Internet, $35." It would be more accurate to refer in this sort of
context to "Internet access."
INTERPRETATE/INTERPRET
"Interpretate" is mistakenly formed from "interpretation," but the verb
form is simply "interpret." See also "orientate."
INTO/IN TO
"Into" is a preposition which often answers the question, "where?" For
example, "Tom and Becky had gone far into the cave before they realized
they were lost." Sometimes the "where" is metaphorical, as in, "He went
into the army" or "She went into business." It can also refer by analogy
to time: "The snow lingered on the ground well into April." In
old-fashioned math talk, it could be used to refer to division: "two
into six is three." In other instances where the words "in" and "to"
just happen to find themselves neighbors, they must remain separate
words. For instance, "Rachel dived back in to rescue the struggling
boy." Here "to" belongs with "rescue" and means "in order to," not
"where." (If the phrase had been "dived back into the water," "into"
would be required.)
Try speaking the sentence concerned aloud, pausing distinctly between
"in" and "to." If the result sounds wrong, you probably need "into."
Then there is the 60s colloquialism which lingers on in which "into"
means "deeply interested or involved in": "Kevin is into baseball
cards." This is derived from usages like "the committee is looking into
the fund-raising scandal." The abbreviated form is not acceptable formal
English, but is quite common in informal communications.
See also "turn into."
INTRICATE/INTEGRAL
An integral part of a machine, organization, or idea is a necessary,
inseparable part of it. Many people mistakenly substitute "intricate"
for "integral" in the phrase "an integral part."
A very simple bit of metal can be an integral part of an intricate
machine.
INTRIGUE
Something mysterious or alluring can be called "intriguing," but
"intrigue" as a noun means something rather different: scheming and
plotting. Don't say people or situations are full of intrigue when you
mean they are intriguing. The Oldsmobile car model called the Intrigue
is probably based on this common confusion.
INVESTED INTEREST/VESTED INTEREST
If you have a personal stake in something which causes you to be biased
toward it, you have a vested interest in it. People discussing financial
investment sometimes pun on this phrase by writing "invested interest,"
but most of the time when you see the latter spelling, it's just a
mistake.
INVITE/INVITATION
"Invite" (accent on the second syllable) is perfectly standard as a
verb: "Invite me to the birthday party and I'll jump out of the cake."
But "invite" (accent on the first syllable) as a noun meaning
"invitation" is less acceptable: "I got an invite to my ex-wife"s
wedding." Though this formn has become extremely popular, even in fairly
formal contexts, it is safer to use the traditional "invitation."
IRAQ
Want to sound like a good old boy who doesn't give a hoot what
foreigners think? Say "EYE-rack." But if you want to sound
knowledgeable, say "ear-ROCK." Politicians who know better sometimes
adopt the popular mispronunciation in order to sound more folksy and
down to earth.
Similarly in standard English, Iran is not pronounced "eye-RAN" but
"ear-RON."
On a related matter, the first syllable of "Italian" is pronounced just
like the first syllable in "Italy," with an "it" sound. "Eye-talian"
sounds distinctly uneducated.
IRONICALLY/COINCIDENTALLY
An event that is strikingly different from or the opposite of what one
would have expected, usually producing a sense of incongruity, is
ironic: "The sheriff proclaimed a zero-tolerance policy on drugs, but
ironically flunked his own test." Other striking comings-together of
events lacking these qualities are merely coincidental: "the lovers
leapt off the tower just as a hay wagon coincidentally happened to be
passing below."
IRREGARDLESS/REGARDLESS
Regardless of what you have heard, "irregardless" is a redundancy. The
suffix "-less" on the end of the word already makes the word negative.
It doesn't need the negative prefix "ir-" added to make it even more
negative.
IS, IS
In speech, people often lose track in the middle of a sentence and
repeat "is" instead of saying "that": "The problem with the conflict in
the Balkans is, is the ethnic tensions seem exacerbated by everything we
do." This is just a nervous tic, worth being alert against when you're
speaking publicly.
However, when you begin a sentence with the phrase "What it is," it's
normal, though awkward, to follow the phrase with another "is": What it
is, is a disaster." This colloquialism is probably derived from
expressions like this: "I'll tell you what it is; it is a disaster." In
this case, each "is" has its own proper "it," whereas the condensed
version sounds like a verbal stumble. If you would rather avoid this
sort of "is, is" you can avoid using "what it is" and say something
simple like "It's a disaster," or "The point is that it's a disaster."
Of course, I suppose it all depends on what you think the meaning of
"is" is.
ISN'T IT/INNIT
In South Asia you often hear people end sentences with "isn't it?" in
contexts where traditional English would require "doesn't it," "won't
it," "aren't you," and related expressions. In Britain and among
American Indians, among others, this "invariant isn't" is reduced to
"innit," and may be used even more broadly as a general emphatic
exclamation at the end of almost any statement.
This interesting pattern is liable to puzzle, amuse, or annoy those who
aren't used to it, isn't it?
ISLAMS/MUSLIMS
Followers of Islam are called "Muslims," not "Islams." "Muslim" is now
widely preferred over the older and less phonetically accurate "Moslem."
The S in "Islam" and "Muslim" is unvoiced like the S in "saint." It
should not be pronounced with a Z sound.
ISRAELI/ISRAELITE
In modern English the term "Israelite" is usually confined to the people
of ancient Israel, either of the kingdom of that name or--more
broadly--any Jew of the Biblical era. Only modern citizens of the state
of Israel are called "Israelis." Although the term most often refers to
Jewish citizens of that state, it can also refer to Arab, Muslim, or
Christian citizens of Israel.
ISREAL/ISRAEL
To remember how to spell "Israel" properly, try pronouncing it the way
Israelis do when they're speaking English: "ISS-rah-el."
ISSUES/PROBLEMS
An "issue" used to be a matter for consideration or discussion. For
instance, a group might discuss the issue of how best to raise funds for
its scholarship program. But people could also disagree with each other
by saying "I take issue [disagree] with you on that point."
But then mental health professionals began to talk about "child-rearing
issues" and "relationship issues," and such. In this context the meaning
of "issues" began to blur into that of "problems" and cross-pollinate
with "take issue," leading ordinary folks to begin saying things like "I
have tendonitis issues." or "I have issues with telemarketing." This
very popular sort of expression is viewed with contempt or amusement by
many traditionalists, who are truly appalled when it's extended to the
inanimate world: "these laptops have issues with some wireless cards."
ITCH/SCRATCH
Strictly speaking, you scratch an itch. If you're trying to get rid of a
tingly feeling on your back scratch it, don't itch it.
ITS/IT'S
The exception to the general rule that one should use an apostrophe to
indicate possession is in possessive pronouns. Some of them are not a
problem. "Mine" has no misleading "s" at the end to invite an
apostrophe. And few people are tempted to write "hi's," though the
equally erroneous "her's" is fairly common, as are "our's" and
"their's"--all wrong, wrong, wrong. The problem with avoiding "it's" as
a possessive is that this spelling is perfectly correct as a contraction
meaning "it is." Just remember one point and you'll never make this
mistake again: "it's" always means "it is" or "it has" and nothing else.
There is one personal pronoun--uncommon in American English--which takes
an apostrophe in its possessive form: "one," as in the title of Virginia
Woolf's famous book, "A Room of One's Own."
JACK/PLUG
In electronics, a jack is a female part into which one inserts a plug,
the male part. People get confused because "Jack" is a male name. The
cyberpunk term (from William Gibson's "Neuromancer") "jack in" should
logically be "plug in," but we're stuck with this form in the science
fiction realm.
JAM/JAMB
The only common use for the word "jamb" is to label the vertical part of
the frame of a door or window. It comes from the French word for "leg";
think of the two side pieces of the frame as legs on either side of the
opening.
For all other uses, it's "jam": stuck in a jam, traffic jam, logjam, jam
session, etc.
JERRY-BUILT/JURY-RIGGED
Although their etymologies are obscure and their meanings overlap, these
are two distinct expressions. Something poorly built is "jerry-built."
Something rigged up temporarily in a makeshift manner with materials at
hand, often in an ingenious manner, is "jury-rigged." "Jerry-built"
always has a negative connotation, whereas one can be impressed by the
cleverness of a jury-rigged solution. Many people cross-pollinate these
two expressions and mistakenly say "jerry-rigged" or "jury-built."
JEW/JEWISH
"Jew" as an adjective ("Jew lawyer") is an ethnic insult; the word is
"Jewish." But people who object to "Jew" as a noun are being
oversensitive. Most Jews are proud to be called Jews. The expression "to
Jew someone down"--an expression meaning "to bargain for a lower
price"--reflects a grossly insulting stereotype and should be avoided in
all contexts.
JEW/HEBREW
These terms overlap but are often distinguished in usage. In the older
portions of the Bible the descendants of Abraham and Sarah are referred
to as "Hebrews." Since the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity and the
return from exile, they have been known as "Jews," a name derived from
the dominant remaining tribe of Judah. Modern Jews are seldom referred
to as "Hebrews" but the language spoken in the state of Israel today,
based on ancient Hebrew, is "Modern Hebrew." Although "Hebrew" has
sometimes been used in a condescending or insulting manner to refer to
modern Jews, it is not in itself an insulting term. However, it is
normal when you have a choice to use "Jew" to refer both to people of
the Jewish faith and to ethnic Jews, religious or not.
"Hewbrew" is a common misspelling of "Hebrew." If you're in the habit of
ignoring names when they are flagged by your spelling checker, don't
ignore this one.
JEWELRY
Often mispronounced "joolereee." To remember the standard pronunciation,
just say "jewel" and add "-ree" on the end. The British spelling is much
fancier: "jewellery."
JOB TITLES
The general rule is to capitalize a title like "President" only when it
is prefixed to a particular president's name: "It is notable that
President Grover Cleveland was the first Democratic president elected
after the Civil War." Similar patterns apply for titles like
"principal," "senator," "supervisor," etc.
But often the American president's title is used as a sort of substitute
for his name, and routinely capitalized despite the objections of some
style manuals: "The President pardoned the White House Thanksgiving
turkey yesterday." And the British would never write anything other than
"The Queen ate strawberries in the Royal Enclosure." The Pope is also
usually referred to with a capital P when the specific individual is
meant: "The Pope announced that he will visit Andorra next month."
Following these common patterns is not likely to get you in trouble
unless your editor has adopted a contrary rule.
If no specific individual is meant, then definitely use lower case: "We
need to elect a homecoming queen"; "The next president will inherit a
terrible budget deficit."
JOHN HENRY/JOHN HANCOCK
John Hancock signed the Declaration of Independence so flamboyantly that
his name became a synonym for "signature." Don't mix him up with John
Henry, who was a steel-drivin' man.
JOHN HOPKINS/JOHNS HOPKINS
The famous university and hospital named Johns Hopkins derives theirs
peculiar names from their founder. "Johns" was his great-grandmother's
maiden name. It is an error to call these institutions "John Hopkins."
JOINT POSSESSIVES
When writing about jointly owned objects, people often fret about where
to place apostrophes. The standard pattern is to treat the two partners
as a single unit--a couple--and put an apostrophe only after the last
name: "John and Jane's villa," "Ben & Jerry's ice cream." Add more
owners and you still use only one apostrophe: "Bob and Carol and Ted and
Alice's party."
If each person owns his or her own item, then each owner gets an
apostrophe: "John's and Jane's cars" (each of them separately owns a
car).
But when you begin to introduce pronouns the situation becomes much
murkier. "Jane and his villa" doesn't sound right because it sounds like
Jane and the villa make a pair. The most common solution--"Jane's and
his villa"--violates the rule about using the possessive form only on
the last partner in the ownership. However, most people don't care and
using this form won't raise too many eyebrows.
How about when you have two pronouns? "She and his villa" definitely
won't work. "Her and his villa" might get by; but if you say "his and
her villa" you inevitably remind people of the common phrase "his and
hers" with a very different meaning: male and female, as in a sale on
"his and hers scarves."
If you have time to think ahead, especially when writing, the best
solution is to avoid this sort of construction altogether by rewording:
"Jane and John have a villa outside Florence. Their villa is beautiful."
"The villa owned by Jane and him is beautiful." "The villa is Jane's and
his." "The villa that he and she own is beautiful."
Things get tricky when using personal pronouns instead of names. Note
that "I's" is not an acceptable substitute for "my." It's not
"directions to my wife and I's house," but if you say "directions to my
wife and my house" it sounds as if you were providing directions to your
wife plus directions to your house. Stick with simpler constructions,
like "our house."
Other awkward examples you might want to avoid: "your and my shares"
(better: "your share and mine"), "their and our shares" (better: their
share and ours"), and "his and her shares" (not too bad, but "his share
and hers" is better).
JUDGEMENT/JUDGMENT
In Great Britain and many of its former colonies, "judgement" is still
the correct spelling, but ever since Noah Webster decreed the first E
superfluous, Americans have omitted it. Many of Webster's crotchets have
faded away (each year fewer people use the spelling "theater," for
instance); but even the producers of "Terminator 2: Judgment Day" chose
the traditional American spelling. If you write "judgement" you should
also write "colour."
JUNTA
The original and most sophisticated pronunciation of this
Spanish-derived word for an unelected military government is "HOON-tah."
Those who prefer an anglicized pronunciation say "JUNN-tuh." Those who
give it a French accent by saying "ZHOON-tuh" are just plain wrong.
JUST/JEST/GIST
"Gist" means "essence," "main part." But expressions like "the gist of
it" are most often used in modern speech to more vaguely refer to the
general sense of a matter: "I didn't understand everything in the
chapter, but I got the gist of it." This broadened sense will offend few
people, but it's more of a problem if you replace this unusual word with
a more familiar one like "just" or "jest."
JUST ASSUME/JUST AS SOON
People sometimes write, "I'd just assume stay home and watch TV." The
expression is "just as soon."
JUST SO HAPPENS/JUST HAPPEN
Traditionally the expression "just so happens " is used only with the
subject "it," with the word "so" providing emphasis: "Thank you for
inviting me to your softball game, but it just so happens to be on the
same date as my wedding, as you very well know since you are supposed to
be my best man."
Expressions such as the following are popular but non-traditional: "I
just so happen," "she just so happens," "they just so happen," etc. In
each of these cases, the "so" should be omitted.
JUTEBOX / JUKEBOX
The word "juke" originated in southern black dialect, where it came to
be associated with roadside drinking establishments, especially those
which provided music for dancing. They were called "juke joints."
Coin-operated record players which replaced the live musicians were
called "juke-boxes." The word is still in widespread use--often spelled
without the hyphen--though classic jukeboxes are now rare.
"Jute" is a tough fiber derived from the bark of various plants,
originally exported from Bengal. It is used in the manufacture of
gunnysacks, canvas, ropes, floor mats, etc. It is not suitable for the
construction of boxes.
KEY
"Deceptive marketing is key to their success as a company." "Careful
folding of the egg whites is key." This very popular sort of use of
"key" as an adjective by itself to mean "crucial" sets the teeth of some
of us on edge. It derives from an older usage of "key" as a metaphorical
noun: "The key to true happiness is an abundant supply of chocolate."
"Key" as an adjective modifying a noun is also traditional: "Key
evidence in the case was mislaid by the police."
But adjectival "key" without a noun to modify it is not so traditional.
If this sort of thing bothers you (as it does me), you'll have to grit
your teeth and sigh. It's not going away.
KICK-START/JUMP-START
You revive a dead battery by jolting it to life with a jumper cable: an
extraordinary measure used in an emergency. So if you hope to stimulate
a foundering economy, you want to jump-start it. Kick-starting is an
old-fashioned and difficult way of starting a motorcycle, so it is an
inappropriate label for a shortcut method of getting something going.
KINDLY
Long ago you might have heard someone asking for a favor in this manner:
"Would you be so kind as to fetch my shawl from the hall closet, dear.
It's a bit chilly today."
In modern speech this formula has been abbreviated to "would you kindly,
" as in "would you kindly text me when you get there?"
In the shortened version it's not obvious to some people who is supposed
to be kind. The person speaking is asking the other person to do
something kind.
When you scramble this expression by saying instead "may I kindly ask
you to text me" you are calling yourself kind. It's up to the other
person to decide whether you are being kind in asking for a favor.
"I would like to kindly ask you to bring some flowers to the party" may
seem polite at first glance, but the more logical version would by
"Would you kindly bring flowers?"
KINDERGARDEN/KINDERGARTEN
The original German spelling of the word "kindergarten" is standard in
English.
KNOTS PER HOUR/KNOTS
A knot equals one nautical mile per hour, so it makes no sense to speak
of "knots per hour." Leave off "per hour" when reporting the speed of a
vessel in knots.
KOALA BEAR/KOALA
A koala is not a bear. People who know their marsupials refer to them
simply as "koalas." Recent research, however, indicates that pandas are
related to other bears.
l/1
People who learned to type in the pre-computer era sometimes type a
lower-case letter "l" when they need a number "1." Depending on the font
being used, these may look interchangeable, but there are usually subtle
differences between the two. For instance, the top of a letter l is
usually flat, whereas the top of a number 1 often slopes down to the
left. If your writing is to be reproduced electronically or in print,
it's important to hit that number key at the top left of your keyboard
to produce a true number 1.
L/LL
There are quite a few words spelled with a double L in UK English which
are spelled in the US with a single L. Examples include "woollen" (US
"woolen"), "counsellor" (US "counselor"), "medallist" (US "medalist"),
"jeweller" (US "jeweler"), "initialled" (US "initialed"), "labelled" (US
"labeled"), "signalled" (US "signaled"), "totalled" (US "totaled").
Most of these won't cause Americans serious problems if they use the UK
spelling, and a good spelling checker set to US English will catch them.
But "chilli" looks distinctly odd to Americans when it turns up in the
UK-influenced English of South Asian cookbooks. Americans are used to
seeing it spelled "chili." (Of course Spanish speakers think it should
be "chile.")
LCD DISPLAY/LCD
"LCD" stands for "liquid crystal display," so some argue it is redundant
to write "LCD display" and argue you should use just "LCD" or "LCD
screen" instead. But some in the industry argue that "LCD display" is
the generic term for the category which comprises both LCD screens and
LCD projectors. However, if you want to avoid the redundancy in wording
you can still refer more precisely to your laptop or TV as having an LCD
screen.
Many people confuse this abbreviation with "LED," which stands for
"light-emitting diode"--a much earlier technology. You will often see
explanations even in technical contexts in which "LCD" is incorrectly
defined as "liquid crystal diode." And it is misleading to call an LCD
television screen which has LED backlighting an "LED screen."
LOL
The common Internet abbreviation "lol" (for "laughing out loud") began
as an expression of amusement or satirical contempt: "My brother-in-law
thought the hollandaise sauce was gravy and poured it all over his
mashed potatoes (lol)." It has become much overused, often to indicate
mere surprise or emphasis with no suggestion of humor: "The boss just
told us we have to redo the budget this afternoon (lol)." And some
people drop it into their prose almost at random, like a verbal hiccup.
It is no longer considered hip or sophisticated, and you won't impress
or entertain anyone by using it.
Note that this initialism has had two earlier meanings: "Little Old
Lady" and "Lots Of Love."
LAISSEZ-FAIRE
The mispronunciation "lazy-fare" is almost irresistible in English, but
this is a French expression meaning "let it be" or, more precisely, "the
economic doctrine of avoiding state regulation of the economy," and it
has retained its French pronunciation (though with an English R):
"lessay fare." It is most properly used as an adjective, as in
"laissez-faire capitalism," but is also commonly used as if it were a
noun phrase: "the Republican party advocates laissez-faire."
LAMA/LLAMA
A Tibetan monk is a "lama" and the Andean animal is a "llama." Although
both are pronounced the same in English, those who speak Castilian
Spanish pronounce the animal's name "YAH-muh."
LAND LOVER/LANDLUBBER
"Lubber" is an old term for a clumsy person, and beginning in the 18th
century sailors used it to describe a person who was not a good seaman.
So the pirate expression of scorn for those who don't go to sea is not
"land lover" but "landlubber."
LANGUISH/LUXURIATE
To languish is to wilt, pine away, become feeble. It always indicates an
undesirable state. If you're looking for a nice long soak in the tub,
what you want is not to languish in the bath but to luxuriate in it.
The word "languid" (drooping, listless) often occurs in contexts that
might lead people to think of relaxation. Even more confusing, the
related word "languorous" does describe dreamy self-indulgent
relaxation. No wonder people mistakenly think they want to "languish" in
the bath.
LARGE/IMPORTANT
In colloquial speech it's perfectly normal to refer to something as a
"big problem," but when people create analogous expressions in writing,
the result is awkward. Don't write "this is a large issue for our firm"
when what you mean is "this is an important issue for our firm." Size
and intensity are not synonymous.
LAST NAME/FAMILY NAME
Now that few people know what a "surname" is, we usually use the term
"last name" to designate a family name, but in a host of languages the
family name comes first. For instance, "Kawabata" was the family name of
author Kawabata Yasunari. For Asians, this situation is complicated
because publishers and immigrants often switch names to conform to
Western practice, so you'll find most of Kawabata's books in an American
bookstore by looking under "Yasunari Kawabata." It's safer with
international names to write "given name" and "family name" rather than
"first name" and "last name."
Note that in a multicultural society the old-fashioned term "Christian
name" (for "given name") is both inaccurate and offensive.
LATE/FORMER
If you want to refer to your former husband, don't call him your "late
husband" unless he's dead.
LATER/LATTER
Except in the expression "latter-day" (modern), the word "latter"
usually refers back to the last-mentioned of a set of alternatives. "We
gave the kids a choice of a vacation in Paris, Rome, or Disney World. Of
course the latter was their choice." In other contexts not referring
back to such a list, the word you want is "later."
Conservatives prefer to reserve "latter" for the last-named of no more
than two items.
LAUNDRY MAT/LAUNDROMAT
"Laundromat" was coined in the 1950s by analogy with "automat"--an
automated self-service restaurant-- to label an automated self-service
laundry. People unaware of this history often mistakenly deconstruct the
word into "laundry mat" or "laundrymat."
LAY/LIE
You lay down the book you've been reading, but you lie down when you go
to bed. In the present tense, if the subject is acting on some other
object, it's "lay." If the subject is lying down, then it's "lie." This
distinction is often not made in informal speech, partly because in the
past tense the words sound much more alike: "He lay down for a nap," but
"He laid down the law." If the subject is already at rest, you might
"let it lie." If a helping verb is involved, you need the past
participle forms. "Lie" becomes "lain" and "lay" becomes "laid": "He had
just lain down for a nap" and "His daughter had laid the gerbil on his
nose."
LAYED/LAID
Although "layed" is an extremely popular variant spelling of the past
tense of transitive "lay," "laid" is the traditional spelling in all
contexts. If your boss decides to lay you off, you are laid off. The hen
laid an egg. You laid down the law.
LAXADAISICAL/LACKADAISICAL
"Alack!" originally meant something like "Alas!" It bore connotations of
dissatisfaction or shame. "Alack the day!" meant at first "may the day
be shamed in which this awful thing has happened." Later, it came to be
abbreviated "lack-a-day" and used to express mere surprise.
The expression was gradually weakened, shifting from expressions of
anguish to resigned despair, to languid indifference. The end result is
the modern form "lackadaisical," which conveys a lack of enthusiasm--a
casual, perfunctory way of doing things.
This final meaning suggests "laxness" to some people who then misspell
the word "laxadaisical," but this is nonstandard.
LEACH/LEECH
Water leaches chemicals out of soil or color out of cloth, your
brother-in-law leeches off the family by constantly borrowing money to
pay his gambling debts (he behaves like a bloodsucking leech).
LEAD/LED
When you're hit over the head, the instrument could be a "lead" pipe.
But when it's a verb, "lead" is the present and "led" is the past tense.
The problem is that the past tense is pronounced exactly like the
above-mentioned plumbing material ("plumb" comes from a word meaning
"lead"), so people confuse the two. In a sentence like "She led us to
the scene of the crime," always use the three-letter spelling.
LEAST/LEST
American English keeps alive the old word "lest" in phrases like "lest
we forget," referring to something to be avoided or prevented. Many
people mistakenly substitute the more familiar word "least" in these
phrases.
LEAVE/LET
The colloquial use of "leave" to mean "let" in phrases like "leave me
be" is not standard. "Leave me alone" is fine, though.
LEGEND/MYTH
Myths are generally considered to be traditional stories whose
importance lies in their significance, like the myth of the Fall in
Eden; whereas legends can be merely famous deeds, like the legend of
Davy Crockett. In common usage "myth" usually implies fantasy. Enrico
Caruso was a legendary tenor, but Hogwarts is a mythical school. Legends
may or may not be true. But be cautious about using "myth" to mean
"untrue story" in a mythology, theology, or literature class, where
teachers can be quite touchy about insisting that the true significance
of a myth lies not in its factuality but in its meaning for the culture
which produces or adopts it.
LENSE/LENS
Although the variant spelling "lense" is listed in some dictionaries,
the standard spelling for those little disks that focus light is "lens."
LESS PAINLESS/LESS PAINFUL, MORE PAINLESS
Quite a few people accidentally say they want to make some process "less
painless" when they mean "less painful." "Less painless" would be more
painful.
LESSEN/LESSON
Although not many people try to teach someone a "lessen," many people
try to "lesson" their risks by taking precautions.
"Lessen" is something you do--a verb--and means to make smaller.
"Lesson" is a noun, something you learn or teach. Remember this lesson
and it will lessen your chances of making a mistake.
LET ALONE
"I can't remember the title of the book we were supposed to read, let
alone the details of the story." In sentences like these you give a
lesser example of something first, followed by "let alone" and then the
greater example. But people often get this backwards, and put the
greater example first.
The same pattern is followed when the expression is "much less": "I
can't change the oil in my car, much less tune the engine." The speaker
can much less well tune the engine than he or she can change the oil.
Another common expression which follows the same pattern uses "never
mind," as in "I can't afford to build a tool shed, never mind a new
house."
See also "little own."
LET'S/LETS
The only time you should spell "let's" with an apostrophe is when it
means "let us": "Let's go to the mall."
If the word you want means "allows" or "permits," no apostrophe should
be used: "My mom lets me use her car if I fill the tank."
LIABLE/LIBEL
If you are likely to do something you are liable to do it; and if a debt
can legitimately be charged to you, you are liable for it. A person who
defames you with a false accusation libels you. There is no such word as
"lible."
LIAISE
The verb "liaise," meaning to act as a liaison (intermediary between one
group and another), has been around in military contexts since early in
the 20th century, but recently it has broken out into more general use,
especially in business, where it bothers a lot of people. Although
dictionaries generally consider it standard English, you may want to
avoid it around people sensitive to business jargon.
LIBARY/LIBRARY
The first R in "library" is often slurred or omitted in speech, and it
sometimes drops out in writing as well; and "librarian" is often turned
into "libarian."
LICENCE/LICENSE
In the UK, the noun is "licence": "here is my driving licence." But when
it is a verb, the spelling is "license": "she is licensed to drive a
lorry."
In contrast, Americans use the spelling "license" in all contexts and
the spelling "licence" is considered a spelling error.
LIGHT-YEAR
"Light-year" is always a measure of distance rather than of time; in
fact it is the distance that light travels in a year. "Parsec" is also a
measure of distance, equaling 3.26 light-years, though the term was used
incorrectly as a measure of time by Han Solo in "Star Wars."
Please, "Star Wars" fans, don't bother sending me elaborate explanations
of why Solo's speech makes sense; I personally heard George Lucas admit
in a TV interview that it was just a mistake.
LIGHTED/LIT
Don't fret over the difference between these two words; they're
interchangeable.
LIGHTENING/LIGHTNING
Those bright flashes in the storm clouds used indeed to be referred to
as "lightening," later as "light'ning," but now they are simply
"lightning."
"Lightening" has a quite different meaning in modern English: making
lighter, as in lightening your load or lightening the color of your
hair.
LIKE
Since the 1950s, when it was especially associated with hipsters, "like"
as a sort of meaningless verbal hiccup has been common in speech. The
earliest uses had a sort of sense to them in which "like" introduced
feelings or perceptions which were then specified: "When I learned my
poem had been rejected I was, like, devastated." However, "like" quickly
migrated elsewhere in sentences: "I was like, just going down the road,
when, like, I saw this cop, like, hiding behind the billboard." This
habit has spread throughout American society, affecting people of all
ages. Those who have the irritating "like" habit are usually unaware of
it, even if they use it once or twice in every sentence: but if your job
involves much speaking with others, it's a habit worth breaking.
Recently young people have extended its uses by using "like" to
introduce thoughts and speeches: "When he tells me his car broke down on
the way to my party I'm like, 'I know you were with Cheryl because she
told me so.' " To be reacted to as a grown-up, avoid this pattern.
(See also "goes.")
Some stodgy conservatives still object to the use of "like" to mean
"as," "as though" or "as if." Examples: "Treat other people like you
want them to treat you" (they prefer: "as you would want them to treat
you"). "She treats her dog like a baby" (they prefer "she treats her dog
as if it were a baby"). In expressions where the verb is implied rather
than expressed, "like" is standard rather than "as": "she took to
gymnastics like a duck to water."
In informal contexts, "like" often sounds more natural than "as if,"
especially with verbs involving perception, like "look," "feel,"
"sound," "seem," or "taste": "It looks like it's getting ready to rain"
or "It feels like spring." In expressions where the verb is implied
rather than expressed, "like" is standard rather than "as": "she took to
gymnastics like a duck to water."
So nervous do some people get about "like" that they try to avoid it
even in its core meaning of "such as": "ice cream flavors like vanilla
and strawberry always sell well" (they prefer "such as vanilla . . .").
The most fanatical even avoid "like" where it is definitely standard, in
such phrases as "behaved like a slob" ("behaved as a slob" is their odd
preference).
Like you care.
LIKELINESS/LIKENESS
Your portrait is your likeness, not your "likeliness."
The probability of something is its likeliness.
LENTIL/LINTEL
Lentils are legumes--food.
Lintels are horizontal load-bearing members over doors, windows &
fireplaces--architecture.
LION'S SHARE
Even though the original meaning of this phrase reflected the idea that
the lion can take whatever he wants--typically all of the slaughtered
game, leaving nothing for anyone else--in modern usage the meaning has
shifted to "the largest share." This makes great sense if you consider
the way hyenas and vultures swarm over the leftovers from a typical
lion's kill.
LIP-SING/LIP-SYNCH
When you pretend you are singing by synchronizing your lip movements to
a recording, you lip-synch--the vocal equivalent of playing "air
guitar." Some people mistakenly think the expression is "lip-sing," and
they often omit the required hyphen as well. Note that you can lip-synch
to speech as well as singing.
Many writers use the spelling "sync" rather than "synch." Users of each
form tend to regard the other as weird, but in contemporary writing
"sync" clearly prevails.
LIQUOR
Although it may be pronounced "likker," you shouldn't spell it that way,
and it's important to remember to include the "U" when writing the word.
LISTSERV
"LISTSERV" is the brand name of one kind of electronic mail-handling
software for distributing messages to a list of subscribers. Other
common brand names are "Majordomo" and "Listproc". You can subscribe to
the poodle-fluffing list, but not the LISTSERV. People at my university,
where only Listproc is used, often (and erroneously) refer to themselves
as managers of "listservs." English teachers are frequently tripped up
when typing "listserv" as part of a computer command; they naturally
want to append an E on the end of the word. According to L-Soft, the
manufacturer of LISTSERV, the name of their software should always be
capitalized. See their Web site for the details:
http://www.lsoft.com/manuals/1.8d/user/user.html#1.1
"LITE" SPELLING
Attempts to "reform" English spelling to render it more phonetic have
mostly been doomed to failure--luckily for us. These proposed changes,
if widely adopted, would make old books difficult to read and obscure
etymological roots which are often a useful guide to meaning. A few,
like "lite" for "light," "nite" for "night," and "thru" for "through"
have attained a degree of popular acceptance, but none of these should
be used in formal writing. "Catalog" has become an accepted substitute
for "catalogue," but I don't like it and refuse to use it. "Analog" has
triumphed in technical contexts, but humanists are still more likely to
write "analogue."
LITERALLY
Like "incredible," "literally" has been so overused as a sort of vague
intensifier that it is in danger of losing its literal meaning. It
should be used to distinguish between a figurative and a literal meaning
of a phrase. It should not be used as a synonym for "actually" or
"really." Don't say of someone that he "literally blew up" unless he
swallowed a stick of dynamite.
LITERATURE
Businesspeople like to refer to advertising brochures and instructional
manuals as "literature." This drives writers and literary scholars nuts,
but who else cares? If you should happen to be trying to sell a product
to a bunch of English majors, don't offer them "literature" about it
unless it was written by a distinguished author.
LITTLE OWN/LET ALONE
When Tom writes "I don't even understand what you're saying, little own
agree with it" he is misunderstanding the standard phrase "let alone."
In the same context many people would say "never mind."
LITTLE TO NONE/LITTLE OR NONE
The expression "little or none" is meant to describe a very narrow
distinction, between hardly any and none at all: "The store's tomatoes
had little or none of the flavor I get from eating what I grow in my
garden." The mistaken variation "little to none" blunts this
expression's force by implying a range of amounts between two extremes.
LOOKIT/LOOK
"Lookit"--meaning "listen," "pay attention to what I'm going to say"--
is casual slang, and is associated by many people with the speech of
small children. Preceding a statement with "look" is not formal usage
either, but it sounds more grown-up.
LIVED
In expressions like "long-lived" pronouncing the last part to rhyme with
"dived" is more traditional, but rhyming it with "sieved" is so common
that it's now widely acceptable.
LOATH/LOATHE
"Loath" is a rather formal adjective meaning reluctant and rhymes with
"both," whereas "loathe" is a common verb meaning to dislike intensely,
and rhymes with "clothe." Kenji is loath to go to the conference at
Kilauea because he loathes volcanos.
LOGIN, LOG-IN, LOG IN
There is a strong tendency in American English to smoosh the halves of
hyphenated word and phrases together and drop the hyphen, so we commonly
see phrases such as "enter your login and password." This is a misuse of
"login" since logging in involves entering both your ID and password,
and "login" is not a proper synonym for "ID" alone, or "user name"
--commonly abbreviated to the ugly "username". Such mash-ups are
influenced by the world of computer programming, where hyphens and
spaces are avoided.
If you would prefer to use more standard English, it would be
appropriate to use "log-in" as the adjectival phrase: "Follow the
correct log-in procedure." But the verb-plus-adverb combination should
not be hyphenated: "Before viewing the picture of Britney you'll need to
log in."
"Log on" and "log-on" mean the same thing as "log in" and "log-in" but
are less common now.
LOGON/VISIT
You log on to a Web site by entering your ID and password. If you are
merely encouraging people to visit a site which has no such requirement,
it is misleading to ask them to "log on" to it. News reporters often get
this wrong by reporting how many people "logged on" to a particular site
when they mean "visited." "Visit" or just "go to" will do just fine.
LONG STORY SHORT/TO MAKE A LONG STORY SHORT
The traditional expression "to make (or cut) a long story short" is now
commonly abbreviated by omitting the first phrase: "Long story short, I
missed my plane." Although there's a certain appeal to the notion of
abbreviating an expression about abbreviation, the shorter form sounds
odd to people not used to it.
LOSE/LOOSE
This confusion can easily be avoided if you pronounce the word intended
aloud. If it has a voiced Z sound, then it's "lose." If it has a hissy S
sound, then it's "loose." Here are examples of correct usage: "He tends
to lose his keys." "She lets her dog run loose." Note that when "lose"
turns into "losing" it loses its "E."
LOSER/LOOSER
A person who's a failure is a loser, often a "real loser." If something
is loosened, it becomes looser.
LOT, PLENTY, LOAD (NUMBER)
The expression "a lot" takes a singular verb when it refers to an amount
of something that can't be counted: "a lot of water has gone over the
dam." But it takes a plural verb when it refers to a countable number of
things: "there are a lot of fish in the sea." "Lots" works the same way:
"there is lots of room left in the theater, but for some reason lots of
us are still waiting to be seated." Remember that "there's" is a
contraction of "there is"; so instead of "there's a lot of flowers in
the garden," say "there are a lot of flowers."
The same rule applies to "plenty" and "load." "There is plenty of turkey
left," but "there are plenty of pecans in the pie." "Loads of dirty
dishes are in the sink," so "there is loads of washing up to do."
LOZENGER/LOZENGE
"Lozenger" is an archaic spelling still in use in a few American
dialects. It is occasionally mistaken for a singular form of "lozenges."
The standard spelling is "lozenge."
LUSTFUL/LUSTY
"Lusty" means "brimming with vigor and good health" or "enthusiastic."
Don't confuse it with "lustful," which means "filled with sexual
desire."
MAC/Mac
Apple's Macintosh computers are usually referred to as "Macs" for short.
Windows users unfamiliar with the usual way of rendering the name often
write it as if it were an acronym, in all caps: "MAC."
But a MAC is something quite different. Every computer on a network has
a Media Access Control number; so when your IT support person asks you
for your "MAC address," don't say you don't have one just because you
use Windows. Don't ask me how to find the MAC address for your Windows
computer though; I'm a Mac user.
MACABRE
"Macabre" is a French-derived word which in its original language has
the final "ruh" sound lightly pronounced. Those who know this are likely
to scorn those who pronounce the word "muh-COB." But this latter
pronunciation is very popular and blessed by some American dictionaries,
and those who prefer it sometimes view the French-derived pronunciation
as pretentious. It's up to you whether you want to risk being considered
ignorant or snooty.
MAGIC BULLET/SILVER BULLET
In modern English there are a number of specialized uses for the phrase
"magic bullet"; but the traditional term for a quick, effective solution
to a difficult problem is "silver bullet." It is derived from the folk
belief that bullets made of silver were especially effective against
werewolves, vampires, and other supernatural monsters.
MAJORITY ARE/MAJORITY IS
"Majority" is one of those words that can be either singular or plural.
Common sense works pretty well in deciding which. If you mean the word
to describe a collection of individuals, then the word should be treated
as plural: "The majority of e-mail users are upset about the increase in
spam." If the word is used to describe a collective group, then consider
it singular: "A 90% majority is opposed to scheduling the next meeting
at 6:00 A.M." If you are uncertain which you mean, then choose whatever
form sounds best to you; it's not likely to bother many people.
"Majority" should be used only with countable nouns: "he ate the
majority of the cookies," but not "he ate the majority of the pie."
Instead say, "he ate most of the pie."
MAJORLY/EXTREMELY
"Majorly," meaning "extremely" is slang and should not be used in formal
writing, or even speech if you want to impress someone. "Brad was
extremely [not 'majorly'] worried about the course final until he got
around to reading the syllabus and found out there wasn't one."
MAKE PRETEND/MAKE BELIEVE
When you pretend to do something in a game of fantasy, you make believe.
MANTLE/MANTEL
Though they stem from the same word, a "mantle" today is usually a
cloak, while the shelf over a fireplace is most often spelled "mantel."
MANUFACTURE/MANUFACTURER
When your company makes stuff, it manufactures it, but the company
itself is a manufacturer. Both in speech and writing the final R is
often omitted from the latter word.
MARINATE ON/MEDITATE ON
To add flavor and moisture to meats or other raw ingredients, you can
soak them for a while in a flavored liquid marinade (note that the word
for the liquid is spelled with a D). You marinate it (note that the word
for the action is spelled with a T). Almost never would you have a
legitimate reason to use the phrase "marinate on."
When you ponder a subject thoughtfully, you meditate on it. So many
people are misusing "marinate" when they mean "meditate" that some have
concluded that they are related words with overlapping meanings. They
urge people to think carefully about a subject by telling them to
"marinate and meditate" on it. Letting thoughts soak into your
consciousness has nothing to do with marinades.
MARITAL/MARTIAL
"Marital" refers to marriage, "martial" to war, whose ancient god was
Mars. These two are often swapped, with comical results.
MARSHALL/MARSHAL
You may write "the Field Marshal marshalled his troops," but you cannot
spell his title with a double "L." A marshal is always a marshal, never
a marshall.
MARSHMELLOW/MARSHMALLOW
Your s'mores may taste mellow, but that gooey confection you use in them
is not "marshmellow," but "marshmallow." It was originally made from the
root of a mallow plant which grew in marshes.
MASH POTATOES/MASHED POTATOES
You mash the potatoes until they become mashed potatoes.
MASS/MASSIVE
When the dumb Coneheads on "Saturday Night Live" talked about consuming
"mass quantities" of food they didn't know any better, but native Earth
humans wanting an adjective rather than a noun should stick with
"massive" unless they are trying to allude to SNL. "Mass" is often used
by young people in expressions where "many" or even the informal "a lot
of" would be more appropriate.
Expressions in which the noun "mass" can modify another noun, as in
"mass migrations," are fine; but when you can use "massive" instead you
should do so.
MASSEUSE/MASSEUR
"Masseuse" is a strictly female term; Monsieur Philippe, who gives back
rubs down at the men's gym, is a masseur. Because of the unsavory
associations that have gathered around the term "masseuse," serious
practitioners generally prefer to be called "massage therapists."
MATERIAL/MATERIEL
"Material" is a very common word, so it's not surprising that when
people encounter the French-derived spelling "materiel" in military
contexts ("supplying men and materiel"), they think it's a mistake and
"correct" it to the more familiar "material." The equipment and supplies
used by armies and other organizations are "materiel," which is never
spelled with an S on the end.
MAY/MIGHT
Most of the time "might" and "may" are almost interchangeable, with
"might" suggesting a somewhat lower probability. You're more likely to
get wet if the forecaster says it may rain than if she says it might
rain, but substituting one for the other is unlikely to get you into
trouble--so long as you stay in the present tense.
But "might" is also the past tense of the auxiliary verb "may," and is
required in sentences like "Chuck might have avoided arrest for the
robbery if he hadn't given the teller his business card before asking
for the money." When speculating that events might have been other than
they were mny speakers now substitute "may" for "might," but this annoys
traditionalists.
When you are uncertain what has happened and are making a guess, then
you may want to use "may": "I think he may have thought I would really
like an oil change for my birthday."
As an aside: if you are an old-fashioned child, you will ask, "May I go
out to play?" rather than "Can I go out to play?" Despite the prevalence
of the latter pattern, some adults still feel strongly that "may" has to
do with permission whereas "can" implies only physical ability. But then
if you have a parent like this you've had this pattern drilled into your
head long before you encountered this page.
ME EITHER/ME NEITHER
Inside a longer sentence, "me either" can be perfectly legitimate:
"whole-wheat pie crust doesn't appeal to me either." But by itself,
meaning "neither do I," in reply to previous negative statement, it has
to be "me neither": "I don't like whole-wheat pie crust." "Me neither."
MEAN/MEDIAN
To find the mean (or average) of a series of numbers, for example
1,2,3,4,5 & 6, add them all together for a total of 21; then divide by
the number of numbers (6) to give the mean (or average) of 3.5.
In contrast, when half the data of a set are above a point and half
below, that point is the median. The difference between mean and median
can be quite significant, but one often sees the terms used wrongly even
in technical contexts.
MEAN FOR/MEAN
"I didn't mean for you to see your present until I'd wrapped it." This
sort of use of "mean for" is a casual pattern inappropriate in written
or formal English. Instead, say "I didn't mean you to see your present.
. . .
MEANTIME/MEANWHILE
Although most authorities now consider these words interchangeable, some
people still prefer to use "meanwhile" when it stands alone at the
beginning of a sentence: "Meanwhile the dog buried the baby's pacifier
in the garden." They prefer "meantime" to be used only in the expression
"in the meantime": "In the meantime, the dog chewed up my last tennis
ball."
MEDAL/METAL/MEDDLE/METTLE
A person who proves his or her mettle displays courage or stamina. The
word "mettle" is seldom used outside of this expression, so people
constantly confuse it with other similar-sounding words.
MEDIA/MEDIUM
There are several words with Latin or Greek roots whose plural forms
ending in A are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for
instance, "criteria" and "data." Radio is a broadcast medium. Television
is another broadcast medium. Newspapers are a print medium. Together
they are media. Following the tendency of Americans to abbreviate
phrases, with "transistor radio" becoming "transistor," (now fortunately
obsolete) and "videotape" becoming "video," "news media" and
"communications media" have been abbreviated to "media." Remember that
watercolor on paper and oil on black velvet are also media, though they
have nothing to do with the news. When you want to get a message from
your late Uncle Fred, you may consult a medium. The word means a vehicle
between some source of information and the recipient of it. The "media"
are the transmitters of the news; they are not the news itself.
MEDIEVAL AGES/MIDDLE AGES
The "eval" of "Medieval" means "age" so by saying "Medieval Ages" you
are saying "Middle Ages Ages." Medievalists also greatly resent the
common misspelling "Midevil."
MEDIOCRE
Although some dictionaries accept the meaning of this word as "medium"
or "average," in fact its connotations are almost always more negative.
When something is distinctly not as good as it could be, it is mediocre.
If you want to say that you are an average student, don't proclaim
yourself mediocre, or you'll convey a worse impression of yourself than
you intend.
MEDIUM/MEDIAN
That strip of grass separating the lanes going opposite directions in
the middle of a freeway is a median. But if you're trying to achieve a
balance between extremes, you're trying to strike a happy medium.
MEET UP/MEET
"Meet up with" and similar expressions (as in "let's meet up with them
at the diner") is casual and slangy. In standard English, omit the "up
with": "Let's meet them at the diner."
MEMORIUM/MEMORIAM
The correct spelling of the Latin phrase is "in memoriam."
METEOR/METEORITE/METEOROID
A chunk of rock out in space is a "meteoroid." If it plummets down
through the earth's atmosphere, the resulting streak of light is called
a "meteor." And if it lands on the ground, the chunk of stone is called
a "meteorite."
Don't confuse meteors with comets, which are masses of ice and dust
whose tails are produced not inside our atmosphere, but out in space.
When a comet gets too close to the Sun its warmth and the pressure of
the solar wind cause some of the comet to evaporate and stream out to
form a tail.
METHODOLOGY/METHOD
A fondness for big words isn't always accompanied by the knowledge of
their proper use. Methodology is about the methods of doing something;
it is not the methods themselves. It is both pretentious and erroneous
to write "The architect is trying to determine a methodology for
reinforcing the foundation now that the hotel on top of it has begun to
sink."
MFR./MFG.
"Mfr." is the abbreviation for "manufacturer" and "mfg." is the
abbreviation for "manufacturing." Acme Mfg. Co. is a mfr. of roadrunner
traps.
MIC/MIKE
Until recently the casual term for a microphone was "mike," not "mic."
Young people now mostly imitate the technicians who prefer the shorter
"mic" label on their soundboards, but it looks distinctly odd to those
used to the traditional term. There are no other words in English in
which "-ic" is pronounced to rhyme with "bike"--that's the reason for
the traditional "mike" spelling in the first place. Although the new
spelling has largely triumphed in casual usage, editors may ask you to
use the older spelling in publication.
MIDDLEAGED/MIDDLE-AGED
When you're in your teens, you're a teenager; but when you get older,
you earn a hyphen: you become "middle-aged."
MIDRIFT/MIDRIFF
"Midriff" derives from "mid-" and a very old word for the belly.
Fashions which bare the belly expose the midriff. People think of the
gap being created by scanty tops and bottoms as a rift, and mistakenly
call it a "midrift" instead. In earlier centuries, before belly-baring
was in, the midriff was also the piece of cloth which covered the area.
MIGHT COULD/MIGHT, COULD
In some American dialects it is common to say things like "I might could
pick up some pizza on the way to the party." In standard English,
"might" or "could" are used by themselves, not together.
"Had ought," "hadn't ought," "shouldn't ought," and "might can" are
similarly nonstandard.
MIGHT OUGHT/MIGHT, OUGHT
In some dialects it's common to say things like "you might ought to
[pronounced oughta] turn off the engine before changing the spark
plugs." If you want to sound educated, you might want to avoid this
combination. If you want to sound sophisticated you definitely ought to.
MIGHT HAS WELL/MIGHT AS WELL
You might as well get this one right: the expression is not "might has
well" but "might as well."
MILITATE/MITIGATE
These are not very common words, but people who use them--especially
lawyers--tend to mix them up. "Militate" is usually followed by
"against" in a phrase that means "works against": "His enthusiasm for
spectacular collisions militates against his becoming a really effective
air traffic controller."
"Mitigate" means almost the opposite: to make easier, to moderate. "His
pain at leaving was mitigated by her passionate kiss." It should not be
followed by "against."
MIND OF INFORMATION/MINE OF INFORMATION
A book, a person, or any other source stuffed with gems of useful
knowledge is a mine of information, a metaphorical treasure trove of
learning. The information involved may or may not be in someone's mind.
MINER/MINOR
Children are minors, but unless they are violating child-labor laws,
those who work in mines are miners.
MINORITY
In the US the term "minority" frequently refers to racial minorities,
and is used not only for groups, but also for individuals. But many
authorities object to calling a single person a minority, as in "We
hired a minority for the job." Even phrases like "women and minorities"
bother some people. They think it should be "members of minorities."
MINISCULE/MINUSCULE
The preferred spelling is "minuscule."
MINUS/HYPHEN
When baffled computer users phone Support they may say they have a Model
AB "minus" 231. In the model name "AB-231" the linking character is a
hyphen, though "dash" will do. "Minus" makes no sense in such contexts,
but is so common that support personnel have begun to adopt it too.
MINUS WELL/MIGHT AS WELL
When you see the way some people misspell common phrases you sometimes
feel you might as well give up. It's simply amazing how many people
think the standard phrase "might as well" is "minus well."
MISCHIEVIOUS/MISCHIEVOUS
The correct pronunciation of this word is "MISS-chuh-vuss," not
"miss-CHEE-vee-uss." Don't let that mischievous extra "I" sneak into the
word.
MISNOMER
A misnomer is mistake in naming a thing; calling a debit card a "credit
card" is a misnomer. Do not use the term more generally to designate
other sorts of confusion, misunderstood concepts, or fallacies, and
above all do not render this word as "misnamer."
MISPELL / MISSPELL
Your spelling checker should catch this one, but judging by the
popularity of "mispell," "mispelled," and "mispelling" on the Web, it
slips by many people. These words need two S's: one to end "mis-" and
another to begin "-spell." So the words are "misspell," "misspelled,"
and "misspelling." This ranks as an embarrassing spelling mistake right
up there with "writting."
MISPLACED STRESS
"We WILL be descending shortly INTO Denver," says the flight attendant,
sounding very weird. People who have to repeat announcements by
rote--including radio station-break announcers and others--often try to
avoid sounding like monotonous robots by raising and lowering the pitch
of their voices at random and stressing words not normally stressed:
mostly prepositions and auxiliary verbs. One has to sympathize; imagine
having to repeatedly lecture a plane full of people on seat-belt use
when you know for a fact the only adults on board likely not to know
already how to fasten a buckle are too demented to understand what
you're saying. But the absurd sing-song into which many of these folks
fall is both distracting and irritating, making them sound like
malfunctioning robots. Those who speak in natural voices, stressing main
nouns, verbs, and adjectives where it makes sense, are much easier to
listen to.
MIXED-UP MEDIA
Mixed media can be great; mixed-up media not so much.
Books are published, movies and musical recordings released, and plays
and TV shows premiered.
Movies are shown, plays staged, and TV shows broadcast.
Technically recordings get deleted (from catalogues) or withdrawn rather
than going out of print like books (which may also be remaindered: sold
at discount, or worse--pulped). However, there is a strong tendency to
use "out of print" for all kinds of media: CDs, DVDs, etc. Movies and
stage shows close or end their runs, but only stage shows fold.
MOLTEN/MELTED
"Molten" is now usually used to describe hard materials like lava,
glass, and lead liquefied by very high heat. Most other substances are
"melted," though some people like to refer to "molten cheese" and a
popular dessert is called "molten chocolate cake," perhaps to emphasize
its gooey, lava-like character.
MONEY IS NO OPTION/MONEY IS NO OBJECT
The expression "money is no object" means that cost is no obstacle:
you're willing to pay whatever is required to get what you want.
People who don't understand this unusual meaning of "object" often
substitute "option," saying "money is no option," which makes no sense
at all.
MONGOLOID
"Mongoloid" is an outdated anthropological term referring to certain
peoples from central and eastern Asia. Its use to label people with Down
Syndrome is also dated and highly offensive. Avoid the term entirely. If
you have cause to refer to people from Mongolia the proper term is
"Mongolian."
MONO E MONO/MANO A MANO
"Mono e mono" is an error caused by mishearing the Spanish expression
"mano a mano" which means not "man-to-man" but "hand-to-hand," as in
hand-to-hand combat: one on one.
MORAL/MORALE
If you are trying to make people behave properly, you are policing their
morals; if you are just trying to keep their spirits up, you are trying
to maintain their morale. "Moral" is accented on the first syllable,
"morale" on the second.
MORAYS/MORES
The customs of a people are its mores. These may include its morals
(ethics), but the word "mores" is not synonymous with "morals." Some
eels are morays, but they aren't known particularly for their social
customs, though both words are pronounced the same.
MORE IMPORTANTLY/MORE IMPORTANT
When speakers are trying to impress audiences with their rhetoric, they
often seem to feel that the extra syllable in "importantly" lends weight
to their remarks: "and more importantly, I have an abiding love for the
American people." However, these pompous speakers are wrong. It is
rarely correct to use this form of the phrase because it is seldom
adverbial in intention. Say "more important" instead. The same applies
to "most importantly"; it should be "most important."
MORE/MOST
It is traditional to use "most" when comparing three or more things and
"more" when comparing only two. "This is the more powerful of the two
vacuum cleaners." "This is the most delicious entree on the menu." In
casual speech this pattern is often ignored, but it's good to keep the
distinction in mind when writing or speaking formally.
MORESO/MORE SO
"More so" should always be spelled as two distinct words. It is also
overused and misused. Wherever possible, stick with plain "more."
MOST ALWAYS/ALMOST ALWAYS
"Most always" is a casual, slangy way of saying "almost always." The
latter expression is better in writing. The same is true of "most
every," "most all" and related expressions where the standard first word
is "almost."
MOTHERLOAD/MOTHER LODE
Although you may dig a load of ore out of a mother lode, the spelling
"motherload" is a mistake which is probably influenced by people
thinking it means something like "the mother of all loads." A "lode" was
originally a stream of water, but by analogy it became a vein of metal
ore. Miners of precious metals dream of finding a really rich vein,
which they refer to as a "mother lode," most often spelled as two words,
though you also commonly see it spelled as one.
MOTION/MOVE
When you make a motion in a meeting, say simply "I move," as in "I move
to adjourn"; and if you're taking the minutes, write "Barbara moved,"
not "Barbara motioned" (unless Barbara was making wild arm-waving
gestures to summon the servers to bring in the lunch). Instead of "I
want to make a motion . . ." it's simpler and more direct to say "I want
to move. . . ."
MUCH DIFFERENTLY/VERY DIFFERENTLY
Say "We consistently vote very differently," not "much differently." But
you can say "My opinion doesn't much differ from yours."
MUCUS/MUCOUS
Mucous membranes secrete mucus. "Mucus" is the noun and "mucous" is the
adjective. It's not only snotty biologists who insist on distinguishing
between these two words.
MULTIPART NAMES
In many European languages family names are often preceded by a
preposition (de, da, di, von, and van all mean "of"), an article (le and
la mean "the") or both (du, des, del, de la, della and van der all mean
"of the"). Such prefixes often originated as designators of nobility--or
pretensions to it--but today they are just incidental parts of certain
names.
In their original languages the two parts of the name are usually
separated by a space, and the prefixed preposition or article is not
capitalized unless it begins a sentence. If you take a college course
involving famous European names you will be expected to follow this
pattern. It's not "De Beauvoir" but "de Beauvoir"; not "Van Gogh" but
"van Gogh." The only exception is when the name begins a sentence: "De
Gaulle led the Free French," but "Charles de Gaulle had a big nose."
Some European names evolved into one-word spellings early on (Dupont,
Lamartine, Dallapiccola), but they are not likely to cause problems
because English speakers are usually unaware of the signficance of their
initial syllables.
When families bearing prefixed names move to the US, they often adapt
their spelling to a one-word form. A well-known example is "DiCaprio."
French le Blanc becomes LeBlanc in America, and Italian di Franco
becomes DiFranco. The name "de Vries" is spelled in English by various
people bearing that name "De Vries," "DeVries," and "Devries." You have
to check carefully to determine how a particular person prefers the name
to be spelled. Library reference tools like Who's Who are more reliable
than most Web sources.
The practice of retaining the capital letter inside the fused form is
one peculiar to American English. Early books by famed science-fiction
author Ursula K. Le Guin rendered her name "LeGuin" though later
reprints go with the separated form, which we may assume is her
preference. The fused form has the advantage of being easier for
computers to sort into alphabetized lists. You will find many Web pages
in which the names of Europeans are adapted to the one-word form, but
this is a sign of a lack of sophistication.
Once you learn to properly separate the parts of a last name, you need
to know how to alphabetize it. Put van Gogh under V, but Van Morrison
under M ("Van" is his given name, not part of his family name). Ludwig
van Beethoven, however, is under B, not V.
College students also need to know that most Medieval and many
Renaissance names consist of a single given name linked to a place name
to indicate where the person came from. Marie de France means simply
"Marie of France," and she should never be referred to as simply "de
France." After introducing her full name, refer to her as "Marie."
Forget The Da Vinci Code; scholars refer to him as "Leonardo," never as
"da Vinci."
MULTIPLY BY DOUBLE / DOUBLE, MULTIPLY BY 2
If you are talking about making a number twice as large, the expression
is "double" or "multiply by 2": "double your sales to multiply your
income by 2."
You could properly say "increase by a 100%" to mean the same thing, but
lots of people won't understand that.
And definitely do not confuse people by saying "multiply by double."
See also "divide by half."
MUMBLE JUMBO, MUMBO JUMBLE/MUMBO JUMBO, MUMBLE JUMBLE
The original and by far the most common form of this expression
referring to superstitions or needlessly complex and obscure language is
"mumbo jumbo." "Mumble jumble" is far less common, but still accepted by
the "Oxford English Dictionary" as a variant.
But the hybrid forms "mumble jumbo" and "mumbo jumble" are just
mistakes.
MUSIC/SINGING
After my wife--an accomplished soprano--reported indignantly that a
friend of hers had stated that her church had "no music, only singing,"
I began to notice the same tendency among my students to equate music
strictly with instrumental music. I was told by one that "the singing
interfered with the music" (i.e., the accompaniment). In the classical
realm most listeners seem to prefer instrumental to vocal performances,
which is odd given the distinct unpopularity of strictly instrumental
popular music. People rejoice at the sound of choral works at Christmas
but seldom seek them out at other times of the year. Serious music
lovers rightly object to the linguistic sloppiness that denies the label
"music" to works by such composers as Palestrina, Schubert, and Verdi.
From the Middle Ages to the late eighteenth century, vocal music reigned
supreme, and instrumentalists strove to achieve the prized compliment of
"sounding like the human voice." The dominance of orchestral works is a
comparatively recent phenomenon.
In contrast, my students often call instrumental works "songs," being
unfamiliar with the terms "composition" and "piece." All singing is
music, but not all music is singing.
MUST OF/MUST HAVE
"Must of" is an error for "must have."
See "could of/should of/would of."
MUTE POINT/MOOT POINT
"Moot" is a very old word related to "meeting," specifically a meeting
where serious matters are discussed. Oddly enough, a moot point can be a
point worth discussing at a meeting (or in court)--an unresolved
question--or it can be the opposite: a point already settled and not
worth discussing further. At any rate, "mute point" is simply wrong, as
is the less common "mood point."
MYRIAD OF/MYRIAD
Some traditionalists object to the word "of" after "myriad" or an "a"
before, though both are fairly common in formal writing. The word is
originally Greek, meaning 10,000, but now usually means "a great many."
Its main function is as a noun, and the adjective derived from it shows
its origins by being reluctant to behave like other nouns expressing
amount, like "ton" as in "I've got a ton of work to do." In contrast: "I
have myriad tasks to complete at work."
N'/'N'
In your restaurant's ad for "Big 'n' Juicy Burgers," remember that the
apostrophes substitute for both omitted letters in "and"--the A and the
D--so strictly speaking it's not enough to use just one, as in "Big n'
Juicy."
By so doing, you'll improve on the usage of McDonald's, which has
actually created the registered trademark "Big N' Tasty."
DEATH KNELL, NAIL IN THE COFFIN
"Death nail" is a result of confusing two expressions with similar
meanings.
The first is "death knell." When a large bell (like a church bell)
rings--or tolls--it knells. When a bell is rung slowly to mark the death
of someone, it is said to sound the death knell. But "death knell" is
more often used figuratively, as in "his arrest for embezzlement sounded
the death knell for Rob's campaign to be state treasurer."
Another way to describe the final blow that finishes someone or
something off is "put the last nail in the coffin," as in "a huge budget
cut put the last nail in the coffin of the city's plan to erect a statue
of the mayor's dog." Something not yet fatal but seriously damaging can
be said to "drive another nail" in its coffin.
NAME, PRONOUN
In old English ballads, it is common to follow the name of someone with
a pronoun referring to the same person. For instance: "Sweet William, he
died the morrow." The extra syllable "he" helps fill out the rhythm of
the line.
Though this pattern is rare in written prose it is fairly common in
speech. If you say things like "Nancy, she writes for the local paper";
people are less likely to think your speech poetic than they are to
think you've made a verbal stumble. Leave out the "she."
The same pattern applies to common nouns followed by pronouns as in "the
cops, they've set up a speed trap" (should be "the cops have set up a
speed trap").
NAUSEATED/NAUSEOUS
Many people say, when sick to their stomachs, that they feel "nauseous"
(pronounced "NOSH-uss" or "NOZH-uss") but traditionalists insist that
this word should be used to describe something that makes you want to
throw up: something nauseating. They hear you as saying that you make
people want to vomit, and it tempers their sympathy for your plight.
Better to say you are "nauseated," or simply that you feel like throwing
up.
NAVAL/NAVEL
Your belly button is your navel, and navel oranges look like they have
one; all terms having to do with ships and sailing require "naval."
NEAR/NEARLY
Some dialects substitute "near" for standard "nearly" in statements like
"There weren't nearly enough screws in the kit to finish assembling the
cabinet."
NECK IN NECK/NECK AND NECK
When a race is very tight, it's described not as "neck in neck" but
"neck and neck."
NEICE/NIECE
Many people have trouble believing that words with the "ee" sound in
them should be spelled with an "IE." The problem is that in English (and
only in English), the letter I sounds like "aye" rather than "ee," as it
does in the several European languages from which we have borrowed a
host of words. If you had studied French in high school you would have
learned that this word is pronounced "knee-YES" in that language, and it
would be easier to remember. Americans in particular misspell a host of
German-Jewish names because they have trouble remembering that in that
language IE is pronounced "ee" and EI is pronounced "aye." The
possessors of such names are inconsistent about this matter in English.
"Wein" changes from "vine" to "ween," but "Klein" remains "kline."
NEVADA
"Nuh-VAH-duh" is a little closer to the original Spanish pronunciation
than the way Nevadans pronounce the name of their home state, but the
correct middle syllable is the same "A" sound as in "sad." When East
Coast broadcasters use the first pronunciation, they mark themselves as
outsiders.
NEVER THE LESS, NOT WITHSTANDING\NEVERTHELESS, NOTWITHSTANDING
For six centuries we have been spelling "nevertheless" and
"notwithstanding" as single words, and today it is definitely not
standard to break them up into hyphenated or non-hyphenated multiword
phrases.
NEVERMIND/NEVER MIND
The standard spelling of this phrase is as two words: "never mind." The
popularity of the alternative one-word form "nevermind" was certainly
enhanced by its use in 1991 as the title of a bestselling Nirvana album.
"Nevermind" can look immature or slangy to some readers. You can still
be cool by imitating the vocabulary choice in the title of another
famous album: "Never Mind the Bollocks: Here's the Sex Pistols."
In expressions like "pay him no nevermind" where the word means
"attention" it's always one word, but those expressions are both slangy
and old-fashioned.
NEW LEASE OF LIFE/NEW LEASE ON LIFE
Reinvigorated people are traditionally said to have been granted not a
"new lease of life" but a "new lease on life." After all, you take out a
lease on a house, right? Same thing.
NEXT/THIS
If I tell you that the company picnic is next Saturday it would be wise
to ask whether I mean this coming Saturday or the Saturday after that.
People differ in how they use "next" in this sort of context, and
there's no standard pattern; so it's worth making an extra effort to be
clear.
In the UK the distinction is made clear by saying "Saturday next" or
"Saturday week."
NEXT STORE/NEXT DOOR
You can adore the boy next door, but not "next store."
NICETY/NICENESS
"Nicety" is a noun meaning "fine detail" and is usually used in the
plural. You may observe the niceties of etiquette or of English grammar.
It is not a noun describing someone who is nice. That is "niceness."
NIEVE/NAIVE
People who spell this French-derived word "nieve" make themselves look
naive. In French there is also a masculine form: "naif"; and either word
can be a noun meaning "naive person" as well as an adjective. "Nieve"
is actually the Spanish word for "snow." "Naivete" is the French
spelling of the related noun in English [umlaut over the I and an acute
accent over the final E].
If you prefer more nativized spelling, "naivety" is also acceptable.
NIGGARD
"Niggard" is a very old word in English meaning "miser" or "stingy
person." Americans often mistakenly assume it is a variant on the most
common insulting term for dark-skinned people. You may embarrass
yourself by attacking a writer for racism when you see it in print, but
since so many people are confused about this it might be better to use
"miser" and "stingy" instead of "niggard" and "niggardly."
NINTY/NINETY
"Nine" keeps its E when it changes to "ninety."
NIP IT IN THE BUTT/NIP IT IN THE BUD
To nip a process in the bud is to stop it from flowering completely. The
hilariously mistaken "nip it in the butt" suggests stimulation to action
rather than stopping it.
NO SUCH A THING/NO SUCH THING
Some say "there's no such thing as bad publicity," but in phrases like
this it's much less common to insert an "a" after "such" so that the
phrase becomes "no such a thing."
This variation followed by a phrase beginning with "as" will probably
not be noticed in most contexts, but it tends to sound more obviously
nonstandard when the phrase stands by itself as a simple negation: "Eric
told me the grocery store was handing out free steaks. No such a thing."
It sounds better to most people to say instead "no such thing."
NOBLE PRIZE/NOBEL PRIZE
Nobel laureates may indeed be intellectual nobility, but the award they
get is not the "Noble Prize" but the "Nobel Prize," named after founder
Alfred Nobel.
NONE
There's a lot of disagreement about this one. "None" can be either
singular or plural, depending on the meaning you intend and its context
in the sentence. "None of the pie is left" is clearly singular. But
"None of the chocolates is left" is widely accepted, as is "None of the
chocolates are left." If it's not obvious to you which it should be,
don't worry; few of your readers will be certain either.
NONPLUSSED
"Nonplussed" means to be stuck, often in a puzzling or embarrassing way,
unable to go further ("non"="no" + "plus"="further"). It does not mean,
as many people seem to think, "calm, in control."
NOONE/NO ONE
Shall we meet at Ye Olde Sandwyche Shoppe at noone? "No one" is always
two separate words, unlike "anyone" and "someone."
NO SOONER WHEN/NO SOONER THAN
The phrase, "No sooner had Paula stopped petting the cat when it began
to yowl" should be instead, "No sooner had Paula stopped petting the cat
than it began to yowl."
NOT
You need to put "not" in the right spot in a sentence to make it say
what you intend. "Not all fraternity members are drunks" means some are,
but "All fraternity members are not drunks" means none of them is.
NOT ALL
The combination of "not" and "all" can be confusing if you're not
careful about placement. "All politicians are not corrupt" could
theoretically mean that no politician is corrupt, but what you probably
mean to say is "Not all politicians are corrupt." When "not all is a
minority, it's sometimes better to replace "not all" with "some." "The
widescreen version is not available in all video stores" can be made
clearer by saying "The widescreen version is not available in some
stores."
NOT ALL THAT/NOT VERY
The slangy phrase "not all that" as in "the dessert was not all that
tasty" doesn't belong in formal writing. "Not very" would work, but
something more specific would be even better: "the pudding tasted like
library paste."
NOT HARDLY/NOT AT ALL
"Not hardly" is slang, fine when you want to be casual--but in a formal
document? Not hardly!
NOTATE/NOTE
To notate a text is to write annotations about it. This technical term
should not be used as a synonym for the simple verb "note." It is both
pretentious and incorrect to write "notate the time you arrived in your
log."
NOTHING (SINGULAR)
In formal English, "nothing" is always singular, even when it's followed
by a phrase stating an exception which contains a plural noun: "Nothing
but weeds grows [not grow] in my yard" and "nothing except desserts
appeals [not appeal] to Jennifer." This pattern is seldom followed in
more casual speech and writing, but you can see its logic if you move
"nothing" to immediately precede its verb: "Nothing appeals to Jennifer
except desserts."
NOTORIOUS
"Notorious" means famous in a bad way, as in "Nero was notorious for
giving long recitals of his tedious poetry." Occasionally writers
deliberately use it in a positive sense to suggest irony or wit, but
this is a very feeble and tired device. Nothing admirable should be
called "notorious."
The same goes for "notoriety," which also indicates a bad reputation.
NOW AND DAYS/NOWADAYS
Although it used to be hyphenated on occasion as "now-a-days," this
expression is nowadays usually rendered as a single unhyphenated word.
Some folks mistakenly think the expression is "now and days," which
makes no sense.
NUCLEAR
This isn't a writing problem, but a pronunciation error. President
Eisenhower used to consistently insert a "U" sound between the first and
second syllables, leading many journalists to imitate him and say
"nuk-yuh-lar" instead of the correct "nuk-lee-ar." The confusion extends
also to "nucleus." Many people can't even hear the mistake when they
make it, and only scientists and a few others will catch the
mispronunciation, but you lose credibility if you are an anti-nuclear
protester who doesn't know how to pronounce "nuclear." Here's one way to
remember: we need a new, clear understanding of the issues; let's stop
saying "Nuke you!"
NUMBER OF VERB
In long, complicated sentences people often lose track of whether the
subject is singular or plural and use the wrong sort of verb. "The
ultimate effect of all of these phone calls to the detectives were to
make them suspicious of the callers" is an error because "effect," which
is singular, is the subject. If you are uncertain about whether to go
with singular or plural, condense the sentence down to its skeleton:
"The effect . . . was to make them suspicious."
Another situation that creates confusion is the use of interjections
like "along with," "as well as," and "together with," where they are
often treated improperly as if they meant simply "and." "Aunt Hilda, as
well as her pet dachshund, is coming to the party" (not "are coming").
A compound subject requires a plural verb even if the words which make
it up are themselves singular in form: "widespread mold and mildew
damage [not damages] the resale value of your house."
If the title of a work is in the plural, you still use a singular verb
because it is just one work: "My copy of 'Great Expectations' has the
original illustrations in it." That much seems obvious, but it might not
seem quite so obvious that Plutarch's 'Lives' is a single work, or that
Shakespeare's 'Sonnets' is. Of course if you are not referring to the
book as a whole but to the individual poems they are "Shakespeare's
sonnets," and take a plural verb.
Amounts of money and periods of time are usually considered singular:
ten dollars is not a lot of money to lend someone, and five years is a
long time to wait to be repaid.
NUMBERS
If your writing contains numbers, the general rule is to spell out in
letters all the numbers from zero to nine and use numerals for larger
numbers, but there are exceptions. If what you're writing is full of
numbers and you're doing math with them, stick with numerals.
Approximations like "about thirty days ago" and catch-phrases like "his
first thousand days" are spelled out. Large round numbers are often
rendered thus: "50 billion sold." With measurements, use numerals: "4
inches long." Try to avoid starting a sentence with a numeral. Either
You can either spell out the number involved or rearrange the sentence
to move the number to a later position.
Many style manuals apply the same rule to what are called "ordinal"
numbers, like "first," "second," "fifth." Following this pattern, higher
numbers spelled as numerals begin with "10th" and go on through numbers
like "22nd" and "114th." But dates are usually rendered in numerals even
if they are small. It's normally "July 4th" and "the 4th of July,"
though few people would object to "Fourth of July." The only reason to
worry about this is if you are writing for an editor or teacher who has
a particular preference for one of these patterns. You are more likely
to get in trouble if you use numerals for small numbers than if you use
spelled-out forms for large numbers: "my 1st trip to France" looks bad
to more people than "the seventy-fifth time I've told you to take out
the trash." And large round ordinal numbers are almost always spelled
out: "the hundredth issue published," "the thousandth ticket sold," "the
millionth visitor to the park."
See also "50's."
NUMEROUS OF/NUMEROUS, NUMBERS OF
"Numerous customers returned the garlic-flavored toothpaste." "Numbers
of customers returned the toothpaste." "Many of the customers." Any of
these is fine.
But "numerous of the customers"? Yuck.
NUPTUAL/NUPTIAL
"Nuptial" is usually a pretentious substitute for "wedding," but if
you're going to use it, be sure to spell it properly. For the noun, the
plural form "nuptials" is more traditional.
O/zero
When reciting a string of numbers such as your credit card number it is
common and perfectly acceptable to pronounce zero as "oh." But when
dealing with a registration code or other such string of characters
which mixes letters and numbers, it is important to distinguish between
the number 0 and the letter O. In most typefaces a capital O is rounder,
fatter, than a zero, but that is not always the case. What looks
unambiguous when you type it may come out very unclear on the other end
on a computer that renders your message in a different typeface.
In technical contexts, the distinction is often made by using zeros with
slashes through them, but this can create as many problems as it solves:
those unfamiliar with the convention will be confused by it, numbers
using such characters may not sort properly, and slashed zeros created
in some fonts change to normal zeros in other fonts.
If you work for a company that requires registration codes you do a
disservice to your customers and yourself by including either zeros or
O's in your codes where there is any possibility of confusion.
OBJECT D'ART/OBJET D'ART
OBJET D'ART
The French-derived word for an object of artistic value or a curio is
objet d'art pronounced "ahb-ZHAY darr," (first syllable rhymes with
"job"). It is often anglicized mistakenly to "object d'art." People also
mispronounce and misspell it "ojet d'art," omitting the B. The correct
plural form is "objets d'art."
OBSOLESCENT/OBSOLETE
Many people assume the word "obsolescent" must be a fancy form of
"obsolete," but something obsolescent is technically something in the
process of becoming obsolete. Therefore it's an error to describe
something as "becoming obsolescent.
OCTOPI/OCTOPUSES
"Octopi" is a slangy plural form of "octopus," but it's not the form
used by marine biologists. Although some prefer "octopodes," this form
is rare. The standard plural form is "octopuses."
ODD
Expressions like "twenty-odd years," "a dozen-odd people," and "two
hundred-odd mistakes" indicate that the exact number is unknown--perhaps
a bit higher than the stated number. These expressions are usually
written with a hyphen before the "odd." If you omit the hyphen, as in "a
dozen odd people attended my birthday party," you risk giving the
impression that the people who came were odd rather than that you can't
be sure of the precise number of your guests.
OEUVRE
In French "oeuvre" means "work" in many different ways. In English we
use the word only in the specialized sense "the body of work produced by
an individual creator." Unfortunately, "oeuvre" begins with a vowel
sound we don't have in English and ends in a French R that also does not
correspond to any English sound. The result is often grotesque
mispronunciations like "oove." It's better to avoid foreign words like
this if you haven't mastered the accent. "Body of work" or "output" will
do fine.
OF
"Of" is often shoved in where it doesn't belong in phrases like "not
that big of a deal," and "not that great of a writer." Just leave it
out.
OF ___'S
Phrases combining "of" with a noun followed by "'S" may seem redundant,
since both indicate possession; nevertheless, "a friend of Karen's" is
standard English, just as "a friend of Karen" and "Karen's friend" are.
OFCOURSE/OF COURSE
The misspelling of the two-word phrase "of course" as "ofcourse" should
be caught by any good spelling-checker, but it seems to be extremely
common.
OFFENSE/OFFENCE
In the US "offense" is standard; in the UK use "offence." The sports
pronunciation accenting the first syllable should not be used when
discussing military, legal, or other sorts of offense.
See also DEFENSE/DEFENCE
OFFLINE
When your computer is connected to the Internet, you are online. When
you disconnect from the Internet, you are offline.
People who don't understand this often say of things they get from the
Internet that they downloaded them "offline," evidently thinking that
the word means "off of the Internet." Nothing can be uploaded or
downloaded to a site when you are offline.
OFT/OFF
"Oft" is just short for "often." Something that happens on an off chance
is something that happens rarely, not often; so the expression is not
"on the oft chance" but "on the off chance."
OFTEN
People striving for sophistication often pronounce the "T" in this word,
but true sophisticates know that the masses are correct in saying
"offen."
OGGLE/OGLE
If you're being leered at lustfully you're being ogled (first vowel
sounds like "OH")--not "oggled," even if you're being ogled through
goggles. The word is probably related to the German word "augeln,"
meaning "to eye," from augen ("eye").
oh/o
"O" is an older spelling of "oh" which survives today mostly in poetry.
The title of the Canadian national anthem is "O Canada," not "Oh
Canada."
Similarly, "America the Beautiful" begins "O beautiful for spacious
skies."
When not addressing some entity poetically, "oh" is fine.
OK/OKAY
This may be the most universal word in existence; it seems to have
spread to most of the world's languages. Etymologists now generally
agree that it began as a humorous misspelling of "all correct": "oll
korrect." "OK" without periods is the most common form in written
American English now, though "okay" is not incorrect.
OLD ENGLISH
Many people refer to any older form of English as "Old English," but
this is properly a technical term for Anglo-Saxon, the original language
in which "Beowulf" was written. Norman French combined with Old English
to create Middle English, one form of which was used by Geoffrey Chaucer
to write The Canterbury Tales. By Shakespeare's time the language is
modern English, though it may seem antique to modern readers who aren't
used to it.
There are many "Old English" typefaces which have nothing to do with the
Old English language.
OLD FASHION/OLD-FASHIONED
Although "old fashion" appears in advertising a good deal, the
traditional spelling is "old-fashioned."
OLD-TIMER'S DISEASE/ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
I've always thought that "old-timer's disease" was a clever if tasteless
pun on "Alzheimer's Disease," but many people have assured me that this
is a common and quite unintentional error.
Some medical authorities prefer the form "Alzheimer Disease," though
that is seldom used by nonprofessionals.
OLD WISE TALE/OLD WIVES' TALE
An absurd superstition is an "old wives' tale": according to sexist
tradition a story popular among credulous old ladies. It's not an "old
wise tale" or--even worse--an "old wives' tail."
ON ACCIDENT/BY ACCIDENT
Although you can do things on purpose, you do them by accident.
ON THE CONTRAIRE/AU CONTRAIRE, ON THE CONTRARY, TO THE CONTRARY
People who like to show off their French sometimes use the expression
"au contraire" when they mean "on the contrary" or "to the contrary."
People who don't know any better mix up French and English by saying "on
the contraire."
"On the contrary" is the earliest form. It means "it's the opposite": "I
thought you liked sweet pickles." "On the contrary, I prefer dills."
"To the contrary" means "to the opposite effect," "in opposition": "No
matter what my neighbor says to the contrary, I think it's his dog
that's been pooping on my petunias."
ON THE LAMB/ON THE LAM
When a criminal hides out, he's on the lam. He wouldn't get far on a
lamb.
ON THE SAME TOKEN/BY THE SAME TOKEN
When we compare things with each other, we often say "on the one hand"
and "on the other hand." These phrases mean "on this side" and "on the
other side."
But it is a mistake to say "on the same token," meaning "in the same
regard." The standard expression is "by the same token."
ON TOMORROW/TOMORROW
You can meet on Monday or on the 21st of March, but it's an error to say
"on tomorrow," "on yesterday" or "on today" Just leave "on" out (except,
of course, in phrases like "let's meet later on today" using the phrase
"later on").
ONCE/ONES
"Once" always has to do with time and answers the questions, "how many
times?" or "when?" For instance: "I only played handball once." "Once I
got my boot off, I saw my sock had a hole in it."
In contrast, "ones" have to do with things. In your tool collection, the
ones you should keep handy are the ones you use most.
ONCE AND A WHILE/ONCE IN A WHILE
The expression is "once in a while."
ONE OF THE (SINGULAR)
In phrases like "pistachio is one of the few flavors that appeals to
me," formal grammar would require the verb to be plural ("appeal")
rather than singular ("appeals") because "that" acts as the subject for
the verb, and "that" in this sentence refers to "flavors." However, many
sophisticated users of English allow for the singular verb in this case,
though I would caution against the singular verb if you are taking a
test on English grammar.
This is one of those occasions in English usage that lets you follow
your ear to determine what works best. If you thought "let" would have
worked better in that previous sentence, you would have formal grammar
on your side, but using "lets" should not get you into trouble, either.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL/TWO-DIMENSIONAL
Once upon a time most folks knew that "three-dimensional" characters or
ideas were rounded, fleshed out, and complex and "two-dimensional" ones
were flat and uninteresting. It seems that the knowledge of basic
geometry has declined in recent years, because today we hear
uninteresting characters and ideas described as "one-dimensional."
According to Euclid, no physical object can be one-dimensional (of
course, according to modern physics, even two-dimensionality is only an
abstract concept). If you are still bothered by the notion that two
dimensions are one too many, just use "flat."
ONE IN THE SAME/ONE AND THE SAME
The old expression "they are one and the same" is now often mangled into
the roughly phonetic equivalent "one in the same." The use of "one" here
to mean "identical with each other" is familiar from phrases like "Jane
and John act as one." They are one; they are the same.
ONE OF THE ONLY/ONE OF THE FEW
Although it has recently become much more popular, the phrase "one of
the only" bothers some of us in contexts in which "one of the few" would
traditionally be used. Be aware that it strikes some readers as odd.
"One of only three groups that played in tune" is fine, but "one of the
only groups that played in tune" is more likely to cause raised
eyebrows.
ONES/ONE'S
The possessive pronoun "one's" requires an apostrophe before the S,
unlike "its," "hers" and other personal pronouns. Examples: "pull
oneself up by one's own bootstraps," "a jury of one's peers," "minding
one's own business."
A simple test: try inserting "anyone's" in place of "one's." If it works
grammatically, you need the apostrophe in "one's" too. When "one's" is a
contraction of "one is" it also requires an apostrophe: "no one's
listening," "this one's for you."
The only times "ones" has no apostrophe are when it is being used to
mean " examples" or "people" as in "ripe ones" or "loved ones," or in
the informal arithmetical expression "the ones column."
ONGOINGLY/CURRENTLY, CONTINUOUSLY
"Ongoingly" is not standard English. When something is occurring in an
ongoing manner, you can speak of it as happening "currently" or
"continuously."
ONLINE/ON LINE
The common adjective used to label Internet activities is usually
written as one word: "online": "The online site selling banana cream
pies was a failure." But it makes more sense when using it as an
adverbial phrase to write two separate words: "When the teacher took her
class to the library, most of them used it to go on line." The
hyphenated form "on-line" is not widely used, but would be proper only
for the adjectival function. However, you are unlikely to get into
trouble for using "online" for all computer-related purposes.
As for real physical lines, New Yorkers and Bostonians wait "on line"
(in queues), but most Americans wait "in line."
ONLY
Writers often inadvertently create confusion by placing "only"
incorrectly in a sentence. It should go immediately before the word or
phrase it modifies. "I lost my only shirt" means that I had but one to
begin with. "I lost only my shirt" means I didn't lose anything else.
"Only I lost my shirt" means that I was the only person in my group to
lose a shirt. Strictly speaking, "I only lost my shirt" should mean I
didn't destroy it or have it stolen--I just lost it; but in common
speech this is usually understood as being identical with "I lost only
my shirt." Scrutinize your uses of "only" to make sure you are not
creating unwanted ambiguities.
ONTO/ON TO
"Onto" and "on to" are often interchangeable, but not always. Consider
the effect created by wrongly using "onto" in the following sentence
when "on to" is meant: "We're having hors d'oeuvres in the garden, and
for dinner moving onto the house." If the "on" is part of an expression
like "moving on" it can't be shoved together with a "to" that just
happens to follow it.
OP-ED
Although it looks like it might mean "opinion of the editor" the "op-ed"
page is actually a page written by columnists or outside contributors to
a newspaper, printed opposite the editorial page.
OPEN/UNLOCKED/UNLATCHED
Many people refer to doors as being "open" when they mean to say they
are merely unlocked. Telling people to leave a house open may mislead
them into making the place more inviting to casual intruders than you
intend if you really only want it to be unlocked. And you may
unnecessarily alarm the driver if you report from the back seat of a car
that one of the doors is open when you mean that it is merely unlatched.
OPPORTUNIST
When applied to people, the label "opportunist" usually has negative
connotations. It implies that the people so labeled take unprincipled,
unfair advantage of opportunities for selfish ends. Opportunistic people
are often also regarded as exploitative. The term is often used to label
unscrupulous politicians who seek to manipulate voters in their favor by
exploiting certain issues or opportunities in an unethical way.
Sports commentators who call the skillful interceptor of a pass in
football an "opportunist" are misusing the word.
If you want to praise people for taking legitimate and skilled advantage
of opportunities that spring up, it is better to call them
"enterprising" or "quick-witted."
The specialized meaning of "opportunistic" in biology does not cause
problems because the people who use the word in this sense know what it
describes: the ability of a species to exploit a previously unexploited
ecological niche.
OPPOSE TO/OPPOSED TO, SUPPOSED TO
Just as some people say "suppose to" when they mean "supposed to,"
others say "oppose to" when they mean "opposed to." You may be opposed
to laugh tracks on TV comedy shows or wearing flip-flops at a wedding
reception.
Some people go even further and get "oppose" and "suppose" all mixed up,
saying things like "You're oppose to get the oil changed in the car
every 5,000 miles." That should be "supposed to."
See also "use to."
OPPRESS/REPRESS
Dictators commonly oppress their citizens and repress dissent, but these
words don't mean exactly the same thing. "Repress" just means "keep
under control." Sometimes repression is a good thing: "During the job
interview, repress the temptation to tell Mr. Brown that he has toilet
paper stuck to his shoe." Oppression is always bad, and implies serious
persecution.
ORAL/VERBAL
Some people insist that "verbal" refers to anything expressed in words,
whether written or spoken, while "oral" refers exclusively to speech;
but in common usage "verbal" has become widely accepted for the latter
meaning. However, in legal contexts, an unwritten agreement is still an
"oral contract," not a "verbal contract."
ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE
Many pretentious writers have begun to use the expression "orders of
magnitude" without understanding what it means. The concept derives from
the scientific notation of very large numbers in which each order of
magnitude is ten times the previous one. When the bacteria in a flask
have multiplied from some hundreds to some thousands, it is very handy
to say that their numbers have increased by an order of magnitude, and
when they have increased to some millions, that their numbers have
increased by four orders of magnitude.
Number language generally confuses people. Many seem to suppose that a
100% increase must be pretty much the same as an increase by an order of
magnitude, but in fact such an increase represents merely a doubling of
quantity. A "hundredfold increase" is even bigger: one hundred times as
much. If you don't have a firm grasp on such concepts, it's best to
avoid the expression altogether. After all, "Our audience is ten times
as big now as when the show opened" makes the same point more clearly
than "Our audience has increased by an order of magnitude."
ORDINANCE/ORDNANCE
A law is an ordinance, but a gun is a piece of ordnance.
OREGON
Oregon natives and other Westerners pronounce the state name's last
syllable to sound like "gun," not "gone."
ORGANIC
The word "organic" is used in all sorts of contexts, often in a highly
metaphorical manner; the subject here is its use in the phrase "organic
foods" in claims of superior healthfulness. Different jurisdictions have
various standards for "organic" food, but generally the label is applied
to foods that have been grown without artificial chemicals or
pesticides. Literally, of course, the term is a redundancy: all food is
composed of organic chemicals (complex chemicals containing carbon).
There is no such thing as an inorganic food (unless you count water and
salt as foods). Natural fertilizers and pesticides may or may not be
superior to artificial ones, but the proper distinction is not between
organic and inorganic.
When it comes to nutrition, people tend to generalize rashly from a
narrow scientific basis. After a few preservatives were revealed to have
harmful effects in some consumers, many products were proudly labeled
"No Preservatives!" I don't want harmful preservatives in my food, but
that label suggests to me a warning: "Deteriorates quickly! May contain
mold and other kinds of rot!" Salt is a preservative.
ORIENTAL/ASIAN
In North America, "Oriental" when it refers to people is now generally
considered old-fashioned, and many find it offensive. "Asian" is
preferred, but not "Asiatic." It's better to write the nationality
involved, for example "Chinese" or "Indian," if you know it. "Asian" is
often taken to mean exclusively "East Asian," which irritates South
Asian and Central Asian people.
In the UK, "Asian" usually refers exclusively to people of South Asian
descent (from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, etc.).
ORIENTATE/ORIENT
Although it is standard in British English "orientate" is widely
considered an error in the US, with simple "orient" being preferred.
The same pattern applies to "disorientate" vs. "disorient."
See also "interpretate."
OSTENSIVELY/OSTENSIBLY
This word, meaning "apparently," is spelled "ostensibly."
OURN/OURS
"Ourn" is dialectal; "ours" is standard English. "Well, shoot!" says
Jeb, "That may be the way some folks talk, but it ain't ourn."
OUTCAST/OUTCASTE
Believe it or not, these two similar words have very different origins.
An "outcast" is someone who has been cast (thrown) out of a group, and
may be used loosely of all kinds of loners.
An "outcaste" is technically a South Asian person who has been expelled
from his or her caste, or a person who lacks a caste identification.
Although this spelling can be used metaphorically, it is probably better
to confine it to discussions of social relations in Hinduism and other
South Asian contexts.
OVER AND OUT/OUT
There is an old tradition in two-way radio communication of saying
"over" to indicate that the speaker is through talking and inviting the
other person to speak. You are turning the air over to the person you're
speaking with. When you're done speaking, you terminate the conversation
by saying "out" Σ (not �over and outΣ).
For some reason, Hollywood and radio scriptwriters thought it was neat
to conclude radio conversations with "over and out," but this would
technically mean "You can talk now if you want, but I'm not going to be
listening."
Today "over and out" lives on mostly as an ill-remembered allusion to
those old movies and shows in song lyrics and punning headlines. Radio
communication buffs, however, cringe when they hear it.
OVER-EXAGGERATED/EXAGGERATED
"Over-exaggerated" is a redundancy. If something is exaggerated, it's
already overstressed.
OVERDO/OVERDUE
If you overdo the cocktails after work you may be overdue for your
daughter's soccer game at 6:00.
OVERSEE/OVERLOOK
When you oversee the preparation of dinner, you take control and manage
the operation closely. But if you overlook the preparation of dinner you
forget to prepare the meal entirely--better order pizza.
OVERTAKE/TAKE OVER
When you catch up with the runners ahead of you in a marathon, you
overtake them; but when you seize power, you take over the government.
OWNESS/ONUS
In Latin "onus" means "burden." In English it came to mean
"responsibility": "the onus is on the defense attorney to convince the
jury of the defendant's innocence." It is often used to mean "blame":
"he bears the onus of having lost the key to the vacation house."
People sometimes mishear this word and turn it into "owness." This form
is also used by some to refer to the opposite of otherness, but that
would be "ownness," with two N's.
PC COMPUTER/PC
The phrase "PC computer" is a bit awkward and redundant since "PC"
stands for "personal computer." The problem is that originally the label
"PC" meant not personal computers generally, but computers compatible
with the IBM PC introduced in 1981. By the time IBM adopted the
abbreviation for a specific model there had been many earlier personal
computers like the Commodore PET and the Apple II. Now IBM doesn't make
PCs and none of today's popular personal computers is compatible with
the original PC. The label is still used to distinguish between
computers running some version of Microsoft's Windows operating system
and the Macintosh computers made by Apple, even though Macs are
certainly personal computers and the newer ones can also run Windows. No
wonder people forget what "PC" stands for. If you want to use the
abbreviation to indicate that your computer is not a Mac, "PC" alone
will do, despite its literal inaccuracy.
PSS/PPS
In the old days before personal computers, when people wanted to add
something to a letter they had already ended, they would add a
"postscript" (from Latin "post scriptum," meaning "that which comes
after the writing"). These postscripts were introduced with the label
"PS" or "P.S."
When they wanted to add something else after the postscript, it was
labeled "PPS" for "post postscript." But many people trying to follow
this pattern today mistakenly write "PSS" instead.
Since modern technology makes it so easy to revise and add to texts, in
most cases it's better to just go back and insert the additional
material at an appropriate point in the main body of the writing. "PSS"
makes you look not only ignorant, but lazy.
PAGE/SITE
In the early days of the Internet, it became customary to refer to Web
sites as "pages" though they might in fact consist of many different
pages. The Jane Austen Page, for instance, incorporates entire books,
and is organized into a very large number of distinct Web pages. This
nomenclature is illogical, but too well established to be called
erroneous. However, it is not wise to write someone who has created a
large and complex site and call it a "page." Not everyone appreciates
having their work diminished in this way.
PAIR (NUMBER)
"This is a left-handed pair of scissors." "There is a pair of glasses on
the mantelpiece." "Pair" is singular in this sort of expression. Note
that we say "that is a nice pair of pants" even though we also say
"those are nice pants."
PAIR/PARE/PEAR
When you peel an apple, you pare it. The resultant apple peelings are
called "parings." "Pare" is also used metaphorically in phrases having
to do with removing portions of something, such as "pare down the
budget" or "pare your wish list to the three most important items." Many
people overlook the meaning of this word and write instead "pair" or
even "pear." You can pair apples with pears in a dessert, but to peel
them you have to pare them.
Although it's not too surprising that cooks should mix up these
spellings, it's astounding how often medical and scientific writers
refer to substances that are "pared" with each other. A couple of
medicines or treatments are paired with each other.
PALATE/PALETTE/PALLET
Your "palate" is the roof of your mouth, and by extension, your sense of
taste. A "palette" is the flat board an artist mixes paint on (or by
extension, a range of colors). A "pallet" is either a bed (now rare) or
a flat platform onto which goods are loaded.
PARALLEL/SYMBOL
Beginning literature students often write sentences like this: "He uses
the rose as a parallel for her beauty" when they mean "a symbol of her
beauty." If you are taking a literature class, it's good to master the
distinctions between several related terms relating to symbolism. An
eagle clutching a bundle of arrows and an olive branch is a symbol of
the US government in war and peace.
Students often misuse the word "analogy" in the same way. An analogy has
to be specifically spelled out by the writer, not simply referred to:
"My mother's attempts to find her keys in the morning were like early
expeditions to the South Pole: prolonged and mostly futile."
A metaphor is a kind of symbolism common in literature. When Shakespeare
writes "That time of year thou mayst in me behold/When yellow leaves, or
none, or few, do hang/Upon those boughs which shake against the cold" he
is comparing his aging self to a tree in late autumn, perhaps even
specifically suggesting that he is going bald by referring to the tree
shedding its leaves. This autumnal tree is a metaphor for the human
aging process.
A simile resembles a metaphor except that "like" or "as" or something
similar is used to make the comparison explicitly. Byron admires a
dark-haired woman by saying of her "She walks in beauty, like the
night/Of cloudless climes and starry skies." Her darkness is said to be
like that of the night.
An allegory is a symbolic narrative in which characters may stand for
abstract ideas, and the story convey a philosophy. Allegories are no
longer popular, but the most commonly read one in school is Dante's
"Divine Comedy" in which the poet Virgil is a symbol for human wisdom,
Dante's beloved Beatrice is a symbol of divine grace, and the whole poem
tries to teach the reader how to avoid damnation. Aslan in C. S. Lewis'
Narnia tales is an allegorical figure meant to symbolize Christ: dying
to save others and rising again ("aslan" is Turkish for "lion").
PARALLELLED/PARALLELED
The spelling of the past tense of "parallel" is "paralleled."
PARALLELISM IN A SERIES
Phrases in a series separated by commas or conjunctions must all have
the same grammatical form. "They loved mountain-climbing, to gather
wild mushrooms, and first aid practice" should be corrected to something
like this: "They loved to climb mountains, gather wild mushrooms, and
practice first aid" (all three verbs are dependent on that initial
"to"). Fear of being repetitious often leads writers into awkward
inconsistencies when creating such series.
PARALYZATION/PARALYSIS
Some people derive the noun "paralyzation" from the verb "paralyze," but
the proper term is "paralysis."
PARAMETERS/PERIMETERS
When parameters were spoken of only by mathematicians and scientists,
the term caused few problems; but now that it has become widely adopted
by other speakers, it is constantly confused with "perimeters." A
parameter is most commonly a mathematical constant, a set of physical
properties, or a characteristic of something. But the perimeter of
something is its boundary. The two words shade into each other because
we often speak of factors of an issue or problem being parameters,
simultaneously thinking of them as limits; but this is to confuse two
distinct, if related ideas. A safe rule is to avoid using "parameters"
altogether unless you are confident you know what it means.
PARAMOUNT/TANTAMOUNT
"Paramount" means "best," "top." Think of Paramount Pictures' trademark
of a majestic mountain peak encircled with stars.
"Tantamount" means "equivalent."
"The committee's paramount concern is to get at the truth; your
continued insistence that you don't remember any of the meetings you
attended is tantamount to a confession of incompetence."
PARANOID
The most common meaning of "paranoid" has to do with irrational fears of
persecution, especially the unjustified fear that people are plotting
against you. More generally it is applied to irrational fears of other
kinds, but it is often misused of rational fears, as in "I know my Mom
has been reading my blog, so I'm paranoid that she's found out what
Jason and I did last Saturday night." That's not paranoia, but fully
justifiable fear. It also doesn't make sense to use "paranoid" about
mild worries and fears. When you say you are paranoid, you should be
conveying your own irrationality, not the risks you feel you are
running.
PARENTHESES
The most common error in using parenthesis marks (besides using them too
much) is to forget to enclose the parenthetical material with a final,
closing parenthesis mark. The second most common is to place concluding
punctuation incorrectly. The simplest sort of example is one in which
the entire sentence is enclosed in parentheses. (Most people understand
that the final punctuation must remain inside the closing parenthesis
mark, like this.) More troublesome are sentences in which only a clause
or phrase is enclosed in parentheses. Normally a sentence's final
punctuation mark--whether period, exclamation point, or question
mark--goes outside such a parenthesis (like this). However, if the
material inside the parenthesis requires a concluding punctuation mark
like an exclamation point or question mark (but not a period!), that
mark is placed inside the closing mark even though another mark is
outside it. This latter sort of thing is awkward, however, and best
avoided if you can help it.
For some reason, many writers have begun to omit the space before a
parenthetic page citation, like this:(p. 17). Always preserve the space,
like this: (p. 17).
PARLIMENT/PARLIAMENT
Americans unfamiliar with parliamentary systems often mistakenly leave
the second "A" out of "parliament" and "parliamentary."
PARTAKE/PARTICIPATE
"Partake" looks like it might mean "take part," and that's how many
people mistakenly use it where they should say "participate." The main
modern meaning of "partake" is "consume," especially in relation to
food. One can partake of the refreshments at a party, but one can also
partake of Twinkies at home alone, without any thought of sharing.
So don't ask people to "partake" in a planning process when you mean to
ask them to participate.
PASS THE MUSTER/PASS MUSTER
When military troops are assembled for a review, they are mustered. A
soldier who passes inspection is said to "pass muster." We use this
phrase for all kinds of things and processes that must be approved, meet
a certain standard. It is most often used in a negative sense, as in a
flawed business plan than "doesn't pass muster."
The nonstandard form "pass the muster" may be influenced by the
unrelated term "cut the mustard," which has a similar meaning. Don't
believe those who insist that the latter phrase is a mistake for "cut
the muster." And the expression is definitely not "pass the mustard."
See "cut the muster" in the Non-Errors section below.
PASSED/PAST
If you are referring to a distance or a period of time before now, use
"past": "the police car drove past the suspect's house" (distance) or
"the team performed well in the past" (time). If you are describing the
action of passing, however, you need to use "passed": "when John passed
the gravy, he spilled it on his lap," "the teacher was astonished that
none of the students had passed the test," "after a brief illness, he
passed away." Remember that no matter however you have "passed the time"
you have never "past the time," not even in the distant past.
"Past" can be an adjective, a noun, a preposition, or an adverb; but
never a verb. If you need to write the past tense of the verb "to pass,"
use "passed."
PASSIVE VOICE
There are legitimate uses for the passive voice: "this absurd regulation
was of course written by a committee." But it's true that you can make
your prose more lively and readable by using the active voice much more
often. "The victim was attacked by three men in ski masks" isn't nearly
as striking as "three men in ski masks attacked the victim." The passive
voice is often used to avoid taking responsibility for an action: "my
term paper was accidentally deleted" avoids stating the truth: "I
accidentally deleted my term paper." Over-use of passive constructions
is irritating, though not necessarily erroneous. But it does lead to
real clumsiness when passive constructions get piled on top of each
other: "no exception to the no-pets rule was sought to be created so
that angora rabbits could be raised in the apartment" can be made
clearer by shifting to the active voice: "the landlord refused to make
an exception to the no-pets rule to allow Eliza to raise angora rabbits
in the apartment."
PAST TIME/PASTIME
An agreeable activity like knitting with which you pass the time is your
pastime. Spell it as one word, with one "S" and one "T."
PASTORIAL/PASTORAL
Whether you are referring to poetry or art about the countryside or the
duties of a pastor, the word you want is "pastoral." "Pastorial" is a
common misspelling.
PATIENCE/PATIENTS
Doctors have patients, but while you're waiting to see them you have to
have patience.
PAUSE FOR CONCERN/CAUSE FOR CONCERN, PAUSE
Something worrisome can give you pause, or cause for concern. But some
people confuse these two expressions and say they have "pause for
concern."
PAWN OFF/PALM OFF
Somebody defrauds you by using sleight of hand (literal or figurative)
to "palm" the object you wanted and give you something inferior instead.
The expression is not "to pawn off," but "to palm off."
PAYED/PAID
If you paid attention in school, you know that the past tense of "pay"
is "paid" except in the special sense that has to do with ropes: "He
payed out the line to the smuggler in the rowboat."
PEACE/PIECE
it's hard to believe many people really confuse the meaning of these
words, but the spellings are frequently swapped, probably out of sheer
carelessness. "Piece" has the word "pie" buried in it, which should
remind you of the familiar phrase, "a piece of pie." You can meditate to
find peace of mind, or you can get angry and give someone a piece of
your mind. Classical scholars will note that "pax" is the Latin word for
peace, suggesting the need for an "A" in the latter word.
PEAK/PEEK/PIQUE
It is tempting to think that your attention might be aroused to a high
point by "peaking" your curiosity, but in fact "pique" is a French word
meaning "prick," in the sense of "stimulate." The expression has nothing
to do with "peek," either. Therefore the expression is "my curiosity was
piqued."
PEAL OUT/PEEL OUT
Bells and thunderclaps peal out, but if your car "lays down rubber" in a
squealing departure, the expression is "peel out" because you are
literally peeling a layer of rubber off your tires.
PEASANT/PHEASANT
When I visited the former Soviet Union I was astonished to learn that
farmworkers were still called "peasants" there. In English-speaking
countries we tend to think of the term as belonging strictly to the
feudal era. However you use it, don't confuse it with "pheasant," a
favorite game bird. Use the sound of the beginning consonants to remind
you of the difference: pheasants are food, peasants are people.
PEDAL/PEDDLE
If you are delivering newspapers from a bike you can pedal it around the
neighborhood (perhaps wearing "pedal-pushers"), but when you sell them
from a newsstand you peddle them.
PEDAL TO THE MEDAL/PEDAL TO THE METAL
When you depress the accelerator all the way so that it presses against
the metal of the floorboards you put the pedal to the metal. You get no
medals for speeding.
PEN/PIN
In the dialect of many Texans and some of their neighbors "pen" is
pronounced almost exactly like "pin." When speaking to an audience
outside this zone, it's worth learning to make the distinction to avoid
confusion.
PENULTIMATE/NEXT TO LAST
To confuse your readers, use the term "penultimate," which means "next
to last," but which most people assume means "the very last." And if you
really want to baffle them, use "antepenultimate" to mean "third from
the end."
Many people also mistakenly use "penultimate" when they mean
"quintessential" or "archetypical."
PEOPLES
In the Middle Ages "peoples" was not an uncommon word, but later writers
grew wary of it because "people" has a collective, plural meaning which
seemed to make "peoples" superfluous. It lived on in the sense of
"nations" ("the peoples of the world") and from this social scientists
(anthropologists in particular) derived the extended meaning "ethnic
groups" ("the peoples of the upper Amazon Basin"). However, in ordinary
usage "people" is usually understood to be plural, so much so that in
the bad old days when dialect humor was popular having a speaker refer
to "you peoples" indicated illiteracy. If you are not referring to
national or ethnic groups, it is better to avoid "peoples" and use
"people."
The possessive form "people's" is of course fine in sentences like "If
elected, I will do the people's will."
See also "behaviors."
PER/ACCORDING TO
Using "per" to mean "according to" as in "ship the widgets as per the
instructions of the customer" is rather old-fashioned business jargon,
and is not welcome in other contexts. "Per" is fine when used in phrases
involving figures like "miles per gallon."
PERCENT/PER CENT
In the US the two-word spelling "per cent" is considered rather
old-fashioned and is rarely used, but in the UK and countries influenced
by it, the two-word form is still standard, though use of "percent" is
spreading fast even there.
PERCENT DECREASE
When something has been reduced by one hundred percent, it's all gone
(or if the reduction was in its price, it's free). You can't properly
speak of reducing anything by more than a hundred percent (unless it's a
deficit or debt, in which case you wind up with a surplus).
PERCIPITATION/PRECIPITATION
Rain, snow, hail, etc. are all forms of precipitation. This word is
often misspelled and mispronounced as "percipitation."
PERIPHERAL
The third syllable in "peripheral" does not sound like "free." It should
be pronounced like "fur."
PERNICKETY/PERSNICKETY
The original Scottish dialect form was "pernickety," but Americans
changed it to "persnickety" a century ago. "Pernickety" is generally
unknown in the US though it's still in wide use across the Atlantic.
PEROGATIVE/PREROGATIVE
"Prerogative" is frequently both mispronounced and misspelled as
"perogative." It may help to remember that the word is associated with
PRivileges of PRecedence.
PERPETUATE/PERPETRATE
"Perpetrate" is something criminals do (criminals are sometimes called
"perps" in cop slang). When you seek to continue something you are
trying to perpetuate it.
PERSE/PER SE
This legal term meaning "in, of, or by itself") is a bit pretentious,
but you gain little respect if you misspell per se as a single word.
Worse is the mistaken "per say."
PERSONAL/PERSONNEL
Employees are personnel, but private individuals considered separately
from their jobs have personal lives.
PERSPECTIVE/PROSPECTIVE
"Perspective" has to do with sight, as in painting, and is usually a
noun. "Prospective" generally has to do with the future (compare with
"What are your prospects, young man?") and is usually an adjective. But
beware: there is also a rather old-fashioned but fairly common meaning
of the word "prospect" that has to do with sight: "as he climbed the
mountain, a vast prospect opened up before him."
PERSECUTE/PROSECUTE
When you persecute someone, you're treating them badly, whether they
deserve it or not; but only legal officers can prosecute someone for a
crime.
PERSONALITY
In show business personalities are people famous for being famous
(mostly popular actors and singers); people with more substantial
accomplishments like distinguished heads of state and Nobel Prize
winners should not be referred to as "personalities" even when they
appear on the Tonight Show.
PERUSE
This word, which means "examine thoroughly" is often misused to mean
"glance over hastily." Although some dictionaries accept the latter
meaning, it is not traditional.
When it is used to mean "look through" it is not standard to add
"through" to "peruse." It's not "peruse through the records" but "peruse
the records."
PERVERSE/PERVERTED
The sex-related meanings of words tend to drive out all other meanings.
Most people think of both "perverse" and "perverted" only in contexts
having to do with desire, but "perverse" properly has the function of
signifying "stubborn," "wrong-headed." Nothing erotic is suggested by
this sort of thing: "Josh perversely insisted on carving wooden
replacement parts for his 1958 Ford's engine." It's better to use
"perverted" in relation to abnormal sexual desires, but this word also
has non-sexual functions, as in "The bake-sale was perverted by Gladys
into a fundraiser for her poker habit."
People sometimes mispronounce "pervert" as "PREE-vert."
PHANTOM/FATHOM
Brianna exclaims confusedly, "I can't phantom why he thought I'd want a
coupon for an oil change for Valentine's Day!" A phantom is a ghost, but
a fathom is a nautical measure of depth. When you can't understand
something--being unable to get to the bottom of it--you should say "I
can't fathom it." "Phantom" is not a verb.
PHENOMENA/PHENOMENON
There are several words with Latin or Greek roots whose plural forms
ending in "A" are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for
instance, "criteria" and "media" and "data." it's "this phenomenon," but
"these phenomena."
PHILIPPINES/FILIPINOS
The people of the Philippines are called "Filipinos." Don't switch the
initial letters of these two words.
PHRASAL VERBS VS. NOUNS
Phrasal verbs make up a huge category of expressions in English that
careless users often misspell by substituting one-word noun forms for
the standard two-word phrasal verb; for instance: it would have been a
mistake for me to have written "Phrasal verbs makeup a huge category."
It is fine to write "I didn't want to put on my makeup" ("makeup" is a
noun) or "I had to take the makeup exam." (In this example "makeup" is a
noun acting like an adjective modifying another noun--"exam". What kind
of exam was it? A makeup exam.) Such nouns are often hyphenated, at
least early in their history (it used to be common to write "make-up
exam," and that is still fine), but there is a strong tendency for such
hyphenated forms to evolve into single words. If both versions are
current, the hyphenated form is usually the more formal one.
Most phrasal verbs consist of a verb and adverb combined. Note that some
of the adverbs involved can also function as prepositions, but don't let
this confuse you. In the phrase "cool down the broth" "down" is an
adverb. Some do actually consist of a verb and a preposition, but these
rarely cause problems. You aren't likely to write "would you lookafter
my cat while I'm gone?"
All of this is of little use if you're not clear about what a noun is
and what a verb or an adverb is. What follows is a long list of phrasal
verbs (first) and their related one-word noun forms (second) with
examples that may help you understand what the differences are in
standard English. I've also included some examples in which the one-word
form is an adjectival form rather than a noun.
There are some insulting phrases that I'm not including here because
filters might balk at them, but if you write something like "he's a real
__________ because he tends to __________" the second blank should be
filled in with a two-word non-hyphenated phrasal verb.
If the word involved is immediately preceded by "a," "an," or "the," you
probably need the one-word noun form. If it's immediately preceded by
"to," you probably need the two-word phrasal verb. If you're tempted to
use a one-word spelling elsewhere, try using a two-word or hyphenated
form instead. If it looks better, it probably is.
Note: What follows is not meant to be exhaustive. It does not cover
every possible meaning of these expressions. The entries are just sample
two-word and one-word forms in context to give you an idea of what might
be suitable. Many one-word entries listed below are used in the UK
mainly in hyphenated form, but I've followed general US patterns.
back down vs. backdown Don't let him make you back down. The result
would be a humiliating backdown.
back up vs. backup Back up your data regularly; then you'll have a
backup when your hard disk crashes.
bail out vs. bailout If the government has to bail out a bank it may
have to pass a bailout bill. The result is a government bailout.
beat up vs. beat-up The thugs beat up the weaker kids. He drove a
beat-up truck.
blast off vs. blastoff The spaceship was ready to blast off. Blastoff
occurred at dawn.
blow out vs. blowout Blow out the candle. The party was a blowout.
blow up vs. blow-up, blowup Blow up the building. A storm may blow up. A
blow-up Santa Claus. Their disagreement led to a blowup. The blowup of
the photo showed spinach between her teeth.
boil over vs. boilover Don't let the milk boil over. You have to watch
carefully to avoid a boilover.
break away vs. breakaway Some states wanted to break away from the
Union. The breakaway group decided to meet separately
break down vs. breakdown Break down this wall. Break down the argument
so I can understand it. The problems in the company led to a complete
breakdown.
break out vs. breakout Escapees break out of prison. The guards try to
prevent a breakout.
lift off vs. liftoff The rocket is ready to lift off. We have achieved
liftoff.
break up vs. breakup I hope we don't break up over this. A breakup
always hurts.
brush off vs. brushoff Brush off the cat hair. Don't listen to that guy;
give him the brushoff.
build up vs. buildup Build up your bank account. Avoid bathtub scum
buildup.
burn off vs. burnoff Hoping that the fog will burn off. Burn off the
fat. The shrubs were destroyed in the area of the burnoff.
buy in vs. buy-in To raise the money, we had to get several investors to
buy in. We needed to get buy-in from all the parties concerned.
buy off vs. buyoff The gangsters tried to buy off the cops. The extra
health insurance benefit was a buyoff for early retirees.
buy out vs. buyout The big corporation intended to buy out its small
competitors. The company offered a buyout to get some of its employees
to quit.
call back vs. callback Call back your dogs. If no one answers the first
time a callback is required.
carry on vs. carry-on You can carry on one small bag. We have to inspect
your carry-on. Carry-on luggage has to fit in the overhead bin.
cash in vs. cash-in After working for 48 years, he decided to cash in. A
cash-in refinance.
cash out vs. cashout Close down the business and cash out. A lump-sum
cashout. A cashout poker tournament.
catch up vs. catch-up Wait for me to catch up. We're not getting
anywhere; we're just playing catch-up.
cave in vs. cave-in The kids kept begging to go to Disney World until
they got me to cave in. The miners were trapped by a cave-in.
change over vs. changeover We want to change over to a Web-based billing
system. Accounting will be in charge of the changeover.
check in vs. check-in You must check in before boarding the plane. You
must complete check-in before participating in the meeting. The check-in
procedures have been simplified.
check out vs. checkout Check out the book from the library. Check out
the cute lifeguard. Wait in the checkout line. Checkout is at 10:00 AM.
check up vs. checkup I thought I'd check up on how she was doing. Go to
the doctor for a checkup.
chill out vs. chill-out, chillout Relax, man; chill out! This is my
chill-out time. Chillout music.
clamp down vs. clampdown The city is going to clamp down on illegal
parking. I've gotten five tickets since the clampdown began.
claw back vs. clawback The government needs to claw back some of the
revenues it lost last quarter. The clawback will hit the incomes of some
poor families especially hard.
clean out vs. cleanout Clean out the refrigerator. Remove the cleanout
to clear the clogged sink drain.
click through vs. clickthrough Click through to claim your free iPod.
The ad had a high clickthrough rate.
close in vs. close-in The officers began to close in on the suspect. I
hate commuting; I'd rather live close-in.
close out vs. closeout Let's close out our stock of VCRs. We can get rid
of them in a closeout sale. I bought this sweater cheap on closeout.
close up vs. close-up, closeup The car doesn't look so good close up.
We're going to close up the beach house for the season. High-definition
video shows wrinkles clearly in a close-up (or closeup).
come down vs. comedown Come down and see us in Baja this winter. From
CEO to janitor: what a comedown!
come on vs. come-on He tried to come on to me. Come on, you know you
really like washing the car. The enticing offer was just a come-on.
cool down vs. cool-down, cooldown Cool down in the shade for a while.
Allow some time for a cool-down period after running. Before working
out, do a warmup; and afterward, a cooldown.
cop out vs. cop-out, copout When it was his turn to wash the dishes he
would always cop out. That lame excuse was a real cop-out (or copout).
crack down vs. crackdown The coach is going to crack down on players
using steroids. Management insisted on a crackdown.
cut back vs. cutback I'm trying to cut back on French fries. A
government cutback.
cut out vs. cut-out, cutout Cut out the fat. He put a cut-out (or
cutout) in the exhaust pipe. A cut-out valentine.
die off vs. die-off The honeybees began to die off. When the meteor
struck the earth it caused a huge die-off.
draw back vs. drawback The threat of a beating caused him to draw back.
The drawback of the plan was that they didn't have a car for the
getaway.
draw down vs. drawdown Draw down your savings to invest in my company.
After the drawdown it wasn't clear that there was enough water left in
the reservoir to supply the town for the summer.
dress up vs. dress-up, dressup We'll dress up for the party. The girls
like to play dress-up (or dressup).
drive by vs. drive-by Drive by the house to see whether it looks
occupied. It was a drive-by shooting.
drop off vs.drop-off Drop off the cleaning on your way to work. A
drop-off in attendance. Cell phone drop-off locations. A steep drop-off
in attendance.
drop out vs. dropout If you drop out of school, you'll regret it later.
You don't want to be a dropout.
face off vs. face-off They will face off against each other on the talk
show. A hockey game begins with a face-off.
fall back vs. fallback The soldiers had to fall back and regroup. Just
in case we need a fallback (or a fallback alternative).
fall off vs. falloff Quality began to fall off. There was a falloff in
quality.
fill out vs. fill-out Fill out the forms to apply for the scholarship.
The fill-out forms are available on the Web site.
fix up vs. fix-up Fix up the basement as a home theater. The only date
he could get was a fix-up. A novel made up of related short stories is
sometimes called a "fix-up."
flame out vs. flameout When they entered the tournament I knew their
team would flame out. The jet suffered a flameout. Their career ended in
spectacular flameout.
flare up vs. flare-up, flareup Dripping fat causes the charcoal to flare
up. The conflict will flare up. A flare-up (or flareup) of flu.
fly by vs. flyby In this fascinating class time will just fly by. The
space probe was designed for a flyby of the Planet Mongo.
fly over vs. flyover You'll fly over our house on your way to the
airport. The Air Force Blue Angels staged a flyover to mark the
beginning of Seafair. In the UK, an overpass is a flyover.
fold up vs. fold-up Fold up the sheets before you put them away. We have
a fold-up treadmill.
follow through vs. follow-through He invited everybody to the birthday
party but he failed to follow through by ordering a cake. The secret to
a good golf swing is the follow-through.
freak out vs. freakout Calm down, don't freak out. It was wild: a real
freakout.
freeze out vs. freeze-out The large investors tried to freeze out the
small ones. Victim of a freeze-out. A freeze-out plug.
gad about vs. gadabout I like to gad about to different parties. My
friends say that makes me a real gadabout.
get away vs. getaway We want to get away for the winter. A trip to New
Zealand seems like a good getaway.
give away vs. give-away, giveaway I'm trying to give away my old VCR.
The bank promised every new customer a giveaway. Unfortunately their
giveaway gifts turned out to be shares of their worthless stock. Her
expression was a dead give-away (or giveaway).
give back vs. giveback He had to give back the comic book. Management
insisted on a health benefit giveback when it negotiated with the union.
go ahead vs. go-ahead We decided to go ahead with the project. The city
permit office gave us the go-ahead.
go by vs. go-by How time does go by. He lost interest in her and gave
her the go-by.
goof off vs. goof-off I don't feel like working today; let's just goof
off. That guy is a lazy goof-off.
hand out vs. handout Hand out the cookies at snack time. He was begging
for a handout. On every street corner there's somebody distributing
handouts.
hang out vs. hangout We don't have to go any place special; let's just
hang out together. The Harbor Pub is a popular Island hangout.
hang up vs. hangup Hang up your coat. I have a real hangup about
robocalls; I just hang up on them.
hold back vs. holdback She couldn't hold back her tears. The lender
insisted on a 20% holdback until the project was done.
hold out vs. holdout Hold out for a better deal. Most of the partners
agreed to the merger, but there was one holdout.
hook up vs. hook-up, hookup Go out and see who you can hook up with. I
wasn't really interested in him, he was just a casual hookup. We just
had a hookup.
keep away vs. keepaway I try to keep away from cheeseburgers. They were
playing keepaway with his backpack.
kiss off vs. kiss-off Just kiss off the ones you don't like. Give them
the kiss-off.
knock down vs. knock-down Knock down the furniture for shipping. I got
it at a knock-down price. It was a knock-down, drag-out fight.
knock off vs. knockoff Knock off the arguing with your sister. That
isn't a real Coach bag; it's just a cheap knockoff.
lay off vs. layoff The company wants to lay off more works. This will be
a devastating layoff.
lay out vs. layout Lay out the body for the funeral. You'll have to lay
out some serious money for that granite countertop. We need a more
efficient kitchen layout.
let down vs. letdown Let down your hair on your birthday. The bad review
my boss gave me was a real letdown.
lie down vs. lie-down Take your shoes off before you lie down on the
bed. Why don't you have a good lie-down?
lift off vs. liftoff The rocket is ready to lift off. We have achieved
liftoff.
live in vs. live-in They want a nanny to live in: a live-in nanny.
lock down vs. lockdown Lock down the prison. The prison reacted to the
riot with a lockdown.
lock up vs. lockup Lock up the house when you go on vacation. Throw the
mugger in the lockup.
log in vs. log-in, login Log in to your account. Enter your log-in ID.
Your log-in (or login) is complete.
log off vs. log-off or logoff Log off when you leave the bank site.
Complete your log-off (or logoff) by clicking here.
look in vs. look-in Look in on me when you come by the hospital. The
nurse gave me a quick look-in during her rounds.
look up vs. lookup You can look up the name of the first owner of your
house in the local library. You can do a zip code lookup on the USPS
site. The spreadsheet provides a useful lookup function.
look out vs. look-out Look out for falling rocks. Pull over onto the
look-out and admire the mountains. The bank robbers were caught because
they forgot to use a look-out. If you don't want to use a password to
secure your laptop, that's your look-out.
make do vs. make-do Since we can't afford to buy a new car right now,
we'll just have to make do with the old one. The tarp works as a make-do
tent.
make up vs. make-up, makeup Make up your mind. Take the make-up exam.
Put on makeup.
mark down vs. markdown If they mark down the sweaters, I'll buy one.
There was a big markdown on last year's model.
mark up vs. markup Mark up the document. Mark up the merchandise. The
markup on this face-cream is about 500%.
mash up vs. mashup Mash up the carrots with the potatoes. Her recording
is more a mashup than a remix of those songs.
mix up vs. mix-up Mix up the paint for the doghouse. There had been a
mix-up at the bank.
mop up vs. mop-up Mop up the spilled milk. It was a mop-up operation.
opt out vs. opt-out Opt out of the mailing list. The Direct Marketing
Association offers an opt-out service.
pass through vs. pass-through Can ultraviolet light pass through the
lenses? There was a pass-through between the kitchen and dining room.
What is the pass-through rate?
pay back vs. payback Pay back the loan. The water balloon was payback
for the wedgie.
pay off vs. pay-off, payoff We hope to pay off our mortgage soon. Our
investments are beginning to pay off. His gamble had a disappointing
payoff (or pay-off).
phase out vs. phase-out Let's phase out the old models next month. The
phase-out is just about complete.
pick up vs. pickup Pick up the trash and throw it in your pickup.
pig out vs. pig-out, pigout Try not to pig out at the buffet. After last
night's pigout (or pig-out) I need to go on a diet.
pin up vs. pin-up Pin up the hem. A photo of Betty Grable in a swimsuit
was a famous WWII pin-up (or pinup). She was a pin-up girl.
play back vs. playback Play back the recording. On old tape recorders
the record head was usually to the left of the playback head. We
listened to the playback. Asha Bhosle is a famous playback singer in
Bollywood movies.
plug in vs. plugin Plug in the vacuum cleaner. This is a cool Photoshop
plugin (or plug-in).
pop out vs. pop-out The zits began to pop out all over her chin. The car
has a pop-out windshield.
press on vs. press-on If we're going to make base camp by sundown we
need to press on. Before PageMaker, we used to create the headlines in
our newsletter with press-on type.
pull apart vs. pull-apart The teacher had to pull apart the two kids who
were fighting. Our bakery makes really good pull-apart rolls. They make
a whole-wheat pull-apart.
pull down vs. pull-down Pull down the shades. Make your selection from
the pull-down menu.
pull off vs. pull-off Can the team pull off an upset next Saturday? You
can get a great view from the next pull-off on the highway.
pull over vs. pullover Pull over and let me drive for a while. Would you
rather I knitted you a cardigan or a pullover? It was a pullover shirt.
push up vs. push-up We got ready for the last push up the mountain. She
did a one-handed push-up. She wore a push-up bra. She ate a push-up pop.
put down vs. put-down Put down the gun. It was an insulting remark, a
real put-down.
put on vs. put-on Put on the kettle for tea. His pretence of
indifference was just a put-on. It was a put-on expression.
ring back vs. ring-back When you get my message, please ring back
immediately. After dialing, you hear the ring-back tone.
rip off vs. rip-off, ripoff Rip off the plastic wrapping to get at the
game. They tried to rip off our design. Their version was a total
rip-off. They charge rip-off prices.
roll back vs. roll-back, rollback Roll back the prices. The store
announced a price roll-back (or rollback).
roll over vs. rollover The vans tended to roll over. Roll over your IRA
into a Roth. Yesterday on the highway there were two collisions and a
roll-over (or rollover). They put a rollover at the top of their home
page.
rub down vs. rubdown Rub down the beef with an herb mixture. After the
game you need a rubdown.
run about vs. runabout These lamps will run about $100 each. This kind
of little car is called a runabout.
run around vs. runaround I had to run around all morning to get
everything ready for the party. When I asked him for a straight answer,
he gave me the runaround.
run off vs. runoff Run off with the circus; catch the runoff from the
gutters.
run up vs. run-up Run up the stairs. The scandal broke out during the
run-up to the election.
screw up vs. screw-up, screwup Screw up your courage. Try not to screw
up. It was a terrible screwup (or screw-up). He was a notorious screwup
(or screw-up).
sell off vs. sell-off Sell off the rest of the stock. Concerns about the
economy triggered a sell-off on Wall Street today.
send up vs. send-up She wanted to send up typical romance novels. Her
book was a send-up of the kind she liked least.
set aside vs. set-aside Set aside some money for your vacation. To get
the agricultural subsidy we made the old cornfield a set-aside.
set back vs. setback The late spring snows set back our camping trip for
several weeks. The loss of the grant was a real setback. The zoning
ordinance prescribes a ten-foot setback.
set up vs. setup You can set up your iPhone account at the store. Bring
your own bottle and the restaurant will provide a setup for you. This
was just a setup to trap unwary consumers.
shake down vs. shakedown The gangsters tried to shake down the merchants
for protection money. Some refused to give in to the shakedown.
show off vs. show-off Let me show off our new kitchen. She's a real
show-off.
shut in vs. shut-in The dog was shut in all day. He was a sickly
shut-in.
sign in vs. sign-in Sign in at the registration desk. Here's the sign-in
sheet.
sign on vs. sign-on Sign on to the project. Television stations used to
display a test pattern for fifteen minutes before sign-on.
sit down vs. sit-down Sit down and have a cold one. Go to a sit-down
restaurant.
sit in vs. sit-in Sit in this chair. The students staged a sit-in
protest. The college president denounced the sit-in.
sleep over vs. sleepover If it gets too late, you can sleep over here.
Their daughter invited six friends for a sleepover.
spin off vs. spin-off You can spin off a new TV series from an old one,
like Frasier from Cheers. Crankshaft is a spin-off from Funky
Winkerbean.
spin out vs. spinout Don't let your car spin out on the ice. The spinout
sent the car into the ditch.
spit up vs. spitup The baby spit up most of its lunch. My blouse was
covered with spit-up.
start up vs. startup Start up the engine. We need investors to fund our
startup. They got a start-up grant.
stand out vs. standout Mindy tends to stand out on the basketball court.
She's a real standout.
stick up vs. stickup Stick up these posters around town. This is a
stickup!
strike out vs. strikeout Strike out the first paragraph. There were
three strikeouts in the first fifteen minutes of the game.
tag along vs. tagalong Her little brother always wanted to tag along.
She thought he was an irritating little tagalong.
take off vs. takeoff, take-off Well, I think it's time for us to take
off. Fasten your seatbelt before takeoff (or take-off).
take out vs. takeout Take out the garbage. Let's eat takeout Thai food
tonight.
take over vs. takeover The vice president of the club will take over
while Patricia is on vacation. That corporation staged a takeover of
ours.
tear down vs. teardown Tear down the old barn. We bought the place just
for the lot; the house was a teardown.
tip off vs. tipoff, tip-off He tried to tip off the police about the
planned robbery. The police ignored the tip-off (or tipoff). I was busy
buying a hotdog and missed the tip-off.
touch down vs. touchdown The astronauts reported they would soon touch
down on the moon. The plane skidded slightly on touchdown. The
quarterback scored a touchdown.
touch up vs. touch-up Touch up your make-up. She gave her make-up a
quick touch-up.
trade in vs. trade-in Let's trade in the old car. We should get a pretty
good trade-in price.
trickle down vs. trickle-down They hoped the money would trickle down to
the people who needed it the most. But many people are skeptical about
the trickle-down theory.
try out vs. tryout They want to try out for field hockey. The tryout is
tomorrow.
turn down vs. turndown Turn down the covers on the bed. Turn down the
offer. The economy went into a turndown (also known as a downturn).
turn on vs. turn-on Turn on the lights. A pet chimpanzee can turn on
you. She found his accent to be a real turn-on.
turn over vs. turnover The engine wouldn't turn over. I like to have an
apple turnover with my morning coffee. The bomb squad had a high
turnover rate of personnel. There was just one turnover in the game's
last quarter.
wake up vs. wake-up I need to wake up early tomorrow to catch a plane. I
need a wake-up call.
walk in vs. walk-in I prefer to take a very short walk in the rain.
Between appointments I manage to squeeze in the occasional walk-in. Our
bedroom has a walk-in closet.
warm up vs. warm-up Before playing, we need to warm up. Come early to
give time for the warm-up. Wear a warm-up suit.
wash out vs. washout I couldn't wash out the stain. You can't get here
on the old road; there's been a washout at the first curve. The
initially enthusiastic candidate turned out to be a real washout.
weigh in vs. weigh-in All jockeys have to weigh in before the race. I'll
see you at the weigh-in.
white out vs. whiteout, white-out In the days before personal computers
we used to white out our mistakes. We used a lot of liquid white-out.
The huge snowstorm caused a total whiteout (or white-out).
wind up vs. windup Wind up the kite string. Here's the windup, and the
pitch--it's a strike!
work out vs. workout Go to the gym to work out. Do your workout every
day.
write down vs. writedown Write down the telephone number. Our accountant
said the property was overvalued and recommended a writedown.
write off vs. write-off We had to write off the bad debts. We took a
write-off on the loss.
write up vs. write-up He said he would write up an account of the
meeting. That was a great write-up about you in the paper.
PHYSICAL/FISCAL
In budget matters, it's the fiscal year, relating to finances with an
"F."
PICARESQUE/PICTURESQUE
"Picaresque" is a technical literary term you are unlikely to have a use
for. It labels a sort of literature involving a picaro (Spanish), a
lovable rogue who roams the land having colorful adventures. A landscape
that looks as lovely as a picture is picturesque.
PICKUP/PICK UP
The noun is spelled "pickup" as in "drive your pickup" or "that coffee
gave me a pickup," or "we didn't have a real date; it was just a
pickup." If it's a thing, use the single-word form. But if it's an
action (verb-plus-adverb phrase) then spell it as two words: "pick up
your dirty underwear."
There's also the adjectival form, which has to be hyphenated: "Jeremy
tried out one of his corny pick-up lines on me at the bar." According to
this rule, it should be a "pick-up game" but you're unlikely to get into
trouble for writing "pickup game."
PICTURE
The pronunciation of "picture" as if it were "pitcher" is common in some
dialects, but not standard. The first syllable should sound like "pick."
PIGEON ENGLISH/PIDGIN ENGLISH
"Pidgin" evolved from a Chinese mispronunciation of "business," and the
original pidgin English developed as a simplified blend of Chinese and
English used to facilitate international trade. Other similarly
artificial blended languages have since also been called "pidgins."
Although the spelling "pigeon" often occurred early on, the standard
spelling today is "pidgin."
PIN number/PIN
Those who object to "PIN number" on the grounds that the N in "PIN"
stands for "number" in the phrase "personal identification number" are
quite right, but it may be difficult to get people to say anything else.
"PIN" was invented to meet the objection that a "password" consisting of
nothing but numbers is not a word. Pronouncing each letter of the
acronym as "P-I-N" blunts its efficiency. Saying just "PIN" reminds us
of another common English word, though few people are likely to think
when they are told to "enter PIN" that they should shove a steel pin
into the terminal they are operating. In writing, anyway,"PIN" is
unambiguous and is better used without the redundant "number."
The same goes for "VIN number"; "VIN" stands for "Vehicle Identification
Number." And "UPC code" is redundant because "UPC'stands for "Universal
Product Code."
Similarly, "ISBN number" would logically mean "International Standard
Book Number number." It's fine to say just "ISBN," and that's what most
professionals in the book trade do.
PINNED UP/PENT UP
If you wear your heart on your sleeve I suppose you might be said to
have "pinned up" emotions, but the phrase you want when you are
suppressing your feelings is "pent-up emotions." Similarly, it's pent-up
demand." "Pent" is a rare word, but don't replace it with "penned" in
such phrases either.
PIT IN MY STOMACH/IN THE PIT OF MY STOMACH
Just as you can love someone from the bottom of your heart, you can also
experience a sensation of dread in the pit (bottom) of your stomach. I
don't know whether people who mangle this common expression into "pit in
my stomach" envision an ulcer, an irritating peach pit they've swallowed
or are thinking of the pyloric sphincter; but they've got it wrong.
PITH AND VINEGAR/PISS AND VINEGAR
To say that people are "full of piss and vinegar" is to say that they
are brimming with energy. Although many speakers assume the phrase must
have a negative connotation, this expression is more often used as a
compliment, "vinegar" being an old slang term for enthusiastic energy.
Some try to make this expression more polite by substituting "pith" for
"piss," but this change robs it of the imagery of acrid, energetically
boiling fluids and conjures up instead a sodden, vinegar-soaked mass of
pith. Many people who use the "polite" version are unaware of the
original.
PLAIN/PLANE
Both of these words have to do with flatness. A flat prairie is a plain,
and you use a plane to smooth flat a piece of wood.
"Plain" is also an adjective which can describe things that are
ordinary, simple, or unattractive.
But whether you go the airport to catch a plane or meditate to achieve a
higher plane of consciousness, the meanings that have to do with things
high up are spelled "plane."
PLAYS A FACTOR/PLAYS A ROLE
Some people say that an influential force "plays a factor" in a decision
or change. They are mixing up two different expressions: "is a factor"
and "plays a role."
PLAYWRITE/PLAYWRIGHT
It might seem as if a person who writes plays should be called a
"playwrite," but in fact a playwright is a person who has wrought words
into a dramatic form, just as a wheelwright has wrought wheels out of
wood and iron. All the other words ending in "-wright" are archaic, or
we'd be constantly reminded of the correct pattern.
PLEAD INNOCENT
Lawyers frown on the phrase "plead innocent" (it's "plead guilty" or
"plead not guilty"), but outside of legal contexts the phrase is
standard English.
PLEADED/PLEATED
A pleat is a sharp fold, so it's a "pleated" skirt, no matter how much
your husband has pleaded you to wear it.
PLEASE RSVP/ PLEASE REPLY
RSVP stands for the French phrase "Repondez s'il vous plait" ("reply,
please"), so it doesn't need an added "please." However, since few
people seem to know its literal meaning, and fewer still take it
seriously, it's best to use plain English: "Please reply." It is a
mistake to think that this phrase invites people to respond only if they
are planning to attend; it is at least as important to notify the person
doing the inviting if you cannot go. And no, you can't bring along the
kids or other uninvited guests.
PLUG-IN/OUTLET
That thing on the end of an electrical cord is a plug, which goes into
the socket of the wall outlet.
PLUS/ADD
Some people continue a pattern picked up in childhood of using "plus" as
a verb to mean "add," as in "You plus the 3 and the 4 and you get 7."
"Plus" is not a verb; use "add" instead.
PODIUM/LECTERN
Strictly speaking, a podium is a raised platform on which you stand to
give a speech; the piece of furniture on which you place your notes and
behind which you stand is a lectern.
POINT BEING IS THAT
"The point being is that" is redundant; say just "the point is that" or
"the point being that."
POINT IN TIME
This redundancy became popular because it was used by astronauts seeking
to distinguish precisely between a point in time and a point in space.
Since most people use the expression in contexts where there is no
ambiguity, it makes more sense to say simply "at this point" or "at this
time."
POINT OF YOU/POINT OF VIEW
Your viewpoint on a subject is your "point of view," not your " point of
you." "Your" and "of you" mean the same thing, and combining the two
makes little sense; but the expression really gets weird when it turns
into "my point of you," "her point of you," "their point of you," etc.
POISONOUS/VENOMOUS
Snakes and insects that inject poisonous venom into their victims are
venomous, but a snake or tarantula is not itself poisonous because if
you eat one it won't poison you. A blowfish will kill you if you eat it,
so it is poisonous, but it is not venomous.
POINSETTA/POINSETTIA
Those showy plants that appear in the stores around Christmas are
"poinsettias," named after American diplomat John R. Poinsett who
introduced them into the US from Mexico. The Latin ending "-ia" is
seldom pronounced as spelled, but that's no justification for
misspelling the word as "poinsetta."
POLE/POLL
A pole is a long stick. You could take a "poll" (survey or ballot) to
determine whether voters want lower taxes or better education.
POMPOM/POMPON
To most people that fuzzy ball on the top of a knit hat and the
implement wielded by a cheerleader are both "pompoms," but to
traditionalists they are "pompons," spelled the way the French--who gave
us the word--spell it. A pompom, say these purists, is only a sort of
large gun. Though you're unlikely to bother many people by falling into
the common confusion, you can show off your education by observing the
distinction.
POO-POO/POOH-POOH/PUPU
The toddler with a soggy diaper proudly announces "I go poo-poo"!
The skeptic is inclined to pooh-pooh outlandish ideas. Don't mix up
matter for skepticism with material for the septic system.
A selection of snacks served on a wooden platter in a Chinese restaurant
is called a "pupu platter"--a custom and word that made its way to the
US mainland from Hawaii.
POPULACE/POPULOUS
The population of a country may be referred to as its populace, but a
crowded country is populous.
PORE/POUR
When used as a verb, "pore" has the unusual sense of "scrutinize," as in
"She pored over her receipts." If it's coffee or rain, the stuff pours.
POSSESSED OF/POSSESSED BY/POSSESSED WITH
If you own a yacht, you're possessed of it. If a demon takes over your
body, you're possessed by it. If that which possesses you is more
metaphorical, like an executive determined to get ahead, he or she can
be possessed by or with the desire to win.
PRACTICABLE/PRACTICAL
"Practical" and "practicable" overlap a bit in meaning; but by far the
most common word, and the one you will have the most use for, is
"practical." The safest course is to save "practicable" for use only in
describing something that it is possible to accomplish. If you're not
sure which to use, stick with "practical."
Something impractical is not smart or efficient, but something
impracticable is just plain impossible to do.
PRACTICE/PRACTISE
In the United Kingdom, "practice" is the noun, "practise" the verb; but
in the US the spelling "practice" is commonly used for both, though the
distinction is sometimes observed. "Practise" as a noun is, however,
always wrong in both places: a doctor always has a "practice," never a
"practise."
PRACTICLE/PRACTICAL
Some words end in "-icle" and others in "-ical" without the result being
any difference in pronunciation. But when you want somebody really
practical, call on good old AL.
PRAY/PREY
If you want a miracle, pray to God. If you're a criminal, you prey on
your victims. Incidentally, it's "praying mantis," not "preying mantis."
The insect holds its forefeet in a position suggesting prayer.
PRECEDE/PROCEED
"Precede" means "to go before." "Proceed" means to go on. Let your
companion precede you through the door, then proceed to follow her.
Interestingly, the second E is missing in "procedure."
PRECEDENCE/PRECEDENTS
Although these words sound the same, they work differently. The pop star
is given precedence over the factory worker at the entrance to the dance
club. "Precedents" is just the plural of "precedent": "If we let the
kids adopt that rattlesnake as a pet and agree to let them take it for a
walk in Death Valley, we'll be setting some bad precedents."
PRECIPITATE/PRECIPITOUS
Both of these adjectives are based on the image of plunging over the
brink of a precipice, but "precipitate" emphasizes the suddenness of the
plunge, "precipitous," the steepness of it. If you make a "precipitate"
decision, you are making a hasty and probably unwise one. If the stock
market declines "precipitously," it goes down sharply.
PRECURSE/FORETELL, FORESHADOW, PREFACE, ANTICIPATE, PRECEDE
Tempted to "precurse" that guy who looks like he might be going to cut
into the lane ahead of you? Until recently "precurse" as a verb was a
rare archaic word, but lately people have been using it to mean "be a
precursor to." Use a more ordinary and precise word like "foretell,"
"foreshadow," "preface," "anticipate," or "precede."
PREDOMINATE/PREDOMINANT
"Predominate" is a verb: "In the royal throne room, the color red
predominates." "Predominant" is an adjective: "The predominant view
among the touts is that Fancy Dancer is the best bet in the third race."
PREDOMINATELY/PREDOMINANTLY
"Predominantly" is formed on the adjective "predominant," not the verb
"predominate"; so though both forms are widely accepted, "predominantly"
makes more sense.
PREEMPTORY/PEREMPTORY
"Peremptory" (meaning "imperative") is often misspelled and
mispronounced "preemptory" through confusion caused by the influence of
the verb "preempt," whose adjectival form is actually "preemptive."
PREFERABLY
Although some US dictionaries now recognize the pronunciation of
"preferably" with the first two syllables pronounced just like
"prefer"--first "E" long and the stress on the second syllable--the
standard pronunciation is "PREFFerublee," with the first syllable
stressed, just like in "preference." The alternative pronunciation
sounds awkward to some people.
PREJUDICE/PREJUDICED
People not only misspell "prejudice" in a number of ways, they sometimes
say "he's prejudice" when they mean "he's prejudiced."
See also "bias/biased."
PRE-MADONNA/PRIMA DONNA
The leading soprano in an opera is the "prima donna" (Italian for
"leading lady"). As an insult, "prima donna" implies that the person
under discussion is egotistical, demanding, and doesn't work well as
part of a team.
Don't write "pre-Madonna" unless you intend to discuss the era before
the singer Madonna became popular.
PREMIER/PREMIERE
These words are, respectively, the masculine and feminine forms of the
word for "first" in French, but they have become differentiated in
English. Only the masculine form is used as an adjective, as in
"Tidy-Pool is the premier pool-cleaning firm in Orange County." The
confusion arises when these words are used as nouns. The prime minister
of a parliamentary government is known as a "premier." The opening night
of a film or play is its "premiere."
"Premiere" as a verb is common in the arts and in show business ("the
show premiered on PBS"), but it is less acceptable in other contexts
("the state government premiered its new welfare system"). Use
"introduced," or, if real innovation is involved, "pioneered."
PREMISE/PREMISES
Some people suppose that since "premises" has a plural form, a single
house or other piece of property must be a "premise," but that word is
reserved for use as a term in logic meaning something assumed or taken
as given in making an argument. Your lowly one-room shack is still your
premises.
PREPONE
South Asian speakers have evolved the logical word "prepone" to mean the
opposite of "postpone": to move forward in time. It's a handy word, but
users of it should be aware that those unfamiliar with their dialect
will be baffled by this word.
PREPOSITIONS (REPEATED)
In the sentence "Alex liked Nancy, with whom he shared his Snickers bar
with" only one "with" is needed--eliminate either one. Look out for
similarly duplicated prepositions.
Incidentally, an often-cited example of this pattern is from Paul
McCartney's "Live and Let Die": "this ever-changing world in which we
live in"; but if you listen closely, you'll hear instead a quite correct
"this ever-changing world in which we're livin'." Americans have a hard
time hearing the soft British "R" in "we're."
PREPOSITIONS (WRONG)
One of the clearest indications that a person reads little and doesn't
hear much standard English is a failure to use the right preposition in
a common expression. You aren't ignorant to a fact; you're ignorant of
it. Things don't happen on accident, but by accident (though they do
happen "on purpose"). There are no simple rules governing preposition
usage: you just have to immerse yourself in standard English in order to
write it naturally.
See also "different than/different from/to."
PRESCRIBE/PROSCRIBE
You recommend something when you prescribe it, but you forbid it when
you proscribe it. The usually positive function of "pro-" confuses many
people.
PRESENT WRITER/I
Formal writers used to avoid writing "I" when referring to themselves by
using instead the phrase "the present writer." This practice is
generally discouraged by modern editors, and is considered awkward and
old-fashioned. Simple "I" works fine and calls less attention to itself
so long as it's not repeated too often.
PRESENTLY/CURRENTLY
Some argue that "presently" doesn't mean "in the present." It means
"soon." If you want to talk about something that's happening right now,
they urge you to say it's going on currently.
PRESPIRATION/PERSPIRATION
"Perspiration" is often mispronounced and even misspelled
"prespiration." The first syllable should sound like "purse."
PRESUMPTIOUS/PRESUMPTUOUS
"Presumptive" has an I in it, but "presumptuous." does not.
PRETTY/SOMEWHAT
It's pretty common to use "pretty" to mean "somewhat" in ordinary
speech, but it should be avoided in formal writing, where sometimes
"very" is more appropriate. The temptation to use "pretty" usually
indicates the writer is being vague, so changing to something more
specific may be an even better solution: "a pretty bad mess" might be
"chocolate syrup spilled all over the pizza which had been dumped upside
down on the carpet."
PRIMER
When this word is used in the US to mean "elementary textbook" it is
pronounced with a short "I": "primmer" (rhymes with "dimmer"). All other
meanings are pronounced with a long "I": "prymer" (rhymes with "timer").
PRIMEVIL/PRIMEVAL
The existence of a music group and a comic book using the deliberately
punning misspelling "Primevil" helps to further confusion about this
word. Something ancient and primitive is "primeval." The "-eval"
sequence comes from a root having to do with ages, as in "medieval." It
has nothing to do with the concept of evil. The word can also be spelled
"primaeval."
PRINCIPAL/PRINCIPLE
Generations of teachers have tried to drill this one into students"
heads by reminding them, "The principal is your pal." Many don't seem
convinced. "Principal" is a noun and adjective referring to someone or
something which is highest in rank or importance. (In a loan, the
principal is the more substantial part of the money, the interest is--or
should be--the lesser.) "Principle" is only a noun, and has to do with
law or doctrine: "The workers fought hard for the principle of
collective bargaining."
PRIORITIZE
Many people disdain "prioritize" as bureaucratic jargon for "rank" or
"make a high priority."
PRIORITY
It is common to proclaim "in our business, customer service is a
priority," but it would be better to say "a high priority," since
priorities can also be low.
PROACTIVE
See "reactionary/reactive."
PROBABLY
The two Bs in this word are particularly difficult to pronounce in
sequence, so the word often comes out as "probly" and is even
occasionally misspelled that way. When even the last B disappears, the
pronunciation "prolly" suggests drunken slurring or, at best, an attempt
at humor.
PRODIGY/PROGENY/PROTEGE
Your progeny are your kids, though it would be pretty pretentious to
refer to them as such. If your child is a brilliantly outstanding person
he or she may be a child prodigy. In fact, anything amazingly admirable
can be a prodigy. But a person that you take under your wing in order to
help promote his or her career is your protege.
Avoid misspelling or mispronouncing "prodigy" as "progidy."
PROGRAM/PROGRAMME
"Program" is the spelling for all uses in the US, but in the UK the
spelling "programme" is used for broadcasts and schedules of various
kinds (musical programme, programme of studies, theatre programme).
However, in all computer-related contexts, the UK standard spelling is
like the US one: "program."
AS TIME PROGRESSED/AS TIME PASSED
Events may progress in time, but time itself does not progress--it just
passes.
PRONE/SUPINE
"Prone" (face down) is often confused with "supine" (face up). Some
people use the phrase "soup in navel" to help them remember the meaning
of the latter word. "Prostrate" technically also means "face down," but
is often used to mean simply "devastated."
See also "prostate/prostrate."
PRONOUNCIATION/PRONUNCIATION
"Pronounce" is the verb, but the "O" is omitted for the noun:
"pronunciation." This mistake ranks right up there in incongruity with
"writting."
THE PROOF IS IN THE PUDDING/THE PROOF OF THE PUDDING IS IN THE EATING
This common truncated version of an old saying conjures up visions of
poking around in your dessert looking for prizes, but "the proof of the
pudding is in the eating" means that you don't really know that your
dessert has come out right until you taste it.
PROPHECY/PROPHESY
"Prophecy," the noun, (pronounced "PROF-a-see") is a prediction. The
verb "to prophesy" (pronounced "PROF-a-sigh") means to predict
something. When a prophet prophesies he or she utters prophecies.
Outside of Bob Dylan's lyrics, writers and critics do not "prophesize."
They prophesy.
PROSTATE/PROSTRATE
The gland men have is called the prostate. "Prostrate" is an adjective
meaning "lying face downward."
PROTAGONIST/PROPONENT
People have been using "protagonist" to mean "proponent" for a long
time, but people who know the word's origin--including most English
teachers--object that "protagonist" refers to the main character of a
work of fiction. An advocate of a certain course of action, they feel,
should be called a "proponent."
PROTRAY/PORTRAY
There are a lot of words in English that begin in "pro-." This is not
one of them. When you make a portrait, you portray someone.
PROVED/PROVEN
For most purposes either form is a fine past participle of "prove,"
though in a phrase like "a proven talent" where the word is an adjective
preceding a noun, "proven" is standard.
PROSPERITY/POSTERITY
Your descendants--those who come after you--are posterity. Your
posterior comes behind your front, right? Your posterity comes along
behind you in time. In contrast, prosperity is financial well-being. But
some people mix these up by saying "I am taking photos of our house
construction for prosperity" when they mean "for posterity."
PSYCHOLOGIST/PSYCHIATRIST/PSYCHOTHERAPIST/PSYCHOANALYST/
A psychologist is a person who has studied the mind and earned a Ph.D.
or Psy.D. Although some definitions state that psychologists have
undergone clinical training but cannot prescribe medicines, there are
research psychologists who are not engaged in clinical work at all, but
merely do experiments to discover how our minds work. Some of their work
can concern animal rather than human minds.
A psychiatrist is technically an M.D. specializing in the treatment of
mental problems who can prescribe medicines. They are licensed medical
doctors, and get irritated when they are called "psychologists" and when
psychologists are called "psychiatrists."
Psychotherapist is not a technical term, and may be used by anyone
claiming to offer therapy for mental problems. That someone is called a
"psychotherapist" tells you nothing about his or her qualifications. But
qualified clinical psychologists and psychiatrists can be properly
called "psychotherapists."
A psychoanalyst is a very specific kind of psychotherapist: a licensed
practitioner of the methods of Sigmund Freud.
PUNDINT/PUNDIT
"Pundit" is one of those words we get from India, like "bungalow" and
"thug." It comes from pandit, meaning "scholar," "learned person." The
first premier of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, was often referred to
respectfully as "Pandit Nehru."
In English it has come to refer to opinionated commentators on public
affairs, but it is often mispronounced and misspelled "pundint" or
"pundant."
PURPOSELY/PURPOSEFULLY
If you do something on purpose (not by accident), you do it purposely.
But if you have a specific purpose in mind, you are acting purposefully.
Q/G
See "G/Q."
QUANTUM LEAP
The thing about quantum leaps is that they mark an abrupt change from
one state to a distinctly different one, with no in-between transitional
states being possible. It makes sense to use "quantum leap" to refer to
an abrupt, radical qualitative change, but less sense for a simple large
increase. It's probably better to Ieave "quantum leap" to the subatomic
physicists unless you know what you're talking about.
QUAY/CAY/KEY
You tie your boat up at a quay built next to the shore; you can take
your boat out to explore a cay or key--a small island or reef. Cays and
keys are natural; quays are always built by human beings.
QUESTION/ASK
When you question someone, you may ask a series of questions trying to
arrive at the truth: "The police questioned Tom for five hours before he
admitted to having stolen the pig." "Question" can also mean
"challenge": "His mother questioned Timmy's claim that the cat had eaten
all the chocolate chip cookies." But if you are simply asking a question
to get a bit of information, it is not appropriate to say "I questioned
whether he had brought the anchovies" when what you really mean is "I
asked whether he had brought the anchovies."
QUEUE
If you're standing in a queue you'll have plenty of time to ponder the
unusual spelling of this word. Remember, it contains two "U's."
THE QUICK AND THE DEAD
The earliest meaning of the word "quick" in English is "alive." When a
baby was first felt to move in its mother's womb it was considered to
have come to life, and this moment was called "quickening." This
original meaning of the word "quick" has now died out except in the
phrase "the quick and the dead," kept alive by the King James
translation of Acts 10:42, which speaks of Jesus as judge "of quick and
dead," but even more by the continued recitation of the Apostles' Creed,
which says of Jesus that "he shall come to judge the quick and the
dead."
People who use this phrase to imply that speed is involved--liveliness
rather than aliveness--sometimes get credit for creating a clever pun
but more often come off as ignorant.
QUICK CLAIM
The term for a legal document relinquishing a legal claim to some
property is a "quitclaim deed." It is not a "quick claim," and
"quitclaim" is a single word.
QUIET/QUITE
This is probably caused by a slip of the fingers more often than by a
slip of the mental gears, but one often sees "quite" (very) substituted
for "quiet" (shhh!). This is one of those common errors your spelling
checker will not catch, so look out for it.
QUOTATION MARKS
The examples below are set off in order to avoid confusion over the use
of single and double quotation marks.
There are many ways to go wrong with quotation marks. They are often
used ironically:
She ran around with a bunch of "intellectuals."
The quotation marks around "intellectuals" indicate that the writer
believes that these are in fact so-called intellectuals, not real
intellectuals at all. The ironic use of quotation marks is very much
overdone, and is usually a sign of laziness indicating that the writer
has not bothered to find the precise word or expression necessary.
Advertisers unfortunately tend to use quotation marks merely for
emphasis:
"FRESH" TOMATOES 59 CENTS A POUND
The influence of the more common ironic usage tends to make the reader
question whether these tomatoes are really fresh. Underlining, bold
lettering, all caps--there are several less ambiguous ways to emphasize
words than placing them between quotation marks.
In American usage, single quotation marks are used normally only for
quoted words and phrases within quotations.
Angela had the nerve to tell me "When I saw 'BYOB' on your invitation, I
assumed it meant 'Bring Your Old Boyfriend.'"
British usage has traditionally been to reverse this relationship, with
single quotation marks being standard and double ones being used only
for quotations within quotations. (The English also call quotation marks
"inverted commas," though only the opening quotation mark is actually
inverted--and flipped, as well.) However, usage in the UK is shifting
toward the US pattern, (see, for instance, "The Times" of London);
though the printing of fiction tends to adhere to the older British
pattern, where US students are most likely to encounter it.
Block quotations like this should not be surrounded by any quotation
marks at all.
(A passage this short should not be rendered as a block quotation; you
need at least three lines of verse or five lines of prose to justify a
block quotation.) Normally you should leave extra space above and below
a block quotation.
When quoting a long passage involving more than one paragraph, quotation
marks go at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of only the
final one. Dialogue in which the speaker changes with each paragraph has
each speech enclosed in its own quotation marks.
Titles of books and other long works that might be printed as books are
usually italicized (except, for some reason, in newspapers); but the
titles of short poems, stories, essays, and other works that would be
more commonly printed within larger works (anthologies, collections,
periodicals, etc.) are enclosed in quotation marks.
There are different patterns for regulating how quotation marks relate
to other punctuation. Find out which one your teacher or editor prefers
and use it, or choose one of your own liking, but stick to it
consistently. One widely accepted authority in America is The Chicago
Manual of Style, whose guidelines are outlined below. Writers in
England, Canada, Australia, and other British-influenced countries
should be aware that their national patterns will be quite different and
variable.
I spent the morning reading Faulkner's "Barn Burning," which seemed to
be about a pyromaniac.
Periods are also normally placed inside quotation marks (with the
exception of terms being defined, see above). Colons and semicolons,
however, are preceded by quotation marks.
If the quoted matter ends with a question mark or exclamation point, it
is placed inside the quotation marks:
John asked, "When's dinner?"
But if it is the enclosing sentence which asks the question, then the
question mark comes after the quotation marks:
What did she mean, John wondered, by saying "as soon as you make it"?
Similarly:
Fred shouted, "Look out for the bull!"
but
When I was subsequently gored, all Timmy said was, "This is kinda
boring"!
It is unfortunately true that many standard character sets--including
ASCII and basic HTML--lack true quotation marks which curl to enclose
the quoted matter, substituting instead ugly "inch" or "ditto" marks. If
you are writing HTML for the Web, you need to turn off the "smart
quotes" feature in your word processor which curls quotation marks and
apostrophes. Leaving curled quotation marks and apostrophes in text
intended for the Web causes ugly gibberish which will make your writing
hard to read.
If you would like to include proper curled quotation marks and
apostrophes in your HTML code you can write “ (curled double open
quote), ” (curled double close quote), ‘ (curled single open
quote), and ’ (curled close quote). Most contemporary browsers can
properly interpret these codes, though they used to cause trouble for
people using older browser versions.
quick claim
The term for a legal document relinquishing a legal claim to some
property is a "quitclaim deed." It is not a "quick claim," and
"quitclaim" is a single word.
QUOTE
A passage doesn't become a quote (or--better--"quotation") until you've
quoted it. The only time to refer to a "quote" is when you are referring
to someone quoting something. When referring to the original words,
simply call it a passage.
RBI/RBIs
Some people reason that since "RBI" stands for "runs batted in," there
is no need for an additional "S" to indicate a plural, and speak of "120
RBI." However, though somewhat illogical, it is standard to treat the
initialism as a word and say "RBIs." In writing, one can add an optional
apostrophe: "RBI's." Definitely nonstandard is the logical but weird
"RsBI."
The same pattern applies to other such plural initialisms as "WMDs"
("weapons of mass destruction"), "POWs" ("prisoners of war"), and "MREs"
("meals ready to eat"); but "RPMs" ("revolutions per minute") is less
widely accepted.
RPMs/RPM
"RPM" means "revolutions per minute," so it is redundant to add an S at
the end of the abbreviation--it's already plural. Adding the S is so
common among people working with cars that it's not likely to get you
into trouble, but you will impress some by avoiding it.
RACISM
The "C" in "racism" and "racist" is pronounced as a simple "S" sound,
Don't confuse it with the "SH" sound in "racial."
RACK/WRACK
If you are racked with pain or you feel nerve-racked, you are feeling as
if you were being stretched on that Medieval instrument of torture, the
rack. You rack your brains when you stretch them vigorously to search
out the truth like a torturer. "Wrack" has to do with ruinous accidents,
so if the stock market is wracked by rumors of imminent recession, it's
wrecked. If things are wrecked, they go to "wrack and ruin."
RAISE/RAZE
To raze a building is to demolish it so thoroughly that it looks like
it's been scraped right off the ground with a razor. To raise a building
is just the opposite: to erect it from the ground up.
RAMPART/RAMPANT
"Rampant" is an adjective which originally meant a posture seen in
animals on coats of arms: rearing up on their hind legs, but in modern
times it mainly means "wild" or "very widespread." Some people confuse
this word with "rampart," a noun denoting a barricade or fortification.
Crime, disease, and greed may all be rampant, but not "rampart."
RAN/RUN
Computer programmers have been heard to say "the program's been ran,"
when what they mean is "the program's been run."
RANDOM
Kyle can choose the shirt he'll wear for the day at random--they're all
orange. This sort of use of "at random" to mean "by chance," is
perfectly standard. (Kyle should get some new shirts, though.)
Less widely accepted are a couple of slangy uses of the word, mostly by
young people. In the first, "random" means "unknown," "unidentified" as
in "some random guy told me at the party that I reminded him of his old
girlfriend."
The other is to use random to mean "weird," "strange," as in "The party
at Jessica's was so random, not what I was expecting at all!" Evidently
in this expression randomness is being narrowed down to unlikelihood and
that is in turn being connected with strangeness, though randomness in
real life is usually quite ordinary and boring.
Use of either of these two expressions in formal speech or writing is
likely to annoy or confuse your audience.
RAPPORT
Many more people hear this word, meaning "affinity," than read it,
judging by the popularity of various misspellings such as "rapore" and
"rapoire." If you get along really well with someone, the two of you
have rapport.
RATE OF SPEED/RATE, SPEED
Lots of people like to say things like "traveling at a high rate of
speed." This is a redundancy. Say instead "traveling at a high rate" or
"traveling at high speed."
RATIO
A ratio is a way of expressing the relationship between one quantity and
another. If there is one teacher to fifty students, the teacher/student
ratio is one to fifty, and the student/teacher ratio fifty to one. If a
very dense but wealthy prince were being tutored by fifty teachers, the
teacher/student ratio would be fifty to one, and the student/teacher
ratio would be one to fifty. As you can see, the order in which the
numbers are compared is important.
If you are campaigning for more individual attention in the classroom,
you want a higher number of teachers, but a lower student/teacher ratio.
RATIONAL/RATIONALE
"Rational" is an adjective meaning "reasonable" or "logical": "Ivan made
a rational decision to sell his old car when he moved to New York."
"Rational" rhymes with "national."
"Rationale" is a noun which most often means "underlying reason": "His
rationale for this decision was that it would cost more to pay for
parking than the car was worth." "Rationale" rhymes with "passion pal."
RATIONALE/RATIONALIZATION
When you're explaining the reasoning behind your position, you're
presenting your rationale. But if you're just making up some lame excuse
to make your position appear better--whether to yourself or
others--you're engaging in rationalization.
RAVAGING/RAVISHING/RAVENOUS
To ravage is to pillage, sack, or devastate. The only time "ravaging" is
properly used is in phrases like "when the pirates had finished ravaging
the town, they turned to ravishing the women." Which brings us to
"ravish": meaning to rape, or rob violently. A trailer court can be
ravaged by a storm (nothing is stolen, but a lot of damage is done) but
not ravished. The crown jewels of Ruritania can be ravished (stolen
using violence) without being ravaged (damaged).
To confuse matters, people began back in the fourteenth century to speak
metaphorically of their souls being "ravished" by intense spiritual or
esthetic experiences. Thus we speak of a "ravishing woman" (the term is
rarely applied to men) today not because she literally rapes men who
look at her but because her devastating beauty penetrates their hearts
in an almost violent fashion. Despite contemporary society's heightened
sensitivity about rape, we still remain (perhaps fortunately)
unconscious of many of the transformations of the root meaning in words
with positive connotations such as "rapturous."
Originally, "raven" as a verb was synonymous with "ravish" in the sense
of "to steal by force." One of its specialized meanings became "devour,"
as in "the lion ravened her prey." By analogy, hungry people became
"ravenous" (as hungry as beasts), and that remains the only common use
of the word today.
If a woman smashes your apartment up, she ravages it. If she looks
stunningly beautiful, she is ravishing. If she eats the whole platter of
hors d'oeuvres you've set out for the party before the other guests
come, she's ravenous.
REACTIONARY/REACTIVE
Many people incorrectly use "reactionary" to mean "acting in response to
some outside stimulus." That's "reactive." "Reactionary" actually has a
very narrow meaning; it is a noun or adjective describing a form of
looking backward that goes beyond conservatism (wanting to prevent
change and maintain present conditions) to reaction--wanting to recreate
a lost past. The advocates of restoring Czarist rule in Russia are
reactionaries. While we're on the subject, the term "proactive" formed
by analogy with "reactive" seems superfluous to many of us. Use
"active," "assertive," or "positive" whenever you can instead.
READABLY/READILY
Some people mistakenly say of something easily available that it is
"readably available." The original expression has nothing to do with
reading; it is "readily available," ready at hand.
REAL/REALLY
The correct adverbial form is "really" rather than "real," but even that
form is generally confined to casual speech, as in "When you
complimented me on my speech I felt really great!" To say "real great"
instead moves the speaker several steps downscale socially. However
"really" is a feeble qualifier. "Wonderful" is an acceptable substitute
for "really great" and you can give a definite upscale slant to your
speech by adopting the British "really quite wonderful." Usually,
however, it is better to replace the expression altogether with
something more precise: "almost seven feet tall" is better than "really
tall." To strive for intensity by repeating "really" as in "that dessert
you made was really, really good" demonstrates an impoverished
vocabulary.
REALIZE/REALISE
"Realize" is the dominant spelling in the US, and "realise" in the UK.
Spelling checkers often try to enforce these patterns by labeling the
other spelling as an error, but it is good to know that most
dictionaries list these as acceptable spelling variants.
REALMS OF POSSIBILITY/REALM OF POSSIBILITY
We say of something that is not impossible that it is "within the realm
of possibility," or "within the realm of the possible." The plural form
"realms" is so popular in the worlds of fantasy fiction and gaming that
it is understandable that many people would refer to "realms of
possibility," but the realm of the possible contains everything that is
possible. That's what its name means. The idea of plural possibilities
is already inherent in the word "realm."
When even serious physicists speculate about multiple "universes" the
concept of multiple realms of possibility may sound all right, but it's
neither logical nor traditional.
REALTOR
For some reason, this word is often mispronounced as "real-a-ter"
instead of the proper "ree-ul-ter." Incidentally, realtors insist that
this is a term originally trademarked by the National Association of
Real Estate Boards (now renamed the "National Association of Realtors"),
that it must be capitalized, and that all non-members of that
association are mere "real estate associates." Common usage, however,
calls both "real estate agents," despite their protests.
REAP WHAT YOU SEW/REAP WHAT YOU SOW
When you plant seeds you sow them. Galatians 6:7 says "A man reaps what
he sows" (harvests what he plants, gets what he deserves). This
agricultural metaphor gets mangled frequently into "you reap what you
sew." At best, you might rip what you sew; but you probably wouldn't
want to tell people about it.
REASON BECAUSE
We often hear people say things like, "the reason there's a hole in the
screen door is because I tripped over the cat on my way out." The phrase
"is because" should be "is that." If you wanted to use "because," the
sentence should be phrased, "There's a hole in the screen door because I
tripped over the cat." U. "The reason being is" should be simply "the
reason being."
The similarly redundant common expression "the reason why" is generally
regarded as standard now, although some people still object to it.
REBELLING/REVOLTING
Even though "rebel" and "revolt" mean more or less the same thing, in
modern English people who are revolting are usually disgusting, rather
than taking up arms against the government. To prevent incongruous
associations, use "rebelling" to label the actions of those who conduct
uprisings and save "revolting" to label things that make you want to
upchuck.
REBUT/REFUTE
When you rebut someone's argument you argue against it. To refute
someone's argument is to prove it incorrect. Unless you are certain you
have achieved success, use "rebut."
RECENT/RESENT
There are actually three words to distinguish here. "Recent," always
pronounced with an unvoiced hissy S and with the accent on the first
syllable, means "not long ago," as in, " I appreciated your recent
encouragement." "Resent" has two different meanings with two different
pronunciations, both with the accent on the second syllable. In the most
common case, where "resent" means "feel annoyed at," the word is
pronounced with a voiced Z sound: "I resent your implication that I gave
you the chocolates only because I was hoping you'd share them with me."
In the less common case, the word means "to send again," and is
pronounced with an unvoiced hissy S sound: "The e-mail message bounced,
so I resent it." So say the intended word aloud. If the accent is on the
second syllable, "resent" is the spelling you need.
RECOGNIZE
In sloppy speech, this often comes out "reck-uh-nize." Sound the "G."
RECREATE/REINVENT
The expression "no need to reinvent the wheel" loses much of its wit
when "recreate" is substituted for the original verb. While we're at it,
"recreate" does not mean "to engage in recreation." If you play
basketball, you may be exercising, but you're not recreating.
RECUPERATE/RECOUP
If you are getting over an illness, you are recuperating; but if you
insist on remaining at the roulette table when your luck has been
running against you, you are seeking to recoup your losses.
REDICULOUS/RIDICULOUS
You may ridicule ideas because you find them ridiculous, but not
rediculous.
REDO IT OVER/REDO IT, DO IT OVER
"Redo it over" is redundant; say either "redo it" or "do it over." The
only time this phrase makes sense is in the phrase "redo it over and
over again."
REDUNDANCIES
There are many examples of redundancies in these pages: phrases which
say twice what needs to be said only once, like "past history."
Advertisers are particularly liable to redundancy in hyping their
offers: "as an added bonus" (as a bonus), "preplan" (plan), and "free
gift" (but look out for the shipping charges!). Two other common
redundancies which are clearly errors are "and plus" (plus) and "end
result" (result). But some other redundancies are contained in phrases
sanctioned by tradition: "safe haven," "hot water heater," "new
beginning," and "tuna fish."
REEKING HAVOC/WREAKING HAVOC
"Reeking" means "smelling strongly," so that can't be right. The phrase
simply means "working great destruction." "Havoc" has always referred to
general destruction in English, but one very old phrase incorporating
the word was "cry havoc," which meant to give an army the signal for
pillage. To "play havoc with" means the same thing as to "wreak havoc."
Avoid as well the mistaken "wreck havoc."
REFER BACK
Some people argue that "refer back" is redundant, but you can refer
ahead as well as back. "Refer back" is standard usage.
REFRAIN/RESTRAIN
"Restrain" is a transitive verb: it needs an object. Although "refrain"
was once a synonym for "restrain" it is now an intransitive verb: it
should not have an object. Here are examples of correct modern usage:
"When I pass the doughnut shop I have to restrain myself" ("myself" is
the object). "When I feel like throwing something at my boss, I usually
refrain from doing so." You can't refrain yourself or anyone else.
REFRIDGERATOR/REFRIGERATOR
Although "fridge" is short for "refrigerator," there is no "D" in the
longer word.
REFUTE/REJECT
To refute someone's argument is to prove it incorrect. If you attempt no
such proof but simply disagree with an argument the word you want is
"reject."
REGARD/REGARDS
Business English is deadly enough without scrambling it. "As regards
your downsizing plan . . ." is acceptable, if stiff. "In regard to" "and
"with regard to" are also correct. But "in regards to" is nonstandard.
You can also convey the same idea with "in respect to" or "with respect
to."
REGIME/REGIMEN/REGIMENT
Some people insist that "regime" should be used only in reference to
governments, and that people who say they are following a dietary regime
should instead use "regimen"; but "regime" has been a synonym of
"regimen" for over a century, and is widely accepted in that sense.
However "regiment" is an error in this sense. The only way you could
follow a strict regiment would be to march behind a highly disciplined
military unit. Your diet or exercise routine is not a "regiment."
REGRETFULLY/REGRETTABLY
Either word can be used as an adverb to introduce an expression of
regret, though conservatives prefer "regrettably" in sentences like
"Regrettably, it rained on the 4th of July." Within the body of a
sentence, however, "regretfully" may be used only to describe the manner
in which someone does something: "John had to regretfully decline his
beloved's invitation to go hang-gliding because he was terrified of
heights." If no specified person in the sentence is doing the
regretting, but the speaker is simply asserting "it is to be regretted,"
the word is "regrettably": "Their boss is regrettably stubborn."
REIGN/REIN
A king or queen reigns, but you rein in a horse. The expression "to give
rein" means to give in to an impulse as a spirited horse gives in to its
impulse to gallop when you slacken the reins. Similarly, the correct
expression is "free rein," not "free reign."
REKNOWN/RENOWN
When you won the national spelling bee you achieved great renown (fame).
Now you are a renowned speller (notice the -ed ending on the adjectival
form).
Many people mistakenly suppose that because "renown" has to do with
being well known the word should be spelled "reknown," but in fact it is
derived from the French word nom and has to do with gaining a name. In
French, fame is renomee.
RELIGION
Protestants often refer to "the Catholic religion." Catholicism is a
faith or a church. (Only Protestants belong to "denominations.") Both
Catholics and Protestants follow the Christian religion.
RELIGION BELIEVES/RELIGION TEACHES
People often write things like "Buddhism believes" when they mean to say
"Buddhism teaches," or "Buddhists believe." Religions do not believe,
they are the objects of belief.
RELIGIOSITY/PIETY
The main modern use of "religiosity" is to describe exaggerated or
ostentatious showing off of one's religiousness. A better word to label
the quality of being truly religious is "piety."
RELUCTANT/RETICENT
"Reticent" denotes only reluctance to speak; do not use it for any other
form of reluctance.
REMOTELY CLOSE
"Not even remotely close" is a fine example of an oxymoron. An idea can
be "not even remotely correct," but closeness and remoteness are
opposites; and it doesn't make sense to have one modify the other. There
are lots of lists of oxymorons on the Web, but they mostly mix jokey
editorializing ("military intelligence" and "Microsoft Works") with true
oxymorons. Good for a laugh, but not providing much guidance to writers.
Wikipedia has a good discussion of oxymorons at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxymoron.
REMUNERATION/RENUMERATION
Although "remuneration" looks as if it might mean "repayment" it usually
means simply "payment." In speech it is often confused with
"renumeration," which would mean re-counting (counting again).
REPUNGENT/REPUGNANT, PUNGENT
"Repungent" is an amusing mash-up of "repugnant" (disgusting) and
"pungent" (strong, especially used of smells). It is used for repulsive
smells; and though it is vivid, it's not standard English and may get
you laughed at.
REOCCURRING/RECURRING
It might seem logical to form this word from "occurring" by simply
adding a RE- prefix--but the most common form is "recurring." The root
form is "recur" rather than "reoccur." Although the forms with an O are
legitimate, many style guides recommend against them. For some reason
"recurrent" is seldom transformed into "reoccurrent."
REPEL/REPULSE
In most of their meanings these are synonyms, but if you are disgusted
by someone, you are repelled, not repulsed. The confusion is compounded
by the fact that "repellent" and "repulsive" mean the same thing. Go
figure.
REPLETE/COMPLETE
"Replete" usually means "stuffed," "full to overflowing." After eating a
complete ten-course meal, you are replete.
Although it has been used as a simple synonym for "complete," this is
now an unusual usage, and it is better to stick with the more common
word "complete" when you have a choice.
REPLY BACK/REPLY
"Reply back" is redundant because "reply" already conveys the idea of
getting back to someone. The same is true of "answer back" except in the
rather old-fashioned use of the phrase to describe the behavior of a
lippy kid rudely refusing to submit to the wishes of parents or
teachers.
REPORT INTO/REPORT ON
You can conduct an investigation into a matter, like a scandal or a
crime, but the result is a report on or of the results. You don't make a
report into anything. You could eliminate "into" altogether by using the
simpler "investigate" instead.
REQUEST/ASK
If you want something you can request it or you can ask for it. Many
people like "request" because it sounds more formal, more elegant, but
to other people it just sounds pretentious. There are many instances in
which plain old "ask" works better: "I'm asking my buddies to go camping
with me." "She asked him to walk the dog." Except on wedding
invitations, try to avoid "request" where "ask" will do as well.
RESIGN/RE-SIGN
Athletes who renew their contracts re-sign with their teams (note the
hyphen). If they were to resign they would do the opposite--leave.
RESIGNATE/RESONATE
When an idea gives you good vibes it resonates with you: "His call for
better schools resonates with the voters." Not resignates--resonates.
RESISTER/RESISTOR
A resistor is part of an electrical circuit; a person who resists
something is a "resister."
RESPIRATORY
Even health professionals tend to mispronounce this word by smooshing
the second and third syllables into one. This word has several possible
pronunciations, but "resp-uh-tory" is not one of them. However you say
it, try to at least hint at all five syllables.
RESPOND BACK/RESPOND, REPLY
It's possible that some people think they have to write "respond back"
to distinguish a reply from other kinds of responses, like groaning and
cursing, or chucking a request in the wastebasket; but most of the time
the context makes perfectly clear that "respond" means "answer" and the
"back" is redundant. Or you can just say "reply."
RESTAURANTER/RESTAURATEUR
In standard English, the title for the owner of a restaurant is
"restaurateur" (note: no N).
RESTIVE
"Restive" can mean "stubborn," "impatient," or "restless," but never
"relaxed" or "rested."
RETCH/WRETCH
If you vomit, you retch; if you behave in a wretched manner or fall into
wretched circumstances, you are a wretch.
RETROSPECTIVE/RETROACTIVE
"Retrospective" has to do with looking back, as is shown by the
similarity of its middle syllable to words like "spectacles." A
retrospective exhibit looks back at the earlier work of an artist.
"Retroactive," on the other hand, refers to actions, and is about making
a current change applicable to the past, especially in law. Retroactive
punishment is generally considered unjust. For instance, the city
council can't pass an ordinance retroactively punishing you for having
sung off-key in the karaoke bar on Main Street last Saturday night.
RETURN BACK/RETURN
"Return back" is a redundancy. Use just "return," unless you mean to say
instead "turn back."
REVELANT/RELEVANT
"Revelant" is both spoken and written frequently when "relevant" is
intended. The same is true of "revelance," a misspelling of "relevance."
REVERT/REPLY
The most common meaning of "revert" is "to return to an earlier
condition, time, or subject." When Dr. Jekyll drank the potion he
reverted to the brutish behavior of Mr. Hyde. But in South Asia it has
become common to use "revert" instead of "reply," writing when people
want you to get back to them about something: "revert to me at this
address." In standard English this would literally mean they are asking
you to become them, so it is best to stick with "reply" when dealing
with non-South Asian correspondents. Even some South Asians disapprove
of this use of "revert."
REVERT BACK/REVERT
Since "revert" means "go back," many people feel that "revert back" is a
pointless redundancy. "Revert" all by itself is better.
REVOLVE/ROTATE
In ordinary speech these two words are often treated as interchangeable,
though it's "revolving credit account" and "rotating crops." Scientists
make a sharp distinction between the two: the earth revolves (orbits)
around the sun but rotates (spins) around its axis.
REVUE/REVIEW
You can attend a musical revue in a theatre, but when you write up your
reactions for a newspaper, you're writing a review.
RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
A rhetorical question implies its own answer; it's a way of making a
point. Examples: "Aren't you ashamed of yourself?" "What business is it
of yours?" "How did that idiot ever get elected?" "What is so rare as a
day in June?" These aren't questions in the usual sense, but statements
in the form of a question.
Many people mistakenly suppose that any nonsensical question, or one
which cannot be answered, can be called a rhetorical question. The
following are not proper rhetorical questions: "What was the best thing
before sliced bread?" "If a tree falls in the forest and no one hears
it, does it make a sound?" "Who let the dogs out?"
Sometimes speakers ask questions so they can then proceed to answer
them: "Do we have enough troops to win the war? It all depends on how
you define victory." The speaker is engaging in rhetoric, but the
question asked is not a rhetorical question in the technical sense.
Instead this is a mock-dialogue, with the speaker taking both roles.
RIDGED/RIGID
Only things with ridges are ridged, like mountain ranges or a plowed
field. Backs lifting heavy loads, strict regulations, and things or
ideas which are stiff, inflexible, or uncompromising are rigid.
RIFFLE/RIFLE
To rifle something is to steal it. The word also originally had the
sense of "to search thoroughly," often with intent to steal. But if you
are casually flipping through some papers, you riffle through them.
RIGHT OF PASSAGE/RITE OF PASSAGE
The more common phrase is "rite of passage"--a ritual one goes through
to move on to the next stage of life. Learning how to work the
combination on a locker is a rite of passage for many entering middle
school students. A "right of passage" would be the right to travel
through a certain territory, but you are unlikely to have any use for
the phrase.
RING ITS NECK/WRING ITS NECK
Wring the chicken's neck; and after you've cooked it, ring the dinner
bell.
RINGER/WRINGER
Old-fashioned washing machines lacked a spin cycle. Instead, you fed
each piece of wet clothing between two rotating cylinders which would
wring the excess water out of the cloth. This led to the metaphorical
saying according to which someone put through an ordeal is said to have
been put "through the wringer."
Few people remember those old wringer washers, and many of them now
mistakenly suppose the spelling of the expression should be "through the
ringer." This error has been reinforced by the title of a popular album
by the band Catch 22: "Washed Up and Through the Ringer."
RIO GRANDE RIVER/RIO GRANDE
Rio is Spanish for "river," so "Rio Grande River" is a redundancy. Just
write "Rio Grande." Non-Hispanic Americans have traditionally failed to
pronounce the final "E" in "Grande", but they" ve learned to do it to
designate the large size of latte, so perhaps it's time to start saying
it the proper Spanish way: "REE-oh GRAHN-day." Or to be really
international we could switch to the Mexican name: "Rio Bravo."
RIPE WITH/RIFE WITH
Some people say "ripe with" where traditional speakers would say "rife
with."
"Rife" meaning "abundant" was originally a word which could have
positive, negative, or neutral meanings but when followed by "with" its
use gradually narrowed to mostly negative meanings: "the town is rife
with nasty rumors."
"Ripe" meaning "ready" is more often followed by "for" and is most
frequently used in positive contexts: "this area is ripe for
development." The image is of a fruit ripe for picking.
"Ripe with opportunity" can pass without notice and "rife" would be
wrong in this context, but "ripe with" sounds odd to most of us in more
negative contexts such as "the government was ripe with corruption."
RISKY/RISQUE
People unfamiliar with the French-derived word "risque" ("slightly
indecent") often write "risky" by mistake. Bungee-jumping is risky, but
nude bungee-jumping is risque.
RIGHT/RITE/WRITE
"Write" has to do with writing, whether on a piece of paper or to a hard
drive.
A "rite"is a ritual.
Everything else is "right," right?
ROAD TO HOE/ROW TO HOE
Out in the cotton patch you have a tough row to hoe. This saying has
nothing to do with road construction.
ROD IRON, ROT IRON/WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron has been worked (wrought) by hammering and bending, often
into elaborate shapes. It is distinguished from cast iron, where the
iron takes on the shape of the mold the molten metal was poured into.
There is such a thing as "rod iron"--iron shaped into rods--but this is
a rare specialized term. Most instances of this form are erroneous
spellings of "wrought iron," as are all instances of "rot iron."
ROLE/ROLL
An actor plays a role. Bill Gates is the entrepreneur's role model. But
you eat a sausage on a roll and roll out the barrel. To take attendance,
you call the roll.
ROLLOVER/ROLL OVER
A rollover used to be only a serious highway accident, but in the
computer world this spelling has also been used to label a feature on a
Web page which reacts in some way when you roll the ball inside a mouse
or a trackball over it without having to click. It also became an
adjective, as in "rollover feature." However, when giving users
instructions, the correct verb form is "roll over"--two words: "roll
over the photo of our dog to see his name pop up."
Since most people now use either optical mice or trackpads the term
"rollover" has become technically obsolete, but it persists.
ROMAINIAN/ROMANIAN
The ancient Romans referred to what we call "the Roman Empire" as
Romania (roh-MAHN-ee-ya). The country north of Bulgaria borrowed this
ancient name for itself. Older spellings--now obsolete--include
"Roumania" and "Rumania." But although in English we pronounce "Romania"
roh-MAIN-ee-ya, it is never correct to spell the country's name as
"Romainia," and the people and language are referred to not as
"Romainian" but as "Romanian."
Ancient Romans were citizens of the Roman empire, and today they are
inhabitants of the city of Rome (which in Italian is Roma). Don't
confuse Romans with Romanians.
ROMANTIC
If you are studying the arts, it's important to know that the word
"romantic" is used in such contexts to mean much more than "having to do
with romantic love." It originated in the Middle Ages to label
sensational narratives written in romance languages--rather than
Latin--depicting events like the fall of King Arthur's Round Table (in
French, novels are still called "romans" whether they depict love
affairs or not). In literature and art it often refers to materials that
are horrifying, exotic, enthralling, or otherwise emotionally
stimulating to an extreme degree. A romantic art song is as likely to be
about death as about love.
RONDEZVOUS/RENDEZVOUS
The first syllable of "rendezvous" rhymes with "pond" but is not spelled
like it. It comes from a word related to English "render" and is
hyphenated in French: "rendez-vous." In English the two elements are
smooshed together into one: "rendezvous."
ROOT/ROUT/ROUTE
You can root for your team (cheer them on) and hope that they utterly
smash their opponents (create a rout), then come back in triumph on
Route 27 (a road).
ROUGE/ROGUE
You can create an artificial blush by using rouge, but a scoundrel who
deserves to be called a rogue is unlikely to blush naturally. Many
people write about "rouge software" when they mean "rogue software."
RUBBAGE
Although the generally obsolete form "rubbage" persists in some
dialects, many people will assume if you use it that you are confusing
"rubbish" with "garbage."
RUEBEN/REUBEN
Diner owners who put "Rueben sandwiches" on their menus may rue the day
they did so when they encounter a customer who cares about the correct
spelling of this classic American concoction of corned beef, sauerkraut,
Swiss cheese and Russian dressing on rye bread. Although the origin of
the sandwich is obscure, being credited to several different
restaurateurs, all of them spelled their name "Reuben," with the E
before the U.
RUFF/ROUGH
The slangy spelling "ruff" for "rough" is not appropriate in formal
writing, but your spelling-checker won't flag it because "ruff" has a
traditional meaning of its own, denoting a frilled collar.
RURAL
In some US dialects, the second R in "rural" is not pronounced, so that
it sounds like "ROO-ull" or even "rull." The dominant standard
pronunciation sounds both R's, to rhyme with "plural."
RYE/WRY
"Wry" means "bent, twisted." Even if you don't have a wry sense of humor
you may crack a wry smile. No rye is involved.
SACRED/SCARED
This is one of those silly typos which your spelling checker won't
catch: gods are sacred, the damned in Hell are scared.
SACRELIGIOUS/SACRILEGIOUS
Doing something sacrilegious involves committing sacrilege. Don't let
the related word "religious" trick you into misspelling the word as
"sacreligious."
SAFETY DEPOSIT BOX/SAFE DEPOSIT BOX
Those who prefer "safe deposit box" feel that the box in question is a
container for the safe deposit of goods; it is not a box in which to
deposit your safety. But manufacturers and dealers in this kind of safe
are split in their usage. Just be aware that some people feel that
"safety deposit" is an error whereas no one is likely to look down on
you for saying "safe deposit box."
SAIL/SALE/SELL
These simple and familiar words are surprisingly often confused in
writing. You sail a boat which has a sail of canvas. You sell your old
fondue pot at a yard sale.
SALSA SAUCE/SALSA
"Salsa" is Spanish for "sauce," so "salsa sauce" is redundant. Here in
the US, where people now spend more on salsa than on ketchup (or catsup,
if you prefer), few people are unaware that it's a sauce. Anyone so
sheltered as not to be aware of that fact will need a fuller
explanation: "chopped tomatoes, onions, chilies and cilantro."
SAME DIFFERENCE
This is a jokey, deliberately illogical slang expression that doesn't
belong in formal writing.
SAMEO SAMEO/SAME OLD SAME OLD
Many people who don't understand the expression "same old same old"
(meaning "the same old thing") misspell it as "sameo sameo" or "same-o
same-o."
SAMWICH/SANDWICH
In some dialects, "sandwich" is pronounced "samwich." In standard
English the first syllable is pronounced exactly the way it's spelled,
like the word for sand at a beach.
SARCASTIC/IRONIC
Not all ironic comments are sarcastic. Sarcasm is meant to mock or
wound. Irony can be amusing without being maliciously aimed at hurting
anyone.
SATELLITE
Originally a satellite was a follower. Astronomers applied the term to
smaller bodies orbiting about planets, like our moon. Then we began
launching artificial satellites. Since few people were familiar with the
term in its technical meaning, the adjective "artificial" was quickly
dropped in popular usage. So far so bad. Then television began to be
broadcast via satellite. Much if not all television now wends its way
through a satellite at some point, but in the popular imagination only
broadcasts received at the viewing site via a dish antenna aimed at a
satellite qualify to be called "satellite television." Thus we see motel
signs boasting:
AIR CONDITIONING * SATELLITE
People say things like "the fight's going to be shown on satellite." The
word has become a pathetic fragment of its former self. The
technologically literate speaker will avoid these slovenly
abbreviations.
*At least motels have not yet adopted the automobile industry's
truncation of "air conditioning" to "air."
SAW/SEEN
In standard English, it's "I've seen" not "I've saw." The helping verb
"have" (abbreviated here to "'ve") requires "seen." In the simple past
(no helping verb), the expression is "I saw," not "I seen." "I've seen a
lot of ugly cars, but when I saw that old beat-up Rambler I couldn't
believe my eyes."
SAY/TELL
You say "Hello, Mr. Chips" to the teacher, and then tell him about what
you did last summer. You can't "tell that" except in expressions like
"go tell that to your old girlfriend."
SCARCELY
"Scarcely" is a negative adverb and shouldn't have another negative word
used with it. "She couldn't scarcely afford the bus fare" should be "She
could scarcely afford the bus fare."
SCEPTIC/SKEPTIC
Believe it or not, the British spellings are "sceptic" and "scepticism";
the American spellings are "skeptic" and "skepticism."
SCHIZOPHRENIC
In popular usage, "schizophrenic" (and the more slangy and now dated
"schizoid") indicates "split between two attitudes." This drives people
with training in psychiatry crazy. "Schizo-" does indeed mean "split,"
but it is used here to mean "split off from reality." Someone with a
Jekyll-and-Hyde personality is suffering from "multiple personality
disorder" (or, more recently, "dissociative identity disorder"), not
"schizophrenia."
SCI-FI
"Sci-fi," the widely used abbreviation for "science fiction," is
objectionable to most professional science fiction writers, scholars,
and many fans. Some of them scornfully designate alien monster movies
and other trivial entertainments "sci-fi" (which they pronounce
"skiffy") to distinguish them from true science fiction. The preferred
abbreviation in these circles is "SF." The problem with this
abbreviation is that to the general public "SF" means "San Francisco."
"The Sci-Fi Channel" has exacerbated the conflict over this term. If you
are a reporter approaching a science fiction writer or expert you
immediately mark yourself as an outsider by using the term "sci-fi."
SCONE/SCONCE
If you fling a jam-covered biscuit at the wall and it sticks, the result
may be a "wall scone"; but if you are describing a wall-mounted light
fixture, the word you want is "sconce."
SCOTCH/SCOTS
Scottish people generally refer to themselves as "Scots" or "Scottish"
rather than "Scotch." "Scotch" is whisky (or in the US, "whiskey.")
SCOTCH FREE/SCOT FREE
Getting away with something "scot free" has nothing to do with the Scots
(or Scotch). The scot was a medieval tax; if you evaded paying it you
got off scot free. Some people wrongly suppose this phrase alludes to
Dred Scott, the American slave who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom.
The phrase is "scot free": no H, one T.
SCRAMBLE EGGS/SCRAMBLED EGGS
When you scramble eggs they become scrambled eggs.
SEA CHANGE
In Shakespeare's "Tempest," Ariel deceitfully sings to Ferdinand:
Full fathom five thy father lies; Of his bones are coral made; Those are
pearls that were his eyes: Nothing of him that doth fade But doth suffer
a sea-change Into something rich and strange.
This rich language has so captivated the ears of generations of writers
that they feel compelled to describe as "sea changes" not only
alterations that are "rich and strange," but, less appropriately, those
that are simply large or sudden. Always popular, this cliche has
recently become so pervasive as to make "sea" an almost inextricable
companion to "change," whatever its meaning. In its original context, it
meant nothing more complex than "a change caused by the sea." Since the
phrase is almost always improperly used and is greatly over-used, it has
suffered a swamp change into something dull and tiresome. Avoid the
phrase; otherwise you will irritate those who know it and puzzle those
who do not.
SEAM/SEEM
"Seem" is the verb, "seam" the noun. Use "seam" only for things like the
line produced when two pieces of cloth are sewn together or a thread of
coal in a geological formation.
SECOND OF ALL/SECOND
"First of all" makes sense when you want to emphasize the primacy of the
first item in a series, but it should not be followed by "second of
all," where the expression serves no such function. And "secondly" is an
adverbial form that makes no sense at all in enumeration (neither does
"firstly"). As you go through your list, say simply "second," "third,"
"fourth," etc.
SEGWAY/SEGUE
When you shift to a new topic or activity, you segue. Many people
unfamiliar with the unusual Italian spelling of the word misspell it as
"segway." This error is being encouraged by the deliberately punning
name used by the manufacturers of the Segway Human Transporter.
SELECT/SELECTED
"Select" means "special, chosen because of its outstanding qualities."
If you are writing an ad for a furniture store offering low prices on
some of its recliners, call them "selected recliners," not "select
recliners," unless they are truly outstanding and not just leftovers
you're trying to move out of the store.
SELF-STEAM/SELF ESTEEM
If you bask in the sauna, you may self-steam. But the expression
labeling people's opinions of their own worth is "self-esteem."
"Self-esteem" is also sometimes misspelled "self of steam."
SELF-WORTH/SELF-ESTEEM
To say that a person has a low sense of self-worth makes sense, though
it's inelegant; but people commonly truncate the phrase, saying instead,
"He has low self-worth." This would literally mean that he isn't worth
much rather than that he has a low opinion of himself. "Self-esteem"
sounds much more literate.
SENSE/SINCE
"Sense" is a verb meaning "feel" ("I sense you near me") or a noun
meaning "intelligence" ("have some common sense!"). Don't use it when
you need the adverb "since" ("since you went away," "since you're up
anyway, would you please let the cat out?")
SENSE OF FALSE HOPE/FALSE SENSE OF HOPE
If you're trying to lull someone into hopefulness you don't want to give
them a sense of false hope. Rather, you want to make them feel really
hopeful, although such hope is unjustified. So what you should say is "a
false sense of hope."
The same goes for similar expressions such as "false sense of security,"
"false sense of confidence," and "false sense of privacy."
SENSUAL/SENSUOUS
"Sensual" usually relates to physical desires and experiences, and often
means "sexy." But "sensuous" is more often used for esthetic pleasures,
like "sensuous music." The two words do overlap a good deal. The leather
seats in your new car may be sensuous; but if they turn you on, they
might be sensual. "Sensual" often has a slightly racy or even judgmental
tone lacking in "sensuous."
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
There are actually many fine uses for sentence fragments. Here's a brief
scene from an imaginary Greek tragedy composed entirely of fragments:
Menelaus: Aha! Helen! Helen (startled): Beloved husband! Menelaus: Slut!
Paris (entering, seeing Menelaus): Oops. 'Bye. Menelaus: Not so fast!
(stabs Paris). Paris: Arrggh!
Some people get into trouble by breaking a perfectly good sentence in
two: "We did some research in newspapers. Like the National Inquirer."
The second phrase belongs in the same sentence with the first, not
dangling off on its own.
A more common kind of troublesome fragment is a would-be sentence
introduced by a word or phrase that suggests it's part of some other
sentence: "By picking up the garbage the fraternity had strewn around
the street the weekend before got the group a favorable story in the
paper." Just lop off "by" to convert this into a proper complete
sentence.
SERGEANT OF ARMS/SERGEANT AT ARMS
The officer charged with maintaining order in a meeting is the "sergeant
at arms," not "of arms."
SERVICE/SERVE
A mechanic services your car and a stallion services a mare, but most of
the time when you want to talk about the goods or services you supply,
the word you want is "serve": "Our firm serves the hotel industry."
SET/SIT
In some dialects people say "come on in and set a spell," but in
standard English the word is "sit." You set down an object or a child
you happen to be carrying, but those seating themselves sit. If you mix
these two up it will not sit well with some people.
SETUP/SET UP
Technical writers sometimes confuse "setup" as a noun ("check the
setup") with the phrase "set up" ("set up the experiment").
SHALL/WILL
"Will" has almost entirely replaced "shall" in American English except
in legal documents and in questions like "Shall we have red wine with
the duck?"
SHAN'T/SHALL NOT
The use of the contraction "shan't" for "shall not" is more common in
the UK than in the US, where it may strike readers as a bit
old-fashioned. Americans are more likely to say "will not" in the same
contexts.
SHEAR/SHEER
You can cut through cloth with a pair of shears, but if the cloth is
translucent it's sheer. People who write about a "shear blouse" do so
out of sheer ignorance.
SHEATH/SHEAF
If you take your knife out of its sheath (case) you can use it to cut a
sheaf (bundle) of wheat to serve as a centerpiece.
SHERBERT/SHERBET
The name for these icy desserts is derived from Turkish/Persian
"sorbet," but the "R" in the first syllable seems to seduce many
speakers into adding one in the second, where it doesn't belong. A
California chain called "Herbert's Sherbets" had me confused on this
point for years when I was growing up.
SHIMMY/SHINNY
You shinny--or shin (climb)--up a tree or pole, but on the dance floor
or in a vibrating vehicle you shimmy (shake).
SHOE-IN/SHOO-IN
This expression purportedly comes from the practice of corrupt jockeys
holding their horses back and shooing a preselected winner across the
finish line to guarantee that it will win. A "shoo-in" is now an easy
winner, with no connotations of dishonesty. "Shoe-in" is a common
misspelling.
SHINED/SHONE
The transitive form of the verb "shine" is "shined." If the context
describes something shining on something else, use "shined": "He shined
his flashlight on the skunk eating from the dog dish." You can remember
this because another sense of the word meaning "polished" obviously
requires "shined": "I shined your shoes for you."
When the shining is less active, many people would use "shone": "The sun
shone on the tomato plants all afternoon." But some authorities prefer
"shined" even in this sort of context: "The sun shined on the tomato
plants all afternoon."
If the verb is intransitive (lacks an object) and the context merely
speaks of the act of shining, the past tense is definitely "shone": "The
sun shone all afternoon" (note that nothing is said here about the sun
shining on anything).
SHONE/SHOWN
"Shone" is the past tense of "shine": "long after sunset, the moon still
shone brightly in the sky."
"Shown" is a past tense form of "show": "foreign films are rarely shown
at our local theater."
SHOOK/SHAKEN
Elvis Presley couldn't have very well sung "I'm all shaken up," but that
is the grammatically correct form. "Shook" is the simple past tense of
"shake," and quite correct in sentences like "I shook my piggy bank but
all that came out was a paper clip." But in sentences with a helping
verb, you need "shaken": "The quarterback had shaken the champagne
bottle before emptying it on the coach."
SHOULD/WOULD
Where a British person might say "I should like an apple" an American
would be more likely to say "I would like an apple." In the US, "should"
is largely confined to the meaning "ought to."
SHOULDER ON/SOLDIER ON
Soldiers are expected to do their duty despite all obstacles, and that's
why we say that a person who perseveres soldiers on. But because
"soldier" is rarely used as a verb in modern English, many people mix
this expression up with a more common one involving pushing through
crowds: to shoulder through. People shouldering are being pushy, usually
in an obnoxious way. People who soldier on are admirably determined to
carry on despite difficulties.
SHOW-STOPPER/DEAL-BREAKER
Originally a "show-stopper" (now often spelled without the hyphen as one
or two words) was a sensational musical number which created so much
applause that the show had to be temporarily halted. By extension,
anything making a sensationally positive impact could be called
"show-stopping."
Computer programmers flipped the meaning by labeling a bug that brings a
program to a halt a "showstopper." Now the word is commonly used as a
synonym for "deal-breaker" in government and business. The negative
meaning is now so pervasive that it can't be called an error, but be
aware that those who know only the show-business meaning may regard you
as ignorant if you use it in this way.
SHRUNK/SHRANK
The simple past tense form of "shrink" is "shrank" and the past
participle is "shrunk"; it should be "Honey, I Shrank the Kids," not
"Honey, I Shrunk the Kids." (Thanks a lot, Disney.)
"Honey, I've shrunk the kids" would be standard, and also grammatically
acceptable is "Honey, I've shrunken the kids" (though deplorable from a
child-rearing point of view).
SHUTTER TO THINK/SHUDDER TO THINK
When you are so horrified by a thought that you tremble at it, you
shudder to think it.
SICK/SIC
The command given to a dog, "sic 'em," derives from the word "seek." The
1992 punk rock album titled "Sick 'Em" has helped popularize the common
misspelling of this phrase. Unless you want to tell how you incited your
pit bull to vomit on someone's shoes, don't write "sick 'em" or "sick
the dog."
The standard spelling of the -ing form of the word is "siccing."
In a different context, the Latin word sic ("thus") inserted into a
quotation is an editorial comment calling attention to a misspelling or
other error in the original which you do not want to be blamed for but
are accurately reproducing: "She acted like a real pre-Madonna (sic)."
When commenting on someone else's faulty writing, you really want to
avoid misspelling this word as sick.
Although it's occasionally useful in preventing misunderstanding, "sic"
is usually just a way of being snotty about someone else's mistake,
largely replaced now by "lol." Sometimes it's appropriate to correct the
mistakes in writing you're quoting; and when errors abound, you needn't
mark each one with a "sic"--your readers will notice.
SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS/SIERRA NEVADAS
Sierra is Spanish for "sawtooth mountain range," so knowledgeable
Westerners usually avoid a redundancy by simply referring to "the Sierra
Nevadas" or simply "the Sierras." Transplanted weather forecasters often
get this wrong.
Some object to the familiar abbreviation "Sierras," but this form, like
"Rockies" and "Smokies" is too well established to be considered
erroneous.
SIGNALED OUT/SINGLED OUT
When a single individual is separated out from a larger group, usually
by being especially noticed or treated differently, that individual is
being "singled out." This expression has nothing to do with signalling.
SILICON/SILICONE
Silicon is a chemical element, the basic stuff of which microchips are
made. Sand is largely silicon. Silicones are plastics and other
materials containing silicon, the most commonly discussed example being
silicone breast implants. Less used by the general public is "silica":
an oxide of silicon.
SIMULAR/SIMILAR
The word "similar" is sometimes misspelled and often mispronounced as
"simular," with the second vowel being given a "you" sound. The second
syllable should sound like the third syllable in "animal."
SIMPLISTIC
"Simplistic" means "overly simple," and is always used negatively. Don't
substitute it when you just mean to say "simple" or even "very simple."
SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS
In standard American writing, the only use for single quotation marks is
to designate a quotation within a quotation. Students are exposed by
Penguin Books and other publishers to the British practice of using
single quotes for normal quotations and become confused. Some strange
folkloric process has convinced many people that while entire sentences
and long phrases are surrounded by conventional double quotation marks,
single words and short phrases take single quotation marks. "Wrong," I
insist.
SIR/DAME
The English titles "Sir" and "Dame" should never be used with a last
name only. It's "Sir Paul McCartney" or "Sir Paul," but never "Sir
McCartney." Similarly, it's "Dame Helen Mirren" or "Dame Helen," but not
"Dame Mirren."
SISTER-IN-LAWS/SISTERS-IN-LAW
Your spouse's female siblings are not your sister-in-laws, but your
sisters-in-law. The same pattern applies to brothers-in-law,
fathers-in-law, and mothers-in-law.
SKIDDISH/SKITTISH
If you nervously avoid something you are not "skiddish" about it; the
word is "skittish."
SLIGHT OF HAND/SLEIGHT OF HAND
"Sleight" is an old word meaning "cleverness, skill," and the proper
expression is "sleight of hand." it's easy to understand why it's
confused with "slight" since the two words are pronounced in exactly the
same way.
SLOG IT OUT/SLUG IT OUT
Slogging is a slow, messy business, typically tramping through sticky
mud or metaphorically struggling with other difficult tasks. You might
slog through a pile of receipts to do your taxes. If you are engaged in
a fierce battle with an adversary, however, you slug it out, like boxers
slugging each other. There is no such expression as "slog it out."
SLOW GIN/SLOE GIN
A small European plum named a "sloe" is used to flavor the liqueur
called "sloe gin." You should probably sip it slowly, but that has
nothing to do with its name.
SLUFF OFF/SLOUGH OFF
You use a loofah to slough off dead skin.
SNUCK/SNEAKED
In American English "snuck" has become increasingly common as the past
tense of "sneak." This is one of many cases in which people's humorously
self-conscious use of dialect has influenced others to adopt it as
standard and it is now often seen even in sophisticated writing in the
US But it is safer to use the traditional form: "sneaked."
SOMETIME/SOME TIME
"Let's get together sometime." When you use the one-word form, it
suggests some indefinite time in the future. "Some time" is not wrong in
this sort of context, but it is required when being more specific:
"Choose some time that fits in your schedule." "Some" is an adjective
here modifying "time." The same pattern applies to "someday" (vague) and
"some day" (specific).
SO/VERY
Originally people said things like "I was so delighted with the wrapping
that I couldn't bring myself to open the package." But then they began
to lazily say "You made me so happy," no longer explaining just how
happy that was. This pattern of using "so" as a simple intensifier
meaning "very" is now standard in casual speech, but is out of place in
formal writing, where "very" or another intensifier works better.
Without vocal emphasis, the "so" conveys little in print.
SO FUN/SO MUCH FUN
Strictly a young person's usage: "That party was so fun!" If you don't
want to be perceived as a gum-chewing airhead, say "so much fun."
SOAR/SORE
By far the more common word is "sore" which refers to aches, pains and
wounds: sore feet, sore backs, sores on your skin. The more unusual word
used to describe the act of gliding through the air or swooping up
toward the heavens is spelled "soar." This second word is often used
metaphorically: eagles, spirits, and prices can all soar. If you know
your parts of speech, just keep in mind that "soar" is always a verb,
and "sore" can be either a noun ("running sore") or an adjective ("sore
loser") but never a verb. In archaic English "sore" could also be an
adverb meaning "sorely" or "severely": "they were sore afraid."
SOCIAL/SOCIETAL
"Societal" as an adjective has been in existence for a couple of
centuries, but has become widely used only in the recent past. People
who imagine that "social" has too many frivolous connotations of mere
partying often resort to it to make their language more serious and
impressive. It is best used by social scientists and others in referring
to the influence of societies: "societal patterns among the Ibo of
eastern Nigeria." Used in place of "social" in ordinary speech and
writing it sounds pretentious.
SOCIALIZE
People socialize at a party or on Facebook. Socialist governments
socialize their economies. Sociologists speak of people being socialized
into particular customs or groups. Animals can also be socialized. These
are the main standard uses of "socialize."
But people in the business world have developed a new meaning for
"socialize": to get people to agree with. Examples: "have them socialize
the material with their work groups," "we need to socialize the idea."
To nonspeakers of business jargon this sounds pretentious and silly.
SOJOURN/JOURNEY
Although the spelling of this word confuses many people into thinking it
means "journey," a sojourn is actually a temporary stay in one place. If
you're constantly on the move, you're not engaged in a sojourn.
SOLE/SOUL
The bottom of your foot is your sole; your spirit is your soul.
SOMEBODY/SOMEONE
Can "somebody" or "someone" be plural nouns? No. They are always
singular.
A sentence like "When somebody runs a red light, they risk causing an
accident" is just an example of "singular "they."
See "they/their (singular)."
SOMEBODY'S ELSE/SOMEBODY ELSE'S
The expression is not "somebody's else," but "somebody else's."
SOMEWHAT OF A/SOMEWHAT, SOMETHING OF A
An "a" is most commonly inserted after "something" rather than after
"somewhat": "She is somewhat awkward," and "He is something of a klutz."
"Somewhat of a" will strike some readers as a little odd
SOME WHERE/SOMEWHERE
"Somewhere," like "anywhere" and "nowhere," is always one word.
SUMMERSAULT/SOMERSAULT
"Summersault" is a common variant, but the standard spelling is
"somersault."
SOMETIMES NOT ALWAYS/SOMETIMES, NOT ALWAYS
Expressions like "not always," "don't always," and "aren't always"
overlap in meaning with "sometimes," but don't belong in the same phrase
with this word--they're redundant.
"Sometimes I don't always feel like jogging" doesn't make any sense. Say
either "sometimes I don't feel like jogging" or "I don't always feel
like jogging."
SOMEWAYS/SOMEHOW
"Someways" Mark managed to catch his beard in his jacket zipper."
"Someways" in this sense is slangy. "Somehow" is standard.
SOMEWHERES/SOMEWHERE
You may hear someone say things like "the yeast is somewheres in the
baking aisle." The spelling "somewheres" is not standard; use
"somewhere" instead.
SONG/WORK OR COMPOSITION
When you're writing that cultural event report based on last night's
symphony concert, don't call the music performed "songs." Songs are
strictly pieces of music which are sung--by singers. Instrumental
numbers may be called "works," "compositions," or even "pieces." Be
careful, though: a single piece may have several different movements;
and it would be wrong to refer to the Adagio of Beethoven's Moonlight
Sonata as a "piece." It's just a piece of a piece.
See also music/singing.
SOONER/RATHER
"I'd sooner starve than eat what they serve in the cafeteria" is less
formal than "I'd rather starve."
SOONER THAN LATER/SOONER RATHER THAN LATER
The traditional expression "sooner rather than later" is now commonly
abbreviated to the less logical "sooner than later." The shorter form is
very popular, but is more likely to cause raised eyebrows than the
similarly abbreviated expression "long story short."
See "long story short."
SORTA SPEAK/SO TO SPEAK
The expression "sorta speak" seems to be quite common. Some people will
"correct" you by saying it should be pronounced and written "sort of
speak."
But neither form is standard. When you use an expression that is not
meant entirely literally, or is slang or informal, you may follow it
with "so to speak" or "in a manner of speaking." It is most
appropriately used to acknowledge that you have just expressed an idea
in an unusual fashion.
Some people use it to label statements that are simply untrue, but that
is stretching the expression too far.
Examples of standard usage: "They had money to burn, so to speak." "He
went ballistic, so to speak." "In my college years I was an academic
nomad, so to speak."
Other similar expressions are "as it were," "in a manner of speaking,"
and "figuratively speaking."
A much less common but more amusing misspelling than "sorta speak" is
"soda speak."
SOUP DU JOUR OF THE DAY/SOUP OF THE DAY
"Soupe du jour" (note the "E" on the end of "soupe") means "soup of the
day." If you're going to use French to be pretentious on a menu, it's
important to learn the meaning of the words you're using. Often what is
offered is potage, anyway. Keep it simple, keep it in English, and you
can't go wrong.
SORT AFTER/SOUGHT AFTER
Something popular which many people are searching for is "sought after".
If you are sorting a thing, you've presumably already found it. When
this phrase precedes a noun or noun phrase which it modifies, it has to
be hyphenated: "Action Comics#1 is a much sought-after comic book
because it was the first to feature Superman."
SOUNDBYTE/SOUND BITE
A "sound bite" is a brief snippet of recorded speech, usually used in
the context of news reporting. The term originated around 1980, long
before the recording of such snippets on personal computers was common;
so those who argue that the correct spelling is "sound byte" are
mistaken.
SOUR GRAPES
In a famous fable by Aesop, a fox declared that he didn't care that he
could not reach an attractive bunch of grapes because he imagined they
were probably sour anyway. You express sour grapes when you put down
something you can't get: "winning the lottery is just a big headache
anyway." The phrase is misused in all sorts of ways by people who don't
know the original story and imagine it means something more general like
"bitterness" or "resentment."
SOUSE CHEF/SOUS CHEF
What's a "souse chef"? Is it the fellow who adds a dash of brandy to
your dessert?
No, it's just a misspelling of sous chef, a French phrase meaning
"assistant chef." The first word is pronounced just like "sue."
SOWCOW/SALCHOW
There's a fancy turning jump in ice skating named after Swedish figure
skater Ulrich Salchow, but every Winter Olympics millions of people
think they hear the commentators saying "sowcow" and that's how they
proceed to misspell it.
SPACES AFTER A PERIOD
In the old days of typewriters using only monospaced fonts in which a
period occupied as much horizontal space as any other letter, it was
standard to double-space after each one to clearly separate each
sentence from the following one. However, when justified, variable-width
type is set for printing, it has always been standard to use only one
space between sentences. Modern computers produce type that is more like
print, and most modern styles call for only one space after a period.
This is especially important if you are preparing a text for publication
which will be laid out from your electronic copy. If you find it
difficult to adopt the one-space pattern, when you are finished writing
you can do a global search-and-replace to find all double spaces and
replace them with single spaces.
SPACES IN NAMES
In many European languages family names are often preceded by a
preposition ("de," "da," "di," "von," and "van" all mean "of"), an
article ("le" and "la" mean "the") or both ("du," "des," "del," "de la,"
"della" and "van der" all mean "of the"). Such prefixes often originated
as designators of nobility--or pretensions to it--but today they are
just incidental parts of certain names.
In their original languages the two parts of the name are usually
separated by a space, and the prefixed preposition or article is not
capitalized unless it begins a sentence. If you take a college course
involving famous European names you will be expected to follow this
pattern. It's not "De Beauvoir" but "de Beauvoir"; not "Van Gogh" but
"van Gogh." The only exception is when the name begins a sentence: "De
Gaulle led the Free French," but "Charles de Gaulle had a big nose."
Some European names evolved into one-word spellings early on (Dupont,
Lamartine, Dallapiccola), but they are not likely to cause problems
because English speakers are usually unaware of the signficance of their
initial syllables.
When families bearing prefixed names move to the US, they often adapt
their spelling to a one-word form. A well-known example is "DiCaprio."
French le Blanc becomes LeBlanc in America, and Italian di Franco
becomes DiFranco. The name "de Vries" is spelled in English by various
people bearing that name "De Vries," "DeVries," and "Devries." You have
to check carefully to determine how a particular person prefers the name
to be spelled. Library reference tools like Who's Who are more reliable
than most Web sources.
The practice of retaining the capital letter inside the fused form is
one peculiar to American English. Early books by famed science-fiction
author Ursula Le Guin rendered her name "LeGuin" though later reprints
go with the separated form, which we may assume is her preference. The
fused form has the advantage of being easier for computers to sort into
alphabetized lists. You will find many Web pages in which the names of
Europeans are adapted to the one-word form, but this is a sign of a lack
of sophistication.
Once you learn to properly separate the parts of a last name, you need
to know how to alphabetize it. Put van Gogh under V, but Van Morrison
under M ("Van" is his given name, not part of his family name). Ludwig
van Beethoven, however, is under B, not V.
College students also need to know that most Medieval and many
Renaissance names consist of a single given name linked to a place name
to indicate where the person came from. Marie de France means simply
"Marie of France," and she should never be referred to as simply "de
France." After introducing her full name, refer to her as "Marie."
Forget The Da Vinci Code; scholars refer to him as "Leonardo," never as
"da Vinci."
SPADED/SPAYED
If you have neutered your dog, you've spayed it; save the spading until
it dies.
SPEAK/TALK
"Speak" and "talk" are often interchangeable, but when you refer to
using a particular language, the word you want is "speak." You can speak
English, Arabic or Urdu.
"Speak" is a little more formal than "talk," so if you want to be
especially polite you should ask to speak with people rather than ask to
talk to them.
You speak Turkish, but you "talk turkey."
SPECIALLY/ESPECIALLY
In most contexts "specially" is more common than "especially," but when
you mean "particularly" "especially" works better: "I am not especially
excited about inheriting my grandmother's neurotic Siamese cat."
"Especial" in the place of "special" is very formal and rather
old-fashioned.
SPECIE/SPECIES
In both the original Latin and in English "species" is the spelling of
both the singular and plural forms. Amphiprion ocellaris is one species
of clownfish. Many species of fish are endangered by overfishing.
Specie is a technical term referring to the physical form of money,
particularly coins.
SPICKET/SPIGOT
A faucet is a "spigot," not a "spicket."
SPICY
"Spicy" has two different meanings: intensely flavored and peppery.
Someone who asks for food that is not spicy intending to avoid only
pepper may get bland, flavorless food instead. It's good to be specific
about what you dislike. South Asian cooks asked to avoid pepper have
been known to omit only seed pepper and use a free hand with chopped
green or red chilies. If you are such a cook, be aware that timid
American diners mean by "pepper" all biting, hot spices and they will
probably not enjoy chili peppers or large amounts of ginger, though they
may love cardamom, cumin, coriander, cinnamon, etc.
When you see the word "chilli" on an Indian menu, the spelling being
used is that of the British.
SPAN/SPUN
Don't say "the demon span her head around." The past tense of "spin" in
this sense is "spun."
SPARE OF THE MOMENT/SPUR OF THE MOMENT
You don't see people wearing spurs much any more, which may explain why
some are vague about the significance of metaphorical spurs. Anything
that prompts you to do something can be a spur to action. We say of
people that are prompted in this way that they are "spurred on" by fear,
ambition, greed, or some other cause.
So a momentary impulse which causes you to act without advance planning
can result in a decision made "on the spur of the moment."
Then there is the expression "spare moment": "Sorry, Honey, when I was
getting the kids ready for school I couldn't spare a moment to clean up
the mess the dog made in the kitchen."
This latter pattern seems to lead some people to mistakenly imagine that
the expression is "on the spare of the moment."
SPIRITUALISM/SPIRITUALITY
The most common meaning of "spiritualism" is belief in the possibility
of communication with the spirits of the dead.
A better term for other religious beliefs and activities is
"spirituality," as in "I'm going to the ashram to explore my
spirituality."
SPOKE/SAID
Novice writers of fictional dialogue sometimes become wary of repeating
"said" too often, resulting in odd constructions like this: "'You've got
gravy on your shirt,' she spoke."
You can speak a language or speak with someone, but you can't speak a
speech.
If you get tired of "said" you could have your characters whisper,
shout, hiss, or grumble; but you shouldn't be afraid of having them
simply say things. It won't bore your readers; they won't even notice.
SPRAIN/STRAIN
So did you sprain your leg or strain it? It will take someone with
medical training to say for sure. Technically, a sprain is a ligament
injury and a strain is tendon or muscle injury. But don't fret about the
distinction if you're trying to explain to your friends why you may not
be able to finish a hike; they won't hold it against you if your
"sprain" turns out to be a "strain."
SPREE
It used to be that a spree was mainly understood as a wild drinking
carouse, with the emphasis on spontaneity and abandon. Then it was used
metaphorically, as in a "shopping spree."
American journalists began to write of "killing sprees" by murderers
recklessly killing people at random ("spree" fits so nicely in
headlines).
But they go too far when they refer to terrorist bombing sprees.
Targeted, purposeful acts like these lack the element of spontaneity and
disorder that characterize a spree. Do they mean perhaps a "spate"?
SQUASH/QUASH
You can squash a spider or a tomato; but when the meaning you intend is
"to suppress," as in rebellions or (especially) legal motions, the more
sophisticated term is "quash."
SQUOZE/SQUEEZED
The standard past tense of "squeeze" is not "squoze" but "squeezed."
Even most people who write "squoze" know this, and use it jokingly.
STAID/STAYED
"Staid" is an adjective often used to label somebody who is rather
stodgy and dull, a stick-in-the-mud. But in modern English the past
tense of the verb "stay" is "stayed": "I stayed at the office late
hoping to impress my boss."
STAIN GLASS/STAINED GLASS
The proper spelling is "stained."
STALACTITES/STALAGMITES
There's an old joke that will help you keep these straight. Remember
"ants in the pants": the mites go up and the tights come down.
STAND/STANCE
When you courageously resist opposing forces, you take--or make--a
stand. The metaphor is a military one, with the defending forces
refusing to flee from the attacker. Your stance, on the other hand, is
just your position--literal or figurative--which may not be particularly
militant. A golfer wanting to improve her drives may adopt a different
stance, or your stance on cojack may be that it doesn't belong on a
gourmet cheese platter; but if you organize a group to force the
neighbors to get rid of the hippo they've tethered in their front yard,
you're taking a stand.
STANDALONE/STAND-ALONE
Despite the fact that it's been slow to appear in traditional
dictionaries, the adjective "standalone"--meaning "independent"--has
become hugely popular in recent years. There are standalone electronic
devices, standalone computer applications, and standalone businesses.
Authors known mainly for writing books in a series who decide to write a
single work unconnected with any series are said to have written a
standalone novel.
You're more likely to find what you're looking for in dictionaries under
the hyphenated spelling "stand-alone." Formal edited English still
usually prefers this version. There is a strong tendency for such
hyphenated forms as "on-line" to get smooshed together into one-word
spellings (for instance, "online" is now standard as an adjective). That
process is clearly happening with "stand-alone," but it's safer to use
the hyphen unless you know for sure that the audience you are writing
for prefers the unhyphenated form: write "stand-alone device," etc.
Rendering this adjectival form as two unhyphenated words ("a stand alone
device") is just a mistake.
STATES/COUNTRIES
Citizens of the United States, where states are smaller subdivisions of
the country, are sometimes surprised to see "states" referring instead
to foreign countries. Note that the US Department of State deals with
foreign affairs, not those of US states. Clearly distinguish these two
uses of "state" in your writing.
STATIONARY/STATIONERY
When something is standing still, it's stationary. That piece of paper
you write a letter on is stationery. Let the "E" in "stationery" remind
you of "envelope."
STINT/STENT
When the time to work comes, you've got to do your stint; but the
medical device installed to keep an artery open is a "stent." Even
people in the medical profession who should know better often use
"stint" when they mean "stent."
STEREO
"Stereo" refers properly to a means of reproducing sound in two or more
discrete channels to create a solid, apparently three-dimensional sound.
Because in the early days only fanciers of high fidelity (or hi-fi)
equipment could afford stereophonic sound, "stereo" came to be used as a
substitute for "high fidelity," and even "record player." Stereo
equipment (for instance a cheap portable cassette player) is not
necessarily high fidelity equipment. Visual technology creating a sense
of depth by using two different lenses can also use the root "stereo" as
in "stereoscope."
STOMP/STAMP
"Stomp" is colloquial, casual. A professional wrestler stomps his
opponent. In more formal contexts "stamp" is preferred. But you will
probably not be able to stamp out the spread of "stomp."
STRAIGHT/STRAIT
If something is not crooked or curved it's straight.
If it is a narrow passageway between two bodies of water, it's a strait.
Place names like "Bering Strait" are almost always spelled "strait."
STRAIGHTJACKET/STRAITJACKET
The old word "strait" ("narrow, tight") has survived only as a noun in
geography referring to a narrow body of water ("the Bering Strait") and
in a few adjectival uses such as "straitjacket" (a narrowly confining
garment) and "strait-laced" (literally laced up tightly, but usually
meaning narrow-minded). Its unfamiliarity causes many people to
mistakenly substitute the more common "straight."
STATUE OF LIMITATIONS/STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS
What would a statue of limitations look like? A cop stopping traffic?
The Venus de Milo? Her missing arms would definitely limit her ability
to scratch what itches. The legal phrase limiting the period after which
an offense can no longer be prosecuted is the statute (law) of
limitations.
STOCK AND TRADE/STOCK IN TRADE
In this context, "trade" means "business." The items a business trades
in are its stock in trade. Metaphorically, the stuff needed by people to
carry on their activities can also be called their stock in trade:
"Bushy eyebrows, cigars, and quips were Groucho's stock in trade." This
expression has nothing to do with trading stock, as on a stock exchange,
and it should not be transformed into "stock and trade."
STOLED/STOLE
The past tense of "steal" is "stole." Tom stole the pig. The only time
you can be stoled is when someone drapes a stole on you.
STOOD/STAYED
In standard English, "stayed" is the past tense of "stay," and "stood"
is the past tense of "stand." If you speak a dialect which uses "stood"
for the past tense of "stayed" and want to switch to standard usage, try
changing your sentence to the present tense to check: "I stood still"
becomes "I stand still." But "I stood up past midnight" becomes "I stay
up," not "I stand up." So you should say "I stayed up past midnight" and
"I stayed in the best hotel in town."
The popular saying "I shoulda stood in bed" conjures up an amusing
image, but it's not a model for standard usage.
STRAIGHTENED/STRAITENED
When things get tight and your options are narrowed down, you may have
to live in straitened circumstances or on a straitened budget.
Many people mistakenly use "straightened" in such expressions.
See also "straightjacket" and "dire straights."
STAUNCH/STANCH
Some people--and not a few usage guides--insist that although you can be
a staunch friend you stanch the flow of blood from a wound. But
"staunch" has been a standard spelling for the word with the latter
meaning from its origin in the 14th century, and is today more popular
than "stanch."
The two words spelled "staunch" are logically related through a root
meaning "watertight": you are tight with your allies and friends,
clinging firmly to them; and you close a wound tightly to halt the
bleeding. Even people who write "stanch" often pronounce it "stawnch."
STRADDLED WITH/SADDLED WITH
To straddle is to stand or sit with legs spread. Sometimes "straddle" is
used figuratively of someone who avoids taking a firm stand on an issue:
the cautious politician straddled the issue of immigration.
To be burdened with something is to be saddled with it. You straddle
your horse, and it is in turn saddled with the burden of carrying you.
STRENGTH
It is nonstandard to pronounce "strength" as if it were spelled
"strenth." The same goes for "length." Make sure to sound the "eng" in
the middle of these words.
STRESS ON/FEEL STRESS
"Stress on" is commonly misused used to mean "to experience stress" as
in "I'm stressing on the term paper I have to do." Still informal, but
better, is "I'm stressed about. . . ." In a more formal context you
could express the same idea by saying "I'm anxious about. . . ."
It is perfectly fine, however, to say that you place stress on
something, with "stress" being a noun rather than a verb.
STRICKEN/STRUCK
Most of the time the past participle of "strike" is "struck." The
exceptions are that you can be stricken with guilt, a misfortune, a
wound or a disease; and a passage in a document can be stricken out. The
rest of the time, stick with "struck."
STRIKE A CORD/STRIKE A CHORD
Something that strikes a chord with you catches your attention because
something about it corresponds to something in yourself. The metaphor
refers to a chord played on a piano, with one note harmonizing nicely
with a note in that which you are experiencing to create a pleasing
chord.
STRIPED/STRIPPED
Naked people are stripped. Walls whose paint has been removed are
stripped. When the thread of a screw is damaged, it is stripped.
Zebras and skunks are striped.
If you object to wearing formal striped trousers, they may be stripped
off.
STRONG SUITE/STRONG SUIT
"Strong suit" is an expression derived from card-playing, in which
hearts, diamonds, clubs and spades are the suits. When you put your best
foot forward your play your strong suit.
SUBJECT TO/SUBJECTED TO
"I was told I could board the airplane subject to a security scan."
"At the airport I was subjected to a humiliating search."
Does it help you to distinguish between these expressions to know that
"subject" in the first example is an adverb and "subjected" in the
second example is a verb? Didn't think so.
Although these two expressions can sometimes be switched with only a
slight change in meaning, they are not equivalent. To be subjected to
some sort of treatment is to actually be treated in that way, usually in
an objectionable way.
But to be subject to a regulation, to taxes, to discussion, to
inspection, to any sort of condition, is to be liable to it. In some
contexts, the conditional action is mandatory: "Shipment will be made
subject to approval of your charge card." In others, the conditional
action may be theoretical, not uniformly enforced: "This Web page is
subject to change." Many people mistakenly use "subjected to" in this
sort of context.
SUBMITTAL/SUBMISSION
"Submittal" is the act of submitting; it should not be used to describe
the thing being submitted, as in "clip a five-dollar bill to your
submittal and it will receive our earliest attention." In almost all
cases "submission" is clearer and more traditional than "submittal."
SUBSTANCE-FREE
An administrator at our university once announced that his goal was a
"substance-free" campus, which I suppose fit in with the fad of the
period for "virtual education." What he really meant was, of course, a
campus free of illegal drugs and alcohol, designated "controlled
substances" in the law. This is a very silly expression, but if he'd
just said "sober and straight" he would have sounded too censorious. How
about "drug- and alcohol-free"?
SUBSTITUTE WITH/SUBSTITUTE FOR
You can substitute pecans for the walnuts in a brownie recipe, but many
people mistakenly say "substitute with" instead, perhaps influenced by
the related expression "replace with." it's always "substitute for."
SUCCEED/SECEDE
If you advocate withdrawing formally from a nation or other
organization, you want to secede.
If you're successful at this or anything else, you succeed.
SUFFER WITH/SUFFER FROM
Although technical medical usage sometimes differs, in normal speech we
say that a person suffers from a disease rather than suffering with it.
SUFFICETH
"Sufficeth" is just an old spelling of "suffices," commonly used in the
King James translation of the Bible and other Renaissance religious
texts. People often use it in a joking manner to give their writing a
semi-Biblical air, especially in the phrase "it sufficeth to say." But
they sound clumsy rather than clever when they omit the "it" and begin
the phrase thus "Sufficeth to say. . . ." "Sufficeth" is a verb; it
requires a subject.
SUIT/SUITE
Your bedroom suite consists of the bed, the nightstand, and whatever
other furniture goes with it. Your pajamas would be your bedroom suit.
SULKING/SKULKING
That guy sneaking furtively around the neighborhood is skulking around;
that teenager brooding in his bedroom because he got grounded is
sulking. "Sulking around" is not a traditional phrase.
SUMMARY/SUMMERY
When the weather is warm and summery and you don't feel like spending a
lot of time reading that long report from the restructuring committee,
just read the summary.
SUPED UP/SOUPED UP
The car you've souped up may be super, but it's not "suped up."
SUPERCEDE/SUPERSEDE
"Supersede," meaning to replace, originally meant "to sit higher" than,
from Latin sedere, "to sit." In the 18th century, rich people were often
carried about as they sat in sedan chairs. Don't be misled by the fact
that this word rhymes with words having quite different roots, such as
"intercede."
SUPPOSABLY, SUPPOSINGLY, SUPPOSIVELY/SUPPOSEDLY
"Supposedly" is the standard form. "Supposably" can be used only when
the meaning is "capable of being supposed," and then only in the US. You
won't get into trouble if you stick with "supposedly."
SUPPOSE TO/SUPPOSED TO
Because the D and the T are blended into a single consonant when this
phrase is pronounced, many writers are unaware that the D is even
present and omit it in writing. You're supposed to get this one right if
you want to earn the respect of your readers. See also "use to."
SUPREMIST/SUPREMICIST
A neo-Nazi is a white supremacist, not "supremist."
SURFING THE INTERNET
"Channel-surfing" developed as an ironic term to denote the very
unathletic activity of randomly changing channels on a television set
with a remote control. Its only similarity to surfboarding on real surf
has to do with the esthetic of "going with the flow." The Internet could
be a fearsomely difficult place to navigate until the World Wide Web was
invented; casual clicking on Web links was naturally quickly compared to
channel-surfing, so the expression "surfing the Web" was a natural
extension of the earlier expression. But the Web is only one aspect of
the Internet, and you label yourself as terminally uncool if you say
"surfing the Internet." (Cool people say "Net" anyway.) It makes no
sense to refer to targeted, purposeful searches for information as
"surfing"; for that reason I called my classes on Internet research
techniques "scuba-diving the Internet."
However, Jean Armour Polly, who claims to have originated the phrase
"surfing the Internet" in 1992, maintains that she intended it to have
exactly the connotations it now has. See her page on the history of the
term: (http://www.netmom.com/about/surfing_main.htm).
SURPLUS NECKLINE/SURPLICE NECKLINE
Medieval priests in chilly Northern European churches wore an
extra-large cassock over a fur-lined gown. This garment came to be known
as a surplice (from Latin super pelliceum: "over fur").
Even those few who might have heard of the priestly garment are not
likely to make the connection when discussing the surplice neckline on
women's clothing because the secular women's garment has an overlapping
V-neck whereas most surplices worn in churches today have square or
rounded necklines.
So it's not surprising that a large number of people mistakenly refer to
the women's garment style as a "surplus neckline." The only surplus
involved in these items is the amount of flesh revealed by them.
SUSPECT/SUSPICIOUS
If your boss thinks you may have dipped into petty cash to pay your
gambling debts, you may be suspect (or "a suspect"). But if you think
somebody else did it, you are suspicious of them. Confusingly, if the
police suspect you of a crime, you can be described as a "suspicious
person" and if you constantly suspect others of crimes, you can also be
called "suspicious."
But "suspect" is not so flexible. A suspect is a person somebody is
suspicious of, never the person who is doing the suspecting. It never
makes sense to say "I am suspect that. . . ."
SUSPICION/SUSPECT
When you have a suspicion about someone or something, you suspect them.
It is not standard to say you "suspicion" them. "Suspicion" is only a
noun, never a verb.
SWAM/SWUM
The regular past tense of "swim" is "swam": "I swam to the island."
However, when the word is preceded by a helping verb, it changes to
"swum": "I've swum to the island every day." The "'ve" stands for
"have," a helping verb.
SYLLABI/SYLLABUS
"Syllabi" is the plural of "syllabus," but you can also say
"syllabuses." Don't call a single course schedule a "syllabi."
SYSTEMATIC/SYSTEMIC
By far the more common word and the one you should use if you are in
doubt is "systematic." It refers to things that are arranged or dealt
with according to some system or organized method. "Gerry systematically
sorts his socks into piles: those that are still wearable and those that
are too smelly."
Often "systematic" and "systematically" are used metaphorically to imply
that something is done so consistently that it almost seems there must
be a system behind it: "Tom systematically leaves the toilet seat up."
If you need a synonym for "consistent," the word you need is
"systematic."
"Systemic" is a much rarer scientific and technical term referring to
parts of a body or system. It is frequently used in medicine and
biology. A systemic disease affects many parts of the body. A systemic
herbicide may be sprayed on the leaves of a weed, but it spreads down to
its roots to kill the whole plant. A systemic problem in banking affects
many parts of the banking system.
If you're talking about how something is done according to a system, the
word you want is "systematic."
If you're talking about something happening to or inside of a system,
the word you want is "systemic."
TABLE
In the UK if you table an issue you place it on the table for
discussion, but in the US the phrase means the opposite: you
indefinitely postpone discussing the issue.
TAD BIT/TAD, BIT
A "tad" was originally a small boy, but this word evolved into the
expression "a tad" meaning "very small" or "very slightly": "The movie
was a tad long for my taste."
Some people combine this with the equivalent expression "a bit" and say
"a tad bit." This is redundant. Just say "a bit" or "a tad."
TAKE A DIFFERENT TACT/TAKE A DIFFERENT TACK
This expression has nothing to do with tactfulness and everything to do
with sailing, in which it is a direction taken as one tacks--abruptly
turns--a boat. To "take a different tack" is to try another approach.
TAKE AND
In some dialects, it's common to emphasize an action by preceding the
verb with "take and" (past tense "took and"): "When he got mad he would
take and pound his fist into the wall." This expression is not used in
formal English, and usually occurs in writing only when the author is
trying to convey an impression of unsophisticated speech. The same goes
for "went and": "After I told him I didn't get a bicycle for my birthday
he went and bought me a unicycle instead."
TAKEN BACK/TAKEN ABACK
When you're startled by something, you're taken aback by it. When you're
reminded of something from your past, you're taken back to that time.
TAPE, RECORD
As time goes on, we are less and less likely to record sound or video
onto a physical electromagnetic tape. More and more often, such
recordings are made onto computer hard drives or solid-state devices.
Yet the word "tape" lives on to label the activity involved. We say we
are going to tape an interview, tape a dance recital, or tape a new
greeting for our voice mail, even when no tape is involved. The problem
is that the word "record" is a little too unspecific to be substituted
in all contexts for "tape," so we fall back on this obsolete but handy
word instead.
I'm not sure what can be done about this, but it bothers me. Now it can
bother you too.
TATTLE-TAIL/TATTLE-TALE
Somebody who reveals secrets--tattling, telling tales--is a tattle-tale,
often spelled as one word: "tattletale."
TAUGHT/TAUT
Students are taught, ropes are pulled taut.
TAUNT/TAUT/TOUT
I am told that medical personnel often mistakenly refer to a patient's
abdomen as "taunt" rather than the correct "taut." "Taunt" ("tease" or
"mock") can be a verb or noun, but never an adjective. "Taut" means
"tight, distended," and is always an adjective. "Taut" is also
occasionally misspelled "taught."
Don't confuse "taunt" with "tout," which means "promote," as in "Senator
Bilgewater has been touted as a Presidential candidate." You tout
somebody you admire and taunt someone that you don't.
TEETH/TEETHE
When your baby's teeth are just beginning to come in, you can say she
has begun to "teethe" (rhymes with "breathe"). Don't spell this verb
form as "teeth" (rhymes with "wreath"). That's the noun form, the word
for what emerges during teething.
TEMPERA/TEMPURA
A sort of paint used in art--traditionally including eggs as an
ingredient--is "tempera."
Eggs are also sometimes used in "tempura," a batter which is used to
coat fried ingredients in Japanese cooking.
But don't be tempted to feed your friends tempera.
TENANT/TENET
These two words come from the same Latin root, "tenere," meaning "to
hold"; but they have very different meanings. "Tenet" is the rarer of
the two, meaning a belief that a person holds: "Avoiding pork is a tenet
of the Muslim faith." In contrast, the person leasing an apartment from
you is your tenant. (She holds the lease.)
TENDER HOOKS/TENTERHOOKS
A "tenter" is a canvas-stretcher, and to be "on tenterhooks" means to be
as tense with anticipation as a canvas stretched on one.
TENTATIVE
Often all-too-tentatively pronounced "tennative." Sound all three "T's."
THAN/THEN
When comparing one thing with another you may find that one is more
appealing "than" another. "Than" is the word you want when doing
comparisons. But if you are talking about time, choose "then": "First
you separate the eggs; then you beat the whites." Alexis is smarter than
I, not "then I."
THANKS GOD
I suppose if you wanted to express your gratitude directly to the deity
you might appropriately say "Thanks, God, for helping our team win the
big game." More appropriate is something more formal, like "Thank you,
God" or "Thanks be to God." In any case, the general expression when
it's not specifically meant as a prayer is not "thanks God," but "thank
God." Not "Thanks God Emily hit a homer in the last inning," but "thank
God" she did.
THANKYOU/THANK YOU, THANK-YOU
When you are grateful to someone, tell them "thank you." Thanks are
often called "thank-yous," and you can write "thank-you notes." But the
expression should never be written as a single unhyphenated word.
THAT/THAN
People surprisingly often write "that" when they mean "than" in various
standard phrases. Examples: "harder that I thought," "better safe that
sorry," and "closer that they appear." In all these cases, "that" should
be "than."
THAT/WHICH
I must confess that I do not myself observe the distinction between
"that" and "which." Furthermore, there is little evidence that this
distinction is or has ever been regularly made in past centuries by
careful writers of English. However, a small but impassioned group of
authorities has urged the distinction; so here is the information you
will need to pacify them.
If you are defining something by distinguishing it from a larger class
of which it is a member, use "that": "I chose the lettuce that had the
fewest wilted leaves." When the general class is not being limited or
defined in some way, then "which" is appropriate: "He made an iceberg
lettuce Caesar salad, which didn't taste right." Note that "which" is
normally preceded by a comma, but "that" is not.
THAT KIND/THAT KIND OF
Although expressions like "that kind thing" are common in some dialects,
standard English requires "of" in this kind of phrase.
THE BOTH OF THEM/BOTH OF THEM
You can say "the two of them," as in "the two of them make an
interesting couple"; but normally "the" is not used before "both," as in
"both of them have purple hair."
THEIR'S/THEIRS
Like the related possessive pronouns "ours," "his" and "hers" "theirs"
does not take an apostrophe.
THEIRSELVES/THEMSELVES
There is no such word as "theirselves" (and you certainly can't spell it
"theirselfs" or "thierselves"); it's "themselves." And there is no
correct singular form of this non-word; instead of "theirself" use
"himself" or "herself."
THEM/THOSE
One use of "them" for "those" has become a standard catch phrase: "how
do you like them apples?" This is deliberate dialect humor. But "I like
them little canapes with the shrimp on top" is gauche; say instead "I
like those little canapes."
THEORY
In ordinary speech, a theory is just a speculation. The police inspector
in a Miss Marple mystery always has a theory about who committed the
murder which turns out to be wrong.
But in science the word "theory" plays a very different role. What most
of us call "theories" are termed "hypotheses" until enough evidence has
been accumulated to validate them and allow them to assume the status of
theories: scientifically acceptable explanations of phenomena. Examples:
the theory of gravity, the wave theory of light, chaos theory.
Foes of evolutionary science often insist that the theory of evolution
is invalid because it is "only a theory." This merely demonstrates their
lack of knowledge of scientific usage and hence will not impress any
scientifically literate person.
THEREFOR/THEREFORE
The form without a final "E" is an archaic bit of legal terminology
meaning "for." The word most people want is "therefore."
THERE'S
People often forget that "there's" is a contraction of "there is" and
mistakenly say "there's three burrs caught in your hair" when they mean
"there're" ("there are"). Use "there's" only when referring to one item.
"There's" can also be a contraction of "there has," as in "There's been
some mistake in this bill, clerk!"
Remember if you don't contract "there is" that it also can only be used
with something singular following. It's not "There is many mistakes in
this paper" but "there are many mistakes in this paper."
THESE ARE THEM/THESE ARE THEY
Although only the pickiest listeners will cringe when you say "these are
them," the traditionally correct phrase is "these are they," because
"they" is the predicate nominative of "these." However, if people around
you seem more comfortable with "it's me" than "it's I," you might as
well stick with "these are them."
THESE KIND/THIS KIND
In a sentence like "I love this kind of chocolates," "this" modifies
"kind" (singular) and not "chocolates" (plural), so it would be
incorrect to change it to "I love these kind of chocolates." Only if
"kind" itself is pluralized into "kinds" should "this" shift to "these":
"You keep making these kinds of mistakes!"
THESE ONES/THESE
By itself, there's nothing wrong with the word "ones" as a plural:
"surrounded by her loved ones." However, "this one" should not be
pluralized to "these ones." Just say "these." The same pattern applies
to "those."
THEY/THEIR (SINGULAR)
Using the plural pronoun to refer to a single person of unspecified
gender is an old and honorable pattern in English, not a newfangled bit
of degeneracy or a politically correct plot to avoid sexism (though it
often serves the latter purpose). People who insist that "Everyone has
brought his own lunch" is the only correct form do not reflect the usage
of centuries of fine writers. A good general rule is that only when the
singular noun does not specify an individual can it be replaced
plausibly with a plural pronoun: "Everybody" is a good example. We know
that "everybody" is singular because we say "everybody is here, " not
"everybody are here" yet we tend to think of "everybody" as a group of
individuals, so we usually say "everybody brought their own grievances
to the bargaining table." "Anybody" is treated similarly.
However, in many written sentences the use of singular "their" and
"they" creates an irritating clash even when it passes unnoticed in
speech. It is wise to shun this popular pattern in formal writing. Often
expressions can be pluralized to make the "they" or "their" indisputably
proper: "All of them have brought their own lunches." "People" can often
be substituted for "each." Americans seldom avail themselves of the
otherwise very handy British "one" to avoid specifying gender because it
sounds to our ears rather pretentious: "One's hound should retrieve only
one's own grouse." If you decide to try "one," don't switch to "they" in
mid-sentence: "One has to be careful about how they speak" sounds absurd
because the word "one" so emphatically calls attention to its
singleness. The British also quite sensibly treat collective bodies like
governmental units and corporations as plural ("Parliament have approved
their agenda") whereas Americans insist on treating them as singular.
THEY'RE/THEIR/THERE
Many people are so spooked by apostrophes that a word like "they're"
seems to them as if it might mean almost anything. In fact, it's always
a contraction of "they are." If you've written "they're," ask yourself
whether you can substitute "they are." If not, you've made a mistake.
"Their" is a possessive pronoun like "her" or "our" "They eat their
hotdogs with sauerkraut."
Everything else is "there." "There goes the ball, out of the park! See
it? Right there! There aren't very many home runs like that." "Thier" is
a common misspelling, but you can avoid it by remembering that "they"
and "their" begin with the same three letters. Another hint: "there" has
"here" buried inside it to remind you it refers to place, while "their"
has "heir" buried in it to remind you that it has to do with possession.
Although "there's" is a standard abbreviation of "there is" it is
nonstandard to use "ther're" as a written abbreviation of "there are."
People who use this nonstandard form often mistakenly use "they're"
("they're a lot of people coming to the party") or even "their" ("their
a lot of people").
THINK ON/THINK ABOUT
An archaic form that persists in some dialects is seen in statements
like "I'll think on it" when most people would say "I'll think about
it."
THOUGH/THOUGHT/THROUGH
Although most of us know the differences between these words people
often type one of them when they mean another. Spelling checkers won't
catch this sort of slip, so look out for it.
THREW/THROUGH
"Threw" is the past tense of the verb "throw": "The pitcher threw a
curve ball." "Through" is never a verb: "The ball came through my living
room window." Unless your sentence involves someone throwing
something--even figuratively, as in "she threw out the idea casually"--
the word you want is "through."
THIS HERE/THAT THERE/THIS, THAT
The expressions "this here" and "that there" immediately before a noun
are nonstandard. In standard English it's not "this here dog" or "that
there cat," but "this dog" and "that cat." Less casual is "this dog
here" when you are emphasizing the exact item you are indicating as
contrasted with others.
Of course "this here" and "that there" have standard uses when they are
not followed by a noun: "put that there," "I left this here on purpose,"
"I'll say this here and now," "there's a space for this here."
THRONE/THROWN
A throne is that chair a king sits on, at least until he gets thrown out
of office.
THROUGH A MIRROR, DARKLY/IN A MIRROR, DARKLY
Here's an error with a very distinguished heritage.
When in 1 Corinthians 13:12 Paul tries to express the imperfection of
mortal understanding, he compares our earthly vision to the dim and
wavery view reflected by a typical Roman-era polished bronze mirror.
Unfortunately, the classic King James translation rendered his metaphor
rather confusingly as "For now we see through a glass, darkly." By the
time of the Renaissance, mirrors were made of glass and so it was
natural for the translators to call the mirror a "glass," though by so
doing they obscured Paul's point. Why they should have used "through"
rather than the more logical "in" is unclear, but it has made many
people think that the image is of looking through some kind of magical
glass mirror like that in Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass."
Although most other translations use more accurate phrasing ("as in a
mirror," "a blurred image in a mirror," etc.), the King James is so
influential that its misleading rendering of the verse is overwhelmingly
more popular than the more accurate ones. It's not really an error to
quote the KJV, but if you use the image, don't make the mistake of
suggesting it has to do with a dirty window rather than a dim mirror.
THROWS OF PASSION/THROES OF PASSION
A dying person's final agony can be called "death throes." The only
other common use for this word is "throes of passion." Throws are
wrestling moves or those little blankets you drape on the furniture.
THUSFAR/THUS FAR
Some common phrases get fused in people's minds into single words. The
phrase "thus far" is frequently misspelled "thusfar." Hardly anybody
writes "sofar" instead of "so far"--just treat "thus far" in the same
way.
THUSLY/THUS
"Thusly" has been around for a long time, but it is widely viewed as
nonstandard. It's safer to go with plain old "thus."
TIC/TICK
The word for a spasmodic twitch or habitual quirk of speech or behavior
is spelled the French way: "tic." You may have to worry about Lyme
disease if you get a bite from a tick on your face, but that spasm in
your left cheek whenever the teacher calls on you is a facial tic.
TIMBER/TIMBRE
You can build a house out of timber, but that quality which
distinguishes the sound produced by one instrument or voice from others
is timbre, so the common expression is "vocal timbre."
TIMES/MULTIPLY
School children struggling with their times tables often say that they
"times" one number by another. It's "2 times 2," but the mathematical
operation being performed is not "timesing."
Some unfortunate folks carry this childish vocabulary into adulthood,
continuing to use "times" as a verb meaning "multiply." If you're old
enough to handle three-syllable words you can manage this one.
TIME PERIOD
The only kinds of periods meant by people who use this phrase are
periods of time, so it's a redundancy. Simply say "time" or "period."
TIMES SMALLER
Mathematically literate folks object to expressions like "my paycheck is
three times smaller than it used to be" because when used with whole
numbers "times" indicates multiplication and should logically apply only
to increases in size. Say "one third as large" instead.
TIRIMISU/TIRAMISU
Tiramisu is Italian for "pick me up", and is the name of a popular
modern Italian dessert, commonly misspelled as tirimisu, which gives it
a slightly Japanese air. The Japanese love tiramisu; but although they
sometimes make it with green tea rather than coffee this misspelling
isn't their fault.
TO/TOO/TWO
People seldom mix "two" up with the other two; it obviously belongs with
words that also begin with TW, like "twice" and "twenty" that involve
the number 2. But the other two are confused all the time. Just remember
that the only meanings of "too" are "also" ("I want some ice cream too")
and "in excess" ("Your iPod is playing too loudly.") Note that extra O;.
it should remind you that this word has to do with adding more on to
something. "To" is the proper spelling for all the other uses.
TO HOME/AT HOME
In some dialects people say "I stayed to home to wait for the mail," but
in standard English the expression is "stayed at home."
TO THE MANOR BORN/TO THE MANNER BORN
Hamlet complains of the drunken carousing at Elsinore to his friend
Horatio, who asks "Is it a custom?" Hamlet replies that it is and adds,
"but to my mind,--though I am native here and to the manner born,--it is
a custom more honour'd in the breach than the observance."
"As if to the manner born" is used to praise someone's skill: "Reginald
drives the Maserati as if to the manner born" (as if he were born with
that skill).
"To the Manor Born" was the punning title of a popular BBC comedy, which
greatly increased the number of people who mistakenly supposed the
original expression had something to do with being born on a manor.
Perhaps because of the poetically inverted word order in "manner born"
the expression tends to occur in rather snooty contexts. Nevertheless,
the correct expression is "to the manner born."
TO WHERE/SO MUCH THAT, TO THE POINT THAT
Complains Fred, "Mac kept borrowing my tools to where I couldn't finish
fixing the front porch." This sort of use of "to where" to mean "so much
that" or "to the point that" is not standard English. The meaning is
more about when than where.
TODAY'S DAY AND AGE/THIS DAY AND AGE
The traditional expression is "in this day and age," meaning "right at
this moment and during a considerable stretch of time around this
moment." "Today's day" is redundant: "today" already has "day" in it.
TODAY'S MODERN SOCIETY/TODAY
People seeking to be up-to-the-minute often indulge in such redundancies
as "in today's modern society" or "in the modern society of today." This
is empty arm-waving which says nothing more than "now" or "today." A
reasonable substitute is "contemporary society." Such phrases are
usually indulged in by people with a weak grasp of history to substitute
for such more precise expressions as "for the past five years" or "this
month." See "since the beginning of time."
TOE A FINE LINE/TREAD A FINE LINE, TOE THE LINE
When you tread (or walk) a fine line, you are trying to keep your
balance between two alternatives, rather as if you were walking
carefully along a narrow tightrope. Neighbors have to tread a fine line
between being friendly and being nosy. A related expression is "there is
a fine line between" two alternatives: "there's a fine line between
enthusiasm and fanaticism." In this case you aren't traveling along the
line, but crossing over it. The fineness of the line suggests how subtly
the two alternatives blend into each other. The first expression is used
when you're being cautious; the second is used when you're observing how
close two alternatives are to each other.
The expression "toe the line" means something rather different. It
describes toes obediently and conscientiously lined up for review,
military style. It refers to situations in which you are trying to be
very careful to follow the rules, do precisely the right thing. Strict
parents make their children toe the line.
It does not involve the emphasis on alternatives referred to by the
other expressions. Envision yourself standing in front of a line like
the starting line for a race. Such a line need not be particularly fine.
What is emphasized here is the straightness of the line. But many people
confuse "tread a fine line" with "toe the line" and use the mangled
expression "toe a fine line."
See also tow the line
TOLLED/TOLD
Some people imagine that the expression should be "all tolled" as if
items were being ticked off to the tolling of a bell, or involved the
paying of a toll; but in fact this goes back to an old meaning of
"tell": "to count." You could "tell over" your beads if you were
counting them in a rosary. "All told" means "all counted."
This older meaning of "tell" is the reason that people who count money
out behind bank windows are called "tellers."
TOOKEN/TOOK/TAKEN
"Hey, Tricia! Ted couldn't find his parrot so he's tooken your toucan to
show and tell!" "Tooken" is a non-standard form of "taken."
In fact, there are two past-tense forms of "take" which shouldn't be
mixed up with each other. For the simple past you need "took": "Beau
took a course in acoustics." But if a helping verb precedes it, the word
you need is "taken": "he has taken some other courses too."
TORCHIERE/TORCHERE
Consumers and dealers who call tall floor lamps torchieres undoubtedly
think they're being sophisticated, but the French word is simple
torchere (originally meaning "torch-holder"). Because of widespread
confusion about this word you'll have to search for both spellings on
the Web when you're shopping.
TORE/TORN
Is the road in front of your house "all tore up"? In some dialects
that's what people say. But for standard English speakers what happens
to stuff is that it gets torn up. That guy who tore up your love letter
left you feeling torn up.
TOUCH BASES/TOUCH BASE
Although in baseball a home-run hitter has to touch all four bases while
whizzing past, when you propose to linger with someone long enough to
compare notes, you do all your chatting at a single base. The expression
is "let's touch base."
TOUCHE
In formal fencing matches, when someone is hit by an opponent's sword it
is traditional for the person hit to cry out "touche" (French for
"touched") to acknowledge that fact. In other contexts, we may say
"touche" when somebody scores a point against us in an argument, or
otherwise skewers us verbally.
It is inappropriate to cry "touche" when you think you are the one who
has skewered your opponent. "Touche" is not a synonym for "gotcha!"
TOUNGE/TONGUE
"Tounge" is a common misspelling of "tongue."
TONGUE AND CHEEK/TONGUE IN CHEEK
When people want to show they are kidding or have just knowingly uttered
a falsehood, they stick their tongues in their cheeks, so it's "tongue
in cheek," not "tongue and cheek."
TOE-HEADED/TOW-HEADED
Light-colored rope is called "tow" and someone with very blond hair is
called a "tow-head." Tow-headed children are cute, but a toe-headed one
would be seriously deformed.
TORTUROUS/TORTUOUS
A path with a confusing proliferation of turns is tortuous (from a
French root meaning "twisted"). But "torturous" (meaning painful or
unpleasant, like torture) is very frequently confused with it. So often
has "tortuous logic" (tangled, twisted logic) been misspelled as
"torturous logic" that it has given rise to a now independent form with
its own meaning, "tortured logic." Few people object to the latter, but
if you want to describe your slow progress along a twisting path, the
word you want is "tortuous."
TOW THE LINE/TOE THE LINE
"Toe the line" has to do with lining your toes up on a precise mark, not
with pulling on a rope.
However if you have to take your kids along when you visit friends, you
have them not "in toe," but "in tow."
TOWARD/TOWARDS
These two words are interchangeable, but "toward" is more common in the
US and "towards" in the UK.
Some people, probably influenced by "forwards," write "torwards" instead
of the correct "towards."
TRACK HOME/TRACT HOME
Commuters from a tract home may well feel that they are engaged in a rat
race, but that does not justify them in describing their housing
development as a "track." "Tract" here means an area of land on which
cheap and uniform houses have been built. Incidentally, note that the
phrase is "digestive tract," not "digestive track."
TRADEGY/TRAGEDY
Not only do people often misspell "tragedy" as "tradegy," they
mispronounce it that way too. Just remember that the adjective is
"tragic" to recall that it's the G that comes after the A.
TRAGEDY/TRAVESTY
"Travesty" has farcical connotations; it's actually related to
"transvestite." A disaster that could be described as a farce or a
degraded imitation may be called a travesty: "The trial--since the
defense lawyer slept through most of it--was a travesty of justice." A
tragedy is an altogether more serious matter.
TRANSLUCENT/TRANSPARENT/OPAQUE
Although technically anything that light can shine through is
translucent, most writers now reserve this word for substances that
don't clearly display what is on the other side. A frosted window-pane,
a thin rice-paper screen, or a sheet of tissue paper may be called
"translucent." A clear window or camera lens is transparent. "Sheer"
fabric can be either translucent or transparent. Better check before you
go out in public.
"Opaque" is the opposite of "translucent." Anything solid through which
light cannot pass is opaque.
TRITE AND TRUE/TRIED AND TRUE
Ideas that are trite may well be true, but the expression is "tried and
true": ideas that have been tried and turned out to be valid.
TRANSITION
People in business, politics, and education love to turn nouns into
verbs; but many of their transformations irritate a good number of
listeners. High on the list of disliked terms is "transition" as a verb:
"Over the next month we are going to transition our payroll system from
cash to pizza discount coupons." You can say "make the transition," but
often plain "change" works fine.
TREMBLOR/TEMBLOR
Earthquake experts call each vibration produced by an earthquake a
"temblor," derived from the Spanish word for "tremble." It's not
surprising that many people turn this word into "tremblor," but
journalists and others who may have experts among their readers would be
wise to stick with "temblor."
TROOP/TROUPE
A group of performers is a troupe. Any other group of people, military
or otherwise, is a troop. A police officer, member of a mounted military
group or similar person is a trooper, but a gung-ho worker is a real
trouper.
Troops are normally groups, despite the current vogue among journalists
of saying things like "two troops were wounded in the battle" when they
mean "two soldiers." "Two troops" would be two groups of soldiers, not
two individuals.
The popularity of this use of "troop" is encouraged by the fact that the
various branches of the US military services insist that only members of
the Army should be called "soldiers." Marines, Air Force personnel, and
Navy sailors all object to being called "soldiers" but there is no other
traditional generic term for an unknown military person. When the branch
of the service is known the writer would do better to refer to an
individual by the appropriate branch label. "Troops" is more justifiable
when referring to a mixed group--say, of Marines and Army personnel:
"the President ordered 15,000 more troops into the region."
TRUSTEE/TRUSTY
A member of an organizational board is a trustee; a trusted convict is a
trusty.
TRY AND/TRY TO
Although "try and" is common in colloquial speech and will usually pass
unremarked there, in writing try to remember to use "try to" instead of
"try and."
TWO TO TANGLE/TWO TO TANGO
A 1952 song popularized the phrase "it takes two to tango"; and it was
quickly applied to everything that required two parties, from romance to
fighting. Later, people baffled by hearing the phrase used of conflicts
imagined that the proper word must be "tangle." Perhaps if they had
thought of the fierce choreography of Parisian apache dancing they would
not have been so confused. "It takes two to tangle" will seem the normal
phrase to some people, a clever variation to a few, and an embarrassing
mistake to many people you might want to impress.
TURN INTO/TURN IN TO
Probably out of simple absentmindedness, an amazing number of Web pages
of educational institutions call for people to fill out a form and "turn
it into" some office or official. "Turn into" means "transform into."
Your fairy godmother can turn a pumpkin into a coach.
The way to instruct someone to submit a document is "turn in to," with a
space between the "in" and the "to": "turn your application in to the
registrar."
Once you have your coach, you can turn into a driveway; but you cannot
turn a form into a registrar unless you have very advanced origami
skills.
TUSSLED/TOUSLED
Even if your hair gets messed up in a tussle with a friend, it gets
tousled, not tussled.
UFO
"UFO" stands for "Unidentified Flying Object," so if you're sure that
silvery disk is an alien spacecraft, there's no point in calling it a
"UFO." I love the sign I once saw in a Seattle bookstore labeling the
alien-invasion section: "Incorrectly Identified Flying Objects."
UGLY AMERICAN
The term "ugly American"--used to describe boorish people from the US
insensitive to those in other countries--bothers fans of the 1958 novel
The Ugly American, whose title character was actually sensitive and
thoughtful--he just looked ugly. The popularizers of this phrase hadn't
read the book, and judged its message too quickly by its title.
THE UKRAINE/UKRAINE
Some country names are preceded by an article--like "The United States"
and "La France"--but most are not. Sometimes it depends on what language
you are speaking: in English we call the latter country simply "France"
and "La Republica Argentina" is just "Argentina" although in the
nineteenth century the British often referred to it as "The Argentine."
When the region formerly known as "The Ukraine" split off from the old
Soviet Union, it declared its preference for dropping the article, and
the country is now properly called simply "Ukraine."
UNCHARTERED/UNCHARTED
"Unchartered" means "lacking a charter," and is a word most people have
little use for. "Uncharted" means "unmapped" or "unexplored," so the
expression meaning "to explore a new subject or area" is "enter
uncharted territory." Similarly, it's uncharted regions, waters, and
paths.
UNCONSCIENCE/UNCONSCIOUS
Do people confuse the unconscious with conscience because the stuff
fermenting in one's unconscious is often stuff that bothers one's
conscience? Whatever the cause, there is no such word as "unconscience."
And while we're on the subject, "subconscious" is not used in Freudian
psychology; it implies something that is merely not consciously thought
of, rather than something that is suppressed. The term is, however, used
by Jungians.
UNDER THE GUISE THAT/UNDER THE GUISE OF
Phishing e-mails try to extract valuable information from you so they
can rob you under the guise of protecting your online security. They are
disguising their theft as protection. There are other related phrases,
mostly ending in "that," such as "under the pretext that" and "with the
excuse that"; but "under the guise" requires "of," usually followed by a
gerund ending in "-ing."
UNDER WEIGH/UNDER WAY
The original expression for getting a boat moving has nothing to do with
weighing anchor and is "getting under way," but so many sophisticated
writers get this wrong that you're not likely to get into trouble if you
imitate them.
When "underway" is used elsewhere as an adjective or adverb, by far the
most common spelling is as a single word, as in "our plans are
underway"; though some authorities argue that the adverbial form should
be spelled as two words: "under way."
UNDERESTIMATED
Enthusiastic sportscasters often say of a surprisingly talented team
that "they cannot be underestimated" when what they mean is "they should
not be underestimated."
UNDERLINING/UNDERLYING
You can stress points by underlining them, but it's "underlying" in
expressions like "underlying story," "underlying motive," and
"underlying principle."
UNDERMIND/UNDERMINED
Some people believe in a mystical overmind, but not even they believe in
an "undermind." The word is "undermined." If you dig under a castle wall
to prepare to breach its defenses, you are undermining it, digging a
mine under it. The metaphor applies to all sorts of weakening of
opposing positions, most often in arguments.
UNDO/UNDUE
The verb "undo" is the opposite of "do." You undo your typing errors on
a computer or undo your shoelaces to go wading.
The adjective "undue" is the opposite of "due" and means "unwarranted"
or "improper." It is used in phrases like "undue influence," "undue
burdens," and "undue expense."
UNDOUBTABLY/UNDOUBTEDLY
Doubtless the spelling of "presumably" influences the misspelling
"undoubtably." The word is "undoubtedly." When something is undoubtedly
true, it is undoubted.
UNKEPT/UNKEMPT
"Unkempt" is an old version of "uncombed." The standard expression for a
sloppy-looking person is not "unkept," but "unkempt."
UNLIKE
When you're linking two phrases with "unlike" you need to keep them in
grammatically parallel forms: "Unlike Cecile, Gareth likes persimmons."
This sentence parallels two people: Cecile and Gareth. But "unlike at
home, my boss won't let me wear sandals" is incorrect because "at home"
and "my boss" aren't grammatically parallel. You'd have to change this
to "at home" and "at work" or something similar.
UNPLEASED/DISPLEASED
"Unpleased" is considered archaic; the standard modern word for your
reaction to something you don't like is "displeased.""
However "unpleasing" is still current to describe something that fails
to please: "the arrangement of 'Silent Night' for truck air horns was
unpleasing." But "displeasing" is more common.
UNREST
Journalists often use this mild term to describe all manner of civil
disorders, but it's silly to call mayhem or chaos merely "unrest" when
there are bullets flying about and bodies lying in the streets.
UNTHAW/THAW
"Unthaw" is another illogical negative. Use "thaw."
UNTRACKED/ON TRACK
When things begin running smoothly and successfully, they get "on
track." Some people oddly substitute "untracked" for this expression,
perhaps thinking that to be "tracked" is to be stuck in a rut.
UPMOST/UTMOST
"Upmost" can mean "uppermost," referring to something on top. But
usually this word is a mistake for "utmost," meaning "most extreme."
"Utmost" is related to words like "utter," as in "The birthday party was
utter chaos."
UPTO/UP TO
Not upto alot lately? You might use some of your spare time memorizing
the fact that "up to" is a two-word phrase, as is "a lot."
URINE ANALYSIS/URINALYSIS
The technical term for the test you use to kick the druggies off the
team is not "urine analysis" but "urinalysis."
US/WE
"We" is a subject form, "us" an object. We do things; things are done to
or for us.
If this doesn't help, you can try a couple of simple tests. If you are
clear about the difference between "I" and "me," try making your
sentence singular. "We" becomes "I" in the singular and "us" becomes
"me."
"Our mothers and us are going shopping" becomes "my mother and me are
going shopping"--which is wrong. So the sentences should read "My mother
and I are going shopping" and "Our mothers and we are going shopping."
But if that doesn't seem obvious, try eliminating everything but the
pronoun and the verb: "Us are going shopping" should be "we are going
shopping."
Test a sentence like "us girls have sold more calendars than the guys"
by reducing it to "us have sold." This sounds wrong. It should be "We
girls have sold."
But "they gave us girls the prize" is correct because "they gave us the
prize" is also correct.
USE/USAGE
"Use" and "usage" overlap somewhat, but they are not entirely
synonymous. Many people treat "usage" as if it were just a fancier form
of "use" in phrases like "make usage of," where "make use of" is the
standard expression. As a rule of thumb, if either "use" or "usage"
seems appropriate, go with "use."
USE TO/USED TO
Because the D and the T are blended into a single consonant when this
phrase is pronounced, many writers are unaware that the D is even
present and omit it in writing. See also "suppose to."
USED TO COULD/USED TO BE ABLE
"I used to could lift a hay-bale with my teeth," says Jeb, meaning "I
used to be able to."
UTILIZE/USE
The best use for "utilize" is to mean "make use of": "Ryan utilized his
laptop in the library mainly as a pillow to rest his head on." In most
contexts, "use" is simpler and clearer. Many readers consider "utilize"
pretentious.
VAGUE REFERENCE
Vague reference is a common problem in sentences where "this," "it,"
"which" or other such words don't refer back to any one specific word or
phrase, but a whole situation. "I hitchhiked back to town, got picked up
by an alien spacecraft and was subjected to humiliating medical
experiments, which is why I didn't get my paper done on time." In
conversation this sort of thing goes unnoticed, but more care needs to
be taken in writing. There are lots of ways to reorganize this sentence
to avoid the vague reference. You could begin the sentence with
"because" and replace "which is why" with "so," for instance.
Sometimes the referent is only understood and not directly expressed at
all: "Changing your oil regularly is important, which is one reason your
engine burned up." The "which" refers to an implied failure to change
oil regularly, but doesn't actually refer back to any of the specific
words used earlier in the sentence.
Sometimes there is no logical referent: "In the book it says that
Shakespeare was in love with some 'dark lady'." This is a casual way of
using "it" that is not acceptable in formal written English. Write
instead "Arthur O. Williams says in The Sonnets that Shakespeare. . . ."
A reference may be ambiguous because it's not clear which of two
referents is meant: "Most women are attracted to guys with a good sense
of humor unless they are into practical jokes." Does "they" refer to
"women" or "guys"? It would be clearer if the sentence said "Most women
are attracted to guys with a good sense of humor, though not usually to
practical jokers."
VAIN/VANE/VEIN
When you have vanity you are conceited: you are vain. "You're so vain
you probably think this song is about you." This spelling can also mean
"futile," as in "All my love's in vain" (fruitless). Note that when
Ecclesiastes says that "all is vanity" it doesn't mean that everything
is conceited, but that everything is pointless.
A vane is a blade designed to move or be moved by gases or liquid, like
a weathervane.
A vein is a slender thread of something, like blood in a body or gold in
a mine. It can also be a line of thought, as in "After describing his
dog's habit of chewing on the sofa, Carlos went on in the same vein for
several minutes."
VALANCE/VALENCE
A decorative hanging cloth is a valance. Unless you are a chemist or
someone else dealing with the technical aspects of combining things
you're unlikely to have a need for the word "valence."
VAPID/VACUOUS
"Vapid" is used to describe something flavorless, weak, flat. Many
people confuse this word with "vacuous," which describes things which
are unintelligent, lacking serious content. A boring speech may be vapid
even though it's learned, and a lively speech may be vacuous even though
it's exciting. A dull person may be vapid, but it is not standard usage
to refer to a person as vacuous--only their speech, thoughts, etc., can
be so described. To avoid the most common error involving these words,
just remember that something vapid isn't stupid, it's bland.
VARIOUS/SEVERAL
Many people say "she heard from various of the committee members that
they wanted to cancel the next meeting." "Several of the committee
members" would be better.
VARY/VERY
"Vary" means "to change." Don't substitute it for "very" in phrases like
"very nice" or "very happy."
VEIL OF TEARS/VALE OF TEARS
The expression "vale of tears" goes back to pious sentiments that
consider life on earth to be a series of sorrows to be left behind when
we go on to a better world in Heaven. It conjures up an image of a
suffering traveler laboring through a valley ("vale") of troubles and
sorrow. "Veil of tears" is poetic sounding, but it's a mistake.
VENDOR
Some writers are turning "vendor" into a verb meaning "to sell," writing
things like, "he was vendoring comic books on eBay." Since "vend" is
already a verb meaning "sell" and "vendor" is normally a noun, this
sounds very odd to many readers.
Other people use forms of the word to mean "to be certified as a
vendor": "Persons wishing to be vendored must complete the appropriate
form." This process is also referred to as "vendorization."
This pattern is probably inspired by the widespread use of "vendor" to
label suppliers on commercial Web sites. Instead of thinking of vendors
as mere merchants, dealers, or sellers, some special quality is being
attributed to them.
None of this is standard English.
VERB TENSE
If the situation being described is an ongoing or current one, the
present tense is needed, even in a past-tense context: "Last week she
admitted that she is really a brunette" (not "was").
Pairs of verbs that go together logically have to be kept in the same
tense. Incorrect: "Patricia described her trip to China and writes that
the Great Wall really impressed her." Since "described" is in the past
tense, and the writing contains her descriptions, "writes" should be
"wrote."
Lots of people get into trouble with sentences that describe a
hypothetical situation in the past: "If he would have packed his own
suitcase, he would have noticed that the cat was in it." That first
"would have" should be a simple "had": "If he had packed his own
suitcase he would have noticed that the cat was in it." Also "The game
would have been more fun if we had [not "would have"] won." This sort of
construction consists of two parts: a hypothetical cause in the past and
its logical effect. The hypothetical cause needs to be put into the past
tense: "had." Only the effect is made conditional: "would have." Note
that in the second example above the effect is referred to before the
cause.
Students summarizing the plot of a play, movie, or novel are often
unfamiliar with the tradition of doing so in the present tense: "Hester
embroiders an " A" on her dress." Think of the events in a piece of
fiction as happening whenever you read them--they exist in an eternal
present even if they are narrated in the past tense. Even those who are
familiar with this pattern get tripped up when they begin to discuss the
historical or biographical context of a work, properly using the past
tense, and forget to shift back to the present when they return to plot
summary. Here's how it's done correctly: "Mark Twain's days on the
Mississippi were long past when he wrote Huckleberry Finn, but Huck's
love for life on the river clearly reflects his youthful experience as a
steamboat pilot." The verb "reflects" is in the present tense. Often the
author's activity in writing is rendered in the present tense as well:
"Twain depicts Pap as a disgusting drunk." What about when you are
comparing events that occur at two different times in the same
narrative? You still have to stick to the present: "Tom puts Jim through
a lot of unnecessary misery before telling him that he is free." Just
remember when you go from English to your history class that you have to
shift back to the past tense for narrating historical events: "Napoleon
lost the battle of Waterloo."
VERBAGE/VERBIAGE
"Verbiage" is an insulting term usually meant to disparage needlessly
wordy prose. Don't use it to mean simply "wording." There is no such
word as "verbage."
VERACIOUS/VORACIOUS
If you are extremely hungry, you may have a "voracious" appetite (think
of the O as an open mouth, ready to devour anything). "Veracious" is an
unusual word meaning "truthful, honest" (think about the E in "verify").
A truthful person has "veracity." "Voracity," meaning "extreme appetite"
is a rare word you are unlikely to have a use for; "voraciousness" is
more common.
VERSE/PLAY AGAINST
Some young people use "verse" as a verb meaning "to play against," as in
"I'll verse you at basketball after school." Computer gamers are
particularly fond of virtual opponents versing each other. Presumably
this bit of slang derives from the word "versus," but it's not standard
English and is likely to confuse outsiders.
VERSES/VERSUS
The "vs." in a law case like "Brown vs. The Board of Education" stands
for Latin versus (meaning "against"). Don't confuse it with the word for
lines of poetry--"verses"--when describing other conflicts, like the
upcoming football game featuring Oakesdale versus Pinewood.
Note that in formal legal contexts the abbreviation is usually just
"v.", as in "Brown v. The Board of Education."
VERY SORT OF, VERY KIND OF
"He's very sort of buffed." Wha . . ? He can't be very buffed and only
sort of buffed at the same time. It's an error to follow the phrase
"very sort of" with an adjective (a quality, such as "rich," "happy,"
"conscientious").
It's all right to say "very sort of" when "very" means "exact, precise,"
and the phrase is followed by an noun (a thing or person): "the very
sort of pastry I can't resist," "the very sort of boss I can't stand."
Less common is the equally confused expression "very kind of" as in
"he's very kind of charming when he's trying to impress women."
Of course "very kind of" is fine in appreciative comments where "kind"
is an adjective meaning "generous," "helpful," like "it was very kind of
you to shovel Mrs. Mukherjee's front walk."
VERY UNIQUE/UNIQUE
"Unique" singles out one of a kind. That "un" at the beginning is a form
of "one." A thing is unique (the only one of its kind) or it is not.
Something may be almost unique (there are very few like it), but nothing
is "very unique."
VICE-LIKE/VISE-LIKE
In the US and Canada the clamp fastened to a workbench is a vise, but a
vice is a moral flaw or bad habit. So in North America a person with an
overly firm handshake has a vise-like grip. Writing of a "vice-like"
grip invites racy jokes at your expense.
However "vice" is the spelling of both words in UK English, and the
Oxford English Dictionary defines "vice-like" as "firmly tenacious or
compressive."
VICIOUS/VISCOUS CIRCLE/CYCLE
The term "vicious circle" was invented by logicians to describe a form
of fallacious circular argument in which each term of the argument draws
on the other: "Democracy is the best form of government because
democratic elections produce the best governments." The phrase has been
extended in popular usage to all kinds of self-exacerbating processes
such as this: poor people often find themselves borrowing money to pay
off their debts, but in the process create even more onerous debts which
in their turn will need to be financed by further borrowing. Sensing
vaguely that such destructive spirals are not closed loops, people have
transmuted "vicious circle" into "vicious cycle." The problem with this
perfectly logical change is that a lot of people know what the original
"correct" phrase was and are likely to scorn users of the new one. They
go beyond scorn to contempt however toward those poor souls who render
the phrase as "viscous cycle." Don't use this expression unless you are
discussing a Harley-Davidson in dire need of an oil change.
VIDEO/FILM
Many of us can remember when portable transistorized radios were
ignorantly called "transistors." We have a tendency to abbreviate the
names of various sorts of electronic technology (see "stereo" and
"satellite"), often in the process confusing the medium with the
content. Video is the electronic reproduction of images, and applies to
broadcast and cable television, prerecorded videocassette recordings
(made on a videocassette recorder, or VCR), and related technologies.
MTV appropriated this broad term for a very narrow meaning: "videotaped
productions of visual material meant to accompany popular music
recordings." This is now what most people mean when they speak of "a
video," unless they are "renting a video," in which case they mean a
videocassette or DVD recording of a film. One also hears people
referring to theatrical films that they happened to have viewed in
videotaped reproduction as "videos." This is simply wrong. A film is a
film (or movie), whether it is projected on a screen from 35 or 70 mm
film or broadcast via the NTSC, SECAM or PAL standard. Orson Welles'
"Citizen Kane" is not now and never will be a "video."
VINEGARETTE/VINAIGRETTE
Naive diners and restaurant workers alike commonly mispronounce the
classic French dressing called "vinaigrette" as if it were
"vinegarette." To be more sophisticated, say "vin-uh-GRETT" (the first
syllable rhymes with "seen").
VINTAGE POINT/VANTAGE POINT
The spot from which you have a good view is a vantage point.
VIOLA/VOILA
A "viola" is a flower or a musical instrument. The expression which
means "behold!" is "voila." It comes from a French expression literally
meaning "look there!" In French it is spelled with a grave accent over
the A, as voila, but when it was adopted into English, it lost its
accent. Such barbarous misspellings as "vwala" are even worse, caused by
the reluctance of English speakers to believe that OI can represent the
sound "wah," as it usually does in French.
"Wallah" is a Hindi word for a worker, and "Walla" is half of the name
of the Washington State city of Walla Walla.
VIRII/VIRUSES
Hackers like to use "virii" as the plural form of "virus," but Latin
scholars object that this invented term does not follow standard
patterns in that language, and that there is already a perfectly good
plural in English: "viruses."
VICHYSSOISE
Waiters in restaurants offering this potato-leek cream soup often
mispronounce it "vish-ee-SWAH" in a mistaken attempt to sound
authentically French. Setting aside the fact that this soup was invented
in New York, French final consonants are not silent when they are
followed by an E. The correct pronunciation is "vee-shee-SWAHZ.
VISUALLY IMPAIRED/BLIND
Many people mistakenly suppose that "visually impaired" is a more polite
term than "blind." But the distinction between these two is simpler: a
person without eyesight is blind; a person with vision problems stopping
short of total or legal blindness is visually impaired.
VITAE/VITA
Unless you are going to claim credit for accomplishments in previous
incarnations, you should refer to your "vita," not your "vitae." All
kidding aside, the "ae" in "vitae" supposedly indicates the genitive
rather than the plural, but the derivation of "vita" from "curriculum
vitae" is purely speculative (see the Oxford English Dictionary), and
"vitae" on its own makes no sense grammatically.
"Resume," by the way, is a French word with both "Es" accented, and
literally means "summary." In English one often sees it without the
accents, or with only the second accent, neither of which is a serious
error. But if you're trying to show how multilingual you are, remember
the first accent.
VOLUMN/VOLUME
There are a few unusual words in English when ending in "MN" in which
the "N" is silent, such as "hymn" and "column," but "volume" is not one
of them.
VOLUMPTUOUS/VOLUPTUOUS
Given the current mania for slim, taut bodies, it is understandable--if
amusing--that some folks should confuse voluptuousness with lumpiness.
In fact, "voluptuous" is derived from Latin "voluptas," which refers to
sensual pleasure and not to shape at all. A voluptuous body is a
luxurious body.
WAIL/WHALE
One informal meaning of "whale" is "to beat." Huck Finn says of Pap that
"He used to always whale me when he was sober."
Although the vocalist in a band may wail a song, the drummer whales on
the drums; and lead guitarists when they thrash their instruments wildly
whale on them.
Although this usage dates back to the 18th century and used to be common
in Britain and America, it is now confined mostly to the US, and even
there people often mistakenly use "wail" for this meaning.
WAIT ON/WAIT FOR
In some dialects it's common to say that you're waiting on people or
events when in standard English we would say you're waiting for them.
Waiters wait on people, so it's all right to say "I'm tired of waiting
on you hand and foot," but you shouldn't say "I'm waiting on you down
here at the police station; bring the bail money so I can come home."
WAKE
In the US the reception following a funeral is now often called a "wake"
although traditionally that term was applied to the period of staying up
at night watching over the dead body before the funeral. Since
historically "wake" has been used in many broad senses involving
celebration--not always necessarily at night--it's not surprising to
find it being extended even further in this way. But if you want to
sound more sophisticated, use the term "reception" for the gathering
after a funeral.
Urban legend has it that the term has some connection with the
possibility that the deceased might "wake up." To the contrary, it's the
mourners who do the waking at a wake, not the corpse.
WALK THE TALK/WALK THE WALK
Aristotle's followers are said to have discussed philosophy while
walking about with him--hence their name: "peripatetics." I suppose they
could have been said to "walk the talk."
For the rest of us, the saying is "if you're going to talk the talk,
you've got to walk the walk"--a modern version of old sayings like
"actions speak louder than words" and "practice what you preach."
Another early form of the expression was "walk it like you talk it."
Many people now condense this to "walk the talk," which makes a sort of
sense (act on your speech), but strikes those who are more familiar with
the original form as confused.
WANDER/WONDER
If you idly travel around, you wander. If you realize you're lost, you
wonder where you are.
WANT THAT . . . SHOULD/WANT . . . TO
When someone wants someone else to do something, the expression is not
"she wants that you should do it" but "she wants you to do it."
Similarly, it's "I want you to do it," "we want you to do it," etc.
WARMONGERER/WARMONGER
"Monger" is a very old word for "dealer." An ironmonger sells metal or
hardware, and a fishmonger sells fish. Warmongers do not literally sell
wars, but they advocate and promote them. For some reason lots of people
tack an unneeded extra "-er" onto the end of this word. Why would you
say "mongerer" when you don't say "dealerer"?
WARY/WEARY/LEERY
People sometimes write "weary" (tired) when they mean "wary" (cautious)
which is a close synonym with "leery" which in the psychedelic era was
often misspelled "leary"; but since Timothy Leary faded from public
consciousness, the correct spelling has prevailed.
WARRANTEE/WARRANTY
Confused by the spelling of "guarantee," people often misspell the
related word "warrantee" rather than the correct "warranty." "Warrantee"
is a rare legal term that means "the person to whom a warrant is made."
Although "guarantee" can be a verb ("we guarantee your satisfaction"),
"warranty" is not. The rarely used verb form is "to warrant."
WAS/WERE
In phrases beginning with "there" many people overlook the need to
choose a plural or singular form of the verb "to be" depending on what
follows. "There were several good-looking guys at the party" [plural];
"unfortunately one of them was my husband" [singular].
WASH
In my mother's Oklahoma dialect, "wash" was pronounced "warsh," and I
was embarrassed to discover in school that the inclusion of the
superfluous "R" sound was considered ignorant. This has made me all the
more sensitive now that I live in Washington to the mispronunciation
"Warshington." Some people tell you that after you "warsh" you should
"wrench" ("rinse").
WAVER/WAIVER
Wave bye-bye. Ride the wave. Do the wave. We all know what a wave is,
right? The verb "waive," whose root meaning is "abandon," is less
familiar. When you give up a legal right, you waive it; and the document
you sign to do so is called not a "waver" but a "waiver."
WAX
An unusual use of the word "wax" is "to change manner of speaking," as
in "she waxed eloquent on the charms of New Jersey" or "he waxed poetic
on virtues of tube amplifiers." These expressions mean that she became
eloquent and he became poetic. It is an error to say instead "she waxed
eloquently" or " he waxed poetically."
WAY/FAR, MUCH MORE
Young people frequently use phrases like "way better" to mean "far
better" or "very much better." In formal writing, it would be gauche to
say that Impressionism is "way more popular" than Cubism instead of
"much more popular."
WAYS/WAY
In some dialects it's common to say "you've got a ways to go before
you've saved enough to buy a Miata," but in standard English it's "a way
to go."
WEAK/WEEK
People often absentmindedly write "last weak" or "next weak." Less often
they write "I feel week." These mistakes will not be caught by a
spelling checker.
"Weak" is the opposite of "strong." A week is made up of seven days.
WEATHER/WETHER/WHETHER
The climate is made up of "weather"; whether it is nice out depends on
whether it is raining or not. A wether is just a castrated sheep. Such a
sheep wearing a bell is a "bellwether," and that's the correct spelling
for the same word when it means "an indicator of change."
WEINER/WIENER
The Vienna sausage from the city the Austrians call Wien inspired the
American hot dog, or wiener. Americans aren't used to the European
pronunciation of IE as "ee" and often misspell the word as "weiner."
WENCH/WINCH
"Wench" began as a general term for a girl or woman, and over the
centuries acquired a variety of meanings, including female servant,
lower-class female, and prostitute. It is mostly used today as a
jokingly affectionate archaic allusion to Shakespearean ribaldry.
The hoisting or hauling mechanism attached to a tow truck is a winch
(and it's not on a "toe truck").
If a woman can lift your car, she's not a wench--she's an Amazon!
WENSDAY/WEDNESDAY
Wednesday was named after the Germanic god "Woden" (or "Wotan"). Almost
no one pronounces this word's middle syllable distinctly, but it's
important to remember the correct spelling in writing.
WENT/GONE
The past participle of "go" is "gone" so it's not "I should have went to
the party" but "I should have gone to the party."
WE'RE/WERE
"We're" is a contraction of the phrase "we are": the apostrophe stands
for the omitted letter A. "Were" is simply a plural past-tense form of
the verb "are." To talk about something happening now or in the future,
use "we're," but to talk about something in the past, use "were." If you
can't substitute "we are" for the word you've written, omit the
apostrophe.
"We were going to go to the party as a prince and princess, but Derek
cut himself shaving, so we're going instead as a vampire and her
victim."
WERE/WHERE
Sloppy typists frequently leave the "H" out of "where." Spelling
checkers do not catch this sort of error, of course, so look for it as
you proofread.
WET YOUR APPETITE/WHET YOUR APPETITE
It is natural to think that something mouth-watering "wets your
appetite," but actually the expression is "whet your appetite"--sharpen
your appetite, as a whetstone sharpens a knife.
WHACKY/WACKY
Although the original spelling of this word meaning "crazy" was
"whacky," the current dominant spelling is "wacky." If you use the older
form, some readers will think you've made a spelling error.
WHAT/THAT
In some dialects it is common to substitute "what" for "that," as in
"You should dance with him what brought you." This is not standard
usage.
WHEAT/WHOLE WHEAT
Waiters routinely ask "Wheat or white?" when bread is ordered, but the
white bread is also made of wheat. The correct term is "whole wheat," in
which the whole grain, including the bran and germ, has been used to
make the flour. "Whole wheat" does not necessarily imply that no white
flour has been used in the bread; most whole wheat breads incorporate
some white flour.
WHEELBARREL/WHEELBARROW
One very old meaning of the word "barrow" is an open container for
carrying people or goods. The earliest barrows were carried by two
people holding handles on either end. Add a wheel to one end and you
have a wheelbarrow which can be handled by a single person. The word is
also sometimes applied to two-wheeled versions.
The word has nothing to do with barrels.
WHENEVER/WHEN
"Whenever" has two main functions. It can refer to repeated events:
"Whenever I put the baby down for a nap the phone rings and wakes her
up." Or it can refer to events of whose date or time you are uncertain:
"Whenever it was that I first wore my new cashmere sweater, I remember
the baby spit up on it." In some dialects (notably in Northern Ireland
and Texas) it is common to substitute "whenever" for "when" in
statements about specific events occurring only once and whose date is
known: "Whenever we got married, John was so nervous he dropped the ring
down my decolletage." This is nonstandard. If an event is unique and its
date or time known, use "when."
WHERE (AND PREPOSITIONS)
When you are asking about a location someone is coming from you need to
use the preposition "from" with "where": "Where are you coming from?"
But when you are discussing a destination instead of a point of
departure, don't add a preposition. It's not "Where are you going to?"
but "Where are you going?"
Similarly, when asking about the location of a place, "at" should not be
used after "where." It's not "Where is the movie theater at?" but "Where
is the movie theater?"
WHEREABOUTS ARE, WHEREABOUTS IS
Despite the deceptive "S" on the end of the word, "whereabouts" is
normally singular in meaning, not plural, because it means "location."
However, it is commonly used with a plural verb: "Its whereabouts are
unknown." But the Associated Press prefers a singular verb: "Its
whereabouts is unknown." Many authorities disagree, and most will accept
either form. Of course if you were simultaneously referring to two or
more persons having separate whereabouts it would require a plural verb:
"the whereabouts of several members of the team were unknown."
WHERE IT'S AT
This slang expression gained widespread currency in the sixties as a hip
way of stating that the speaker understood the essential truth of a
situation: "I know where it's at." Or more commonly: "You don't know
where it's at." It is still heard from time to time with that meaning,
but the user risks being labeled as a quaint old Boomer. However,
standard usage never accepted the literal sense of the phrase. Don't
say, "I put my purse down and now I don't know where it's at" unless you
want to be regarded as uneducated. "Where it is" will do fine; the "at"
is redundant.
WHEREFORE
When Juliet says "Wherefore art thou Romeo?" she means "Why do you have
to be Romeo--why couldn't you have a name belonging to some family my
folks are friendly with?" She is not asking where Romeo is. So if you
misuse the word in sentences like "Wherefore art thou, Stevie Wonder?"
(you wish he'd make another great album like he used to), you make
yourself sound illiterate rather than sophisticated.
WHETHER/WHETHER OR NOT
"Whether" works fine on its own in most contexts: "I wonder whether I
forgot to turn off the stove?" But when you mean "regardless of whether"
it has to be followed by "or not" somewhere in the sentence: "We need to
leave for the airport in five minutes whether you've found your teddy
bear or not."
See also "if/whether."
WHILST/WHILE
Although "whilst" is a perfectly good traditional synonym of "while," in
American usage it is considered pretentious and old-fashioned.
WHIM AND A PRAYER
A 1943 hit song depicted a bomber pilot just barely managing to bring
his shot-up plane back to base, "comin' in on a wing and a prayer"
(lyrics by Harold Adamson, music by Jimmy McHugh). Some people who don't
get the allusion mangle this expression as "a whim and a prayer."
Whimsicality and fervent prayerfulness don't go together.
WHIMP/WIMP
The original and still by far the most common spelling of this common
bit of slang meaning "weakling, coward," is "wimp." If you use the much
less common "whimp" instead people may regard you as a little wimpy.
WHO/THAT
There are many instances in which the most conservative usage is to
refer to a person using "that": "All the politicians that were at the
party later denied even knowing the host" is actually somewhat more
traditional than the more popular "politicians who." An aversion to
"that" referring to human beings as somehow diminishing their humanity
may be praiseworthily sensitive, but it cannot claim the authority of
tradition. In some sentences, "that" is clearly preferable to "who":
"She is the only person I know of that prefers whipped cream on her
granola." In the following example, to exchange "that" for "who" would
be awkward: "Who was it that said, 'A woman without a man is like a fish
without a bicycle'?"*
*Commonly attributed to Gloria Steinem, but she attributes it to Irina
Dunn. Return to list of errors
WHOA IS ME/WOE IS ME
"Whoa" is what you tell a horse to get it to stop, extended in casual
speech to an interjection meant to make someone pause to think in the
middle of a conversation--sometimes misspelled "woah." The standard
woeful lament is "Woe is me."
WHIP CREAM/WHIPPED CREAM
You whip cream until it becomes whipped cream; and that's what you
should write on the menu.
WHISKY/WHISKEY
Scots prefer the spelling "whisky"; Americans follow instead the Irish
spelling, so Kentucky bourbon is "whiskey."
WHO'S/WHOSE
This is one of those cases where it is important to remember that
possessive pronouns never take apostrophes, even though possessive nouns
do (see it's/its). "Who's" always and forever means only "who is," as in
"Who's that guy with the droopy mustache?" or "who has," as in "Who's
been eating my porridge?" "Whose" is the possessive form of "who" and is
used as follows: "Whose dirty socks are these on the breakfast table?"
WHO/WHOM
"Whom" has been dying an agonizing death for decades--you'll notice
there are no Whoms in Dr. Seuss's Whoville. Many people never use the
word in speech at all. However, in formal writing, critical readers
still expect it to be used when appropriate. The distinction between
"who" and "whom" is basically simple: "who" is the subject form of this
pronoun and "whom" is the object form. "Who was wearing that awful dress
at the Academy Awards banquet?" is correct because "who" is the subject
of the sentence. "The MC was so startled by the neckline that he forgot
to whom he was supposed to give the Oscar" is correct because "whom" is
the object of the preposition "to." So far so good.
Now consider this sort of question: "Who are you staring at?" Although
strictly speaking the pronoun should be "whom," nobody who wants to be
taken seriously would use it in this case, though it is the object of
the preposition "at". (Bothered by ending the sentence with a
preposition? See my "Non-Errors" section.) "Whom" is very rarely used
even by careful speakers as the first word in a question, and many
authorities have now conceded the point.
There is another sort of question in which "whom" appears later in the
sentence: "I wonder whom he bribed to get the contract?" Here an old
gender-biased but effective test for "whom" can be used. Try rewriting
the sentence using "he" or "him." Clearly "He bribed he" is incorrect;
you would say "he bribed him." Where "him" is the proper word in the
paraphrased sentence, use "whom."
Instances in which the direct object appears at the beginning of a
sentence are tricky because we are used to having subjects in that
position and are strongly tempted to use "who": "Whomever Susan admired
most was likely to get the job." (Test: "She admired him." Right?)
Where things get really messy is in statements in which the object or
subject status of the pronoun is not immediately obvious. Example: "The
police gave tickets to whoever had parked in front of the fire hydrant."
The object of the preposition "to" is the entire noun clause, "whoever
had parked in front of the fire hydrant," but "whoever" is the subject
of that clause, the subject of the verb "had parked." Here's a case
where the temptation to use "whomever" should be resisted.
Confused? Just try the "he or him" test, and if it's still not clear, go
with "who." You'll bother fewer people and have a fair chance of being
right.
WHOLE-HARDILY/WHOLEHEARTEDLY
If you want to convey your hearty congratulations to someone, you do so
not "whole-hardily" but "wholeheartedly"--with your whole heart.
A WHOLE 'NOTHER/A COMPLETELY DIFFERENT
It is one thing to use the expression "a whole 'nother" as a consciously
slangy phrase suggesting rustic charm and a completely different matter
to use it mistakenly. The "A" at the beginning of the phrase is the
common article "a" but is here treated as if it were simultaneously the
first letter of "another," interrupted by "whole."
WHOSE-EVER/WHOEVER'S
In speech people sometimes try to treat the word "whoever" as two words
when it's used in the possessive form: "Whose-ever delicious plums those
were in the refrigerator, I ate them." Occasionally it's even misspelled
as "whoseever." The standard form is "whoever's," as in "Whoever's plums
those were. . . ."
WHOSE
Some insist that "whose" can only refer to people, but it is perfectly
standard to say "the organization whose members met yesterday," "an
environment whose climate is changing," or "rooms whose walls need
painting." To substitute "of which" in such phrases is usually awkward
and unnaturally formal: "the rooms the walls of which need painting."
WILE AWAY/WHILE AWAY
"Waiting for my physical at the doctor's office, I whiled away the time
reading the dessert recipes in an old copy of Gourmet magazine." The
expression "while away the time" is the only surviving context for a
very old use of "while" as a verb meaning "to spend time." Many people
substitute "wile," but to wile people is to lure or trick them into
doing something--quite different from simply idling away the time. Even
though dictionaries accept "wile away" as an alternative, it makes more
sense to stick with the original expression.
-WISE
In political and business jargon it is common to append "-wise" to nouns
to create novel adverbs: "Revenue-wise, last quarter was a disaster."
Critics of language are united in objecting to this pattern, and it is
often used in fiction to satirize less than eloquent speakers.
WIT/WHIT
If you still have all your wits about you, could it be said that your
mental powers have diminished "not a wit"? No, for the traditional
expression is "not a whit." "Whit" is an old word meaning "bit,"
surviving only in this and similar expressions like "not one whit."
WITHIN/AMONG
"Within" means literally "inside of," but when you want to compare
similarities or differences between things you may need "among" instead.
It's not "There are some entertaining movies within the current
releases," but "among the current releases." But you can use "within" by
rewriting the sentence to lump the movies together into a single entity:
"There are some entertaining movies within the current batch of
releases." A batch is a single thing, and the individual films that make
it up are within it.
WOMAN/WOMEN
The singular "woman" probably gets mixed up with the plural "women"
because although both are spelled with an O in the first syllable, only
the pronunciation of the O really differentiates them. Just remember
that this word is treated no differently than "man" (one person) and
"men" (more than one person). A woman is a woman--never a women.
WONT/WON'T
People often leave the apostrophe out of "won't," meaning "will not."
"Wont" is a completely different and rarely used word meaning "habitual
custom." Perhaps people are reluctant to believe this is a contraction
because it doesn't make obvious sense like "cannot" being contracted to
"can't." The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that "won't" is a
contraction of a nonstandard form: "woll not."
Quite a few confused folks substitute "want" for "wont," leading to
mangled expressions such as "such is my want."
WORLD WIDE WEB
"World Wide Web" is a name thatsome of us feel needs to be capitalized,
like "Internet." It is made up of Web pages and Web sites (or, less
formally, Websites).
WORSE COMES TO WORSE/WORST COMES TO WORST
The traditional idiom is "if worst comes to worst." The modern variation
"worse comes to worst" is a little more logical. "Worse comes to worse"
is just a mistake.
WORSER/WORSE
If you look "worser" up in a dictionary, you're likely to find it
labeled "archaic," which means that although Shakespeare and many other
writers once used it, the word is no longer a part of standard English.
Just use "worse" instead: "It just keeps getting worse and worse."
WORKING PROGRESS/WORK IN PROGRESS
If your project isn't finished yet, it's not a "working progress" but a
"work in progress."
WOULD HAVE/HAD
People are often confused about how to discuss something that didn't
happen in the past. It's standard usage to say "If I had remembered
where I parked the car, I would have gotten home sooner." Notice that in
the part of the sentence containing "if" the helping verb is "had" but
in the other part of the sentence, which depends logically on the first,
the verb "gotten" is preceded by "would have."
The same pattern applies when the "if" is in a later part of the
sentence: "I would have gotten home sooner if I had remembered where I
parked the car." Plain old "had" stays with the "if" clause (the second
one) and "would have" goes in the other clause (the first one).
The problem is that people used to thinking of "would have" as marking
non-events in the past often replace a correct "had" with an incorrect
"would have": "If I would have remembered where I parked the car. . . ."
This is nonstandard.
Even worse, the same mistake is made in sentences where no "if" is
involved: "The robber wished he would have given the bank clerk a fake
ID when she asked for one." This should be "The robber wished he had
given."
One reminder of the correct pattern is that "had" all by itself can
replace "if . . had": "Had I remembered where I parked the car. . . .
"Would have" clearly can't be used in this way, so you need to stick
with plain old "had."
WOULD HAVE LIKED TO HAVE/WOULD HAVE LIKED
"She would liked to have had another glass of champagne" should be "she
would have liked to have another glass. . . ."
WRANGLE/WANGLE
If you deviously manage to obtain something you wangle it: "I wangled an
invitation to Jessica's party by hinting that I would be inviting her to
our house on the lake this summer." But if you argue with someone, you
wrangle with them: "Once I got to the party, Jessica's attitude
irritated me so much that we wound up wrangling constantly during it."
Of course cowboys wrangle cattle, and specialists wrangle other animal
species in films.
WRAPPED/RAPT
When you get deeply involved in a project, you may say you're wrapped up
in it; but if you are entranced or enraptured by something you are
"rapt," not "wrapped." The word means "carried away" and is used in
expressions like "listening with rapt attention," "rapt expression," and
"rapt in conversation."
WREATH/WREATHS/WREATHE/WREATHES
One circle of greens is a wreath (rhymes with "teeth"). The plural is
"wreaths" (rhymes with "heaths"). In both cases the TH is unvoiced (like
the TH in "both").
To decorate something with wreaths is to wreathe it (rhymes with
"breathe" with a voiced TH like the one at the end of "bathe"). He or
she wreathes it (also with a voiced TH).
WRECKLESS/RECKLESS
This word has nothing to do with creating the potential for a wreck.
Rather it involves not reckoning carefully all the hazards involved in
an action. The correct spelling is therefore "reckless."
WRITE ME
Many UK English speakers and some American authorities object strongly
to the common American expression "write me," insisting that the correct
expression is "write to me." But "write me" is so common in US English
that I think few Americans will judge you harshly for using it. After
all, we say "call me"--why not "write me"? But if you're an American
trying to please foreigners or particularly picky readers, you might
keep the "write me" phobia in mind.
If you disagree, please don't write me.
WRITTING/WRITING
One of the comments English teachers dread to see on their evaluations
is "The professor really helped me improve my writting." When "-ing" is
added to a word which ends in a short vowel followed only by a single
consonant, that consonant is normally doubled, but "write" has a silent
E on the end to ensure the long I sound in the word. Doubling the T in
this case would make the word rhyme with "flitting."
WONDERKIND/WUNDERKIND
We borrowed the term "wunderkind," meaning "child prodigy," from the
Germans. We don't capitalize it the way they do, but we use the same
spelling. When writing in English, don't half-translate it as
"wonderkind."
YA'LL/Y'ALL
"How y'all doin'?" If you are rendering this common Southernism in
print, be careful where you place the apostrophe, which stands for the
second and third letters in "you."
Note that "y'all" stands for "you all" and is properly a plural form,
though some southern speakers treat it as a singular form and resort to
"all y'all" for the plural. Most southerners reserve "all y'all" to mean
"each and every one of you." Then there is the occasional case in which
the speaker is addressing someone representing a store or other
institution composed of several people: "Do y'all sell shop vacs?"
YE/THE
Those who study the history of English know that the word often misread
as "ye" in Middle English is good old "the" spelled with an unfamiliar
character called a "thorn" which looks vaguely like a "Y" but which is
pronounced "TH." So all those quaint shop names beginning "Ye Olde" are
based on a confusion: people never said "ye" to mean "the." However, if
you'd rather be cute than historically accurate, go ahead. Very few
people will know any better.
YEA/YEAH/YAY
"Yea" is a very old-fashioned formal way of saying "yes," used mainly in
voting. It's the opposite of--and rhymes with--"nay." When you want to
write the common casual version of "yes," the correct spelling is "yeah"
(sounds like "yeh"). When the third grade teacher announced a class trip
to the zoo, we all yelled "yay!" (the opposite of "boo"!). That was back
when I was only yay big.
YEAR END AND YEAR OUT/YEAR IN AND YEAR OUT
When something goes on continually, it is traditional to say it happens
"year in and year out," meaning "from the beginning of the year to its
end--and so on year after year."
The mistaken form "year end and year out" doesn't make sense because
"year end" and "year out" both refer to the same part of the year, so no
time span is being described.
YING AND YANG/YIN AND YANG
The pair of female and male terms in Chinese thought consists of "yin
and yang," not "ying and yang."
YOKE/YOLK
The yellow center of an egg is its yolk. The link that holds two oxen
together is a yoke; they are yoked.
YOU
The second person has perfectly legitimate uses, even when you are not
directly addressing another specific person as I am doing in this
sentence (I am addressing you, the reader). One example is the giving of
directions: "to reach the Pegasus Coffee House, you drive west on
Winslow Way to Madison, turn left to the end of Madison, then turn right
onto Parfitt Way, and you'll see Pegasus on your left."
It is also commonly used in an indefinite way, where a more formal
writer might use "one": "You can eat all you want at Tiny's salad bar."
It can be disorienting to switch from first person to second: "I always
order pizza with extra cheese because you know that otherwise they're
not going to give you enough." But sometimes such a switch works well to
broaden the context of a sentence. For example: "I hate living in the
dorm because other people always want to party when you're trying to
study." The first part of the sentence is specifically about feelings of
the speaker, but the second part is about a general pattern which
affects many other people who can plausibly be referred to as "you."
Because the use of the second person conveys an intimate, casual tone,
many teachers discourage its use in class essays, feeling that it gives
an unsophisticated air to student prose. Be careful about using it in
such essays unless you know that your teacher approves.
YOU BETTER/YOU HAD BETTER
In casual speech, it's common to say things like "you better make your
bed before Mom comes home." But in writing and in formal speech, the
expression is "you had better." Slightly less formal but still fine is
the contracted version: "you'd better."
YOU CAN'T HAVE YOUR CAKE AND EAT IT TOO/YOU CAN'T EAT YOUR CAKE AND HAVE
IT TOO
The most popular form of this saying--"You can't have your cake and eat
it too"-- confuses many people because they mistakenly suppose the word
"have" means "eat," as in "Have a piece of cake for dessert." A more
logical version of this saying is "You can't eat your cake and have it
too," meaning that if you eat your cake you won't have it any more. The
point is that if you eat your cake right now you won't have it to eat
later. "Have" means "possess" in this context, not "eat."
YOU KNOW/KNOW WHAT I'M SAYIN'?
In casual speech it's fine to say things like "You know, I really liked
that blouse you were wearing yesterday." But some people fall into the
habit of punctuating their speech with "you know" so frequently that it
becomes irritating to the listener. Most people do this unconsciously,
not meaning anything by it. If you become aware that you have this habit
your friends and colleagues will be grateful if you try to overcome it.
Hip-hop popularized a similar formula--"know what I'm
sayin'?"--frequently used when there is little or no doubt about what is
being said. It means something like "right?" It's time to retire this
worn-out phrase--know what I'm sayin'?
YOU WAS/YOU WERE
"I just knowed you was here when I seed your truck outside." "You"
followed by "was" is nonstandard, and occurs in print mainly when the
writer is trying to make the speaker sound uneducated. The standard verb
to follow "you" is "were": "I knew you were here."
YOUR/YOU
"I appreciate your cleaning the toilet" is more formal than "I
appreciate you cleaning the toilet."
YOUR/YOU'RE
"You're" is always a contraction of "you are." If you've written
"you're," try substituting "you are." If it doesn't work, the word you
want is "your." Your writing will improve if you're careful about this.
If someone thanks you, write back "you're welcome" for "you are
welcome."
YOUR GUYS'S/YOUR
Many languages have separate singular and plural forms for the second
person (ways of saying "you"), but standard English does not. "You" can
be addressed to an individual or a whole room full of people.
In casual speech, Americans have evolved the slangy expression "you
guys" to function as a second-person plural, formerly used of males only
but now extended to both sexes; but this is not appropriate in formal
contexts. Diners in fine restaurants are often irritated by clueless
waiters who ask "Can I get you guys anything?"
The problem is much more serious when extended to the possessive: "You
guys's dessert will be ready in a minute." Some people even create a
double possessive by saying "your guys's dessert. . . ." This is
extremely clumsy. When dealing with people you don't know intimately,
it's best to stick with "you" and "your" no matter how many people
you're addressing.
YOURSELF
In formal English it's safest to use "yourself" only after having
earlier in the same sentence used "you." When the British reply to a
query like "How are you?" with "Fine, and yourself?" they are actually
pointing back to the "you" in the query.
It used to be common to address someone in British English as "Your good
self" and some people have continued this tradition by creating the word
"goodself," common especially in South Asia; but this is nonstandard.
YOUSE/YOU
The plural form of "you" pronounced as "youse" is heard mainly in satire
on the speech of folks from Brooklyn. It's not standard English, since
"you" can be either singular or plural without any change in spelling or
pronunciation.
YOU'VE GOT ANOTHER THING COMING/YOU'VE GOT ANOTHER THINK COMING
Here's a case in which eagerness to avoid error leads to error. The
original expression is the last part of a deliberately ungrammatical
joke: "If that's what you think, you've got another think coming."
ZEROSCAPE/XERISCAPE
If you nuke your front lawn I suppose you might call it a "zeroscape,"
but the term for an arid-climate garden requiring little or no watering
is "xeriscape" (xeri- is a Greek root meaning "dry").
ZERO-SUM GAIN/ZERO-SUM GAME
The concept of a zero-sum game was developed first in game theory: what
one side gains the other loses. When applied to economics it is often
contrasted with a "win-win" situation in which both sides can make gains
without anyone losing. People who are unaware of the phrase's origins
often mistakenly substitute "gain" for "game."
ZOOLOGY
Both O's in "zoo" are needed to create the "oo" sound in this word, but
the same is not true of words like "zoology" and "zoologist." Here each
O has its own sound: "oh" followed by "ah." The first two syllables
rhyme with "boa."
Then there is a whole class of technical words like "zooplankton" where
both O's are pronounced "oh," though the second "oh" is pronounced so
weakly it comes out more like "uh." But if you need to speak such words,
you probably know how to pronounce them already.
NON-ERRORS: (Those usages people keep telling you are wrong but which
are actually standard in English.)
Split infinitives
For the hyper-critical, "to boldly go where no man has gone before"
should be " to go boldly. . . ." It is good to be aware that inserting
one or more words between "to" and a verb is not strictly speaking an
error, and is often more expressive and graceful than moving the
intervening words elsewhere, but so many people are offended by split
infinitives that it is better to avoid them except when the alternatives
sound strained and awkward.
Ending a sentence with a preposition
A fine example of an artificial "rule" which ignores standard usage. The
famous witticism usually attributed to Winston Churchill makes the point
well: "This is the sort of pedantry up with which I cannot put."
See "The American Heritage Book of English Usage" at
http://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/050.html. Jack Lynch has some sensible
comments on this issue:
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/p.html#prepend.
The saying attributed to Winston Churchill rejecting the rule against
ending a sentence with a preposition must be among the most frequently
mutated witticisms ever. I have received many notes from correspondents
claiming to know what the "original saying" was, but none of them cites
an authoritative source.
The alt.english.usage FAQ states that the story originated with an
anecdote in Sir Ernest Gowers' Plain Words (1948). Supposedly an editor
had clumsily rearranged one of Churchill's sentences to avoid ending it
in a preposition, and the Prime Minister, very proud of his style,
scribbled this note in reply: "This is the sort of English up with which
I will not put." The American Heritage Book of English Usage agrees.
The FAQ goes on to say that the Oxford Companion to the English Language
(no edition cited) states that the original was "This is the sort of
bloody nonsense up with which I will not put." To me this sounds more
likely, and eagerness to avoid the offensive word "bloody" would help to
explain the proliferation of variations.
A quick search of the Internet turned up an astonishing number. In this
era of copy-and-paste it's truly unusual to find such rich variety. The
narrative context varies too: sometimes the person rebuked by Churchill
is a correspondent, a speech editor, a bureaucrat, or an audience member
at a speech and sometimes it is a man, sometimes a woman, and sometimes
even a young student. Sometimes Churchill writes a note, sometimes he
scribbles the note on the corrected manuscript, and often he is said to
have spoken the rebuke aloud. The text concerned was variously a book
manuscript, a speech, an article, or a government document.
Here is just a sample of the variations circulating on the Net:
1. That is a rule up with which I will not put.
2. This is the kind of arrant pedantry up with which I will not put.
3. This is the type of arrant pedantry up with which I will not put.
4. Not ending a sentence with a preposition is a bit of arrant
pedantry up with which I will not put.
5. That is the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put
6. This is insubordination, up with which I will not put!
7. This is the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put.
8. This is the sort of thing up with which I will not put.
9. Madame, that is a rule up with which I shall not put.
One poor soul, unfamiliar with the word "arrant," came up with: "That is
the sort of errant criticism up with which I will not put."
Then there are those who get it so scrambled it comes out backward:
1. Ending a sentence with a preposition is something up with which I
will not put.
2. Ending a sentence with a preposition is something up with which we
will not put.
3. From now on, ending a sentence with a preposition is something up
with which I will not put.
4. Please understand that ending a sentence with a preposition is
something up with which I shall not put.
I checked the indexes of a dozen Churchill biographies, but none of them
had an entry for "prepositions."
Ben Zimmer has presented evidence on the alt.usage.english list that
this story was not originally attributed to Churchill at all, but to an
anonymous official in an article in "The Strand" magazine. Since
Churchill often contributed to "The Strand," Zimmer argues, it would
certainly have identified him if he had been the official in question.
It is not clear how the anecdote came to be attributed to Churchill by
Gowers, but it seems to have circulated independently earlier.
Beginning a sentence with a conjunction
It offends those who wish to confine English usage in a logical
straitjacket that writers often begin sentences with "and" or "but."
True, one should be aware that many such sentences would be improved by
becoming clauses in compound sentences, but there are many effective and
traditional uses for beginning sentences thus. One example is the reply
to a previous assertion in a dialogue: "But, my dear Watson, the
criminal obviously wore expensive boots or he would not have taken such
pains to scrape them clean." Make it a rule to consider whether your
conjunction would repose more naturally within the previous sentence or
would lose in useful emphasis by being demoted from its position at the
head of a new sentence.
Using "between" for only two, "among" for more
The "-tween" in "between" is clearly linked to the number two; but, as
the Oxford English Dictionary notes, "In all senses, 'between' has, from
its earliest appearance, been extended to more than two." We're talking
about Anglo-Saxon here--early. Pedants have labored to enforce "among"
when there are three or more objects under discussion, but largely in
vain. Very few speakers naturally say, "A treaty has been negotiated
among Britain, France, and Germany."
Over vs. more than.
Some people insist that "over" cannot be used to signify "more than," as
in "Over a thousand baton-twirlers marched in the parade." "Over," they
insist, always refers to something physically higher: say, the blimp
hovering over the parade route. This absurd distinction ignores the role
metaphor plays in language. If I write 1 on the blackboard and 10 beside
it, 10 is still the "higher" number. "Over" has been used in the sense
of "more than" for over a thousand years.
Feeling bad
"I feel bad" is standard English, as in "This t-shirt smells bad" (not
"badly"). "I feel badly" is an incorrect hyper-correction by people who
think they know better than the masses. People who are happy can
correctly say they feel good, but if they say they feel well, we know
they mean to say they're healthy.
Forward vs. forwards
Although some style books prefer "forward" and "toward" to "forwards"
and "towards," none of these forms is really incorrect, though the forms
without the final "S" are perhaps a smidgen more formal. The spelling
"foreword" applies exclusively to the introductory matter in a book.
Gender/sex
When discussing males and females, feminists wanting to remove
references to sexuality from contexts which don't involve mating or
reproduction revived an older meaning of "gender" which had come to
refer in modern times chiefly to language, as a synonym for "sex" in
phrases such as "Our goal is to achieve gender equality." Americans,
always nervous about sex, eagerly embraced this usage, which is now
standard. In some scholarly fields, "sex" is used to label biologically
determined aspects of maleness and femaleness (reproduction, etc.) while
"gender" refers to their socially determined aspects (behavior,
attitudes, etc.); but in ordinary speech this distinction is not always
maintained. It is disingenuous to pretend that people who use "gender"
in the new senses are making an error, just as it is disingenuous to
maintain that "Ms." means "manuscript" (that's "MS" ). Nevertheless, I
must admit I was startled to discover that the tag on my new trousers
describes not only their size and color, but their "gender."
Using "who" for people, "that" for animals and inanimate objects.
In fact there are many instances in which the most conservative usage is
to refer to a person using "that": "All the politicians that were at the
party later denied even knowing the host" is actually somewhat more
traditional than the more popular "politicians who." An aversion to
"that" referring to human beings as somehow diminishing their humanity
may be praiseworthily sensitive, but it cannot claim the authority of
tradition. In some sentences, "that" is clearly preferable to "who":
"She is the only person I know of that prefers whipped cream on her
granola." In the following example, to exchange "that" for "who" would
be absurd: "Who was it that said, 'A woman without a man is like a fish
without a bicycle'?"*
*Commonly attributed to Gloria Steinem, but she attributes it to Irina
Dunn.
"Since" cannot mean "because."
"Since" need not always refer to time. Since the 14th century, when it
was often spelled "syn," it has also meant "seeing that" or "because."
Hopefully
This word has meant "it is to be hoped" for a very long time, and those
who insist it can only mean "in a hopeful fashion" display more
hopefulness than realism.
Momentarily
"The plane will be landing momentarily" says the flight attendant, and
the grumpy grammarian in seat 36B thinks to himself, "So we're going to
touch down for just a moment?" Everyone else thinks, "Just a moment now
before we land." Back in the 1920s when this use of "momentarily" was
first spreading on both sides of the Atlantic, one might have been
accused of misusing the word, but by now it's listed without comment as
one of the standard definitions in most dictionaries.
Lend vs. loan
"Loan me your hat" was just as correct everywhere as "lend me your ears"
until the British made "lend" the preferred verb, relegating "loan" to
the thing being lent. However, as in so many cases, Americans kept the
older pattern, which in its turn has influenced modern British usage so
that those insisting that "loan" can only be a noun are in the minority.
Scan vs. skim
Those who insist that "scan" can never be a synonym of "skim" have lost
the battle. It is true that the word originally meant "to scrutinize,"
but it has now evolved into one of those unfortunate words with two
opposite meanings: to examine closely (now rare) and to glance at
quickly (much more common). It would be difficult to say which of these
two meanings is more prominent in the computer-related usage, to "scan a
document."
That said, it's more appropriate to use "scan" to label a search for
specific information in a text, and "skim" to label a hasty reading
aimed at getting the general gist of a text.
Near miss
It is futile to protest that "near miss" should be "near collision."
This expression is a condensed version of something like "a miss that
came very near to being a collision," and is similar to "narrow escape."
Everyone knows what is meant by it and almost everyone uses it. It
should be noted that the expression can also be used in the sense of
almost succeeding in striking a desired target: "His Cointreau souffle
was a near miss."
"None" singular vs. plural
Some people insist that since "none" is derived from "no one" it should
always be singular: "none of us is having dessert." However, in standard
usage, the word is most often treated as a plural. "None of us are
having dessert" will do just fine.
Off of
For most Americans, the natural thing to say is "Climb down off of
[pronounced " offa" ] that horse, Tex, with your hands in the air;" but
many UK authorities urge that the "of" should be omitted as redundant.
Where British English reigns you may want to omit the "of" as
superfluous, but common usage in the US has rendered "off of" so
standard as to generally pass unnoticed, though some American
authorities also discourage it in formal writing. But if "onto" makes
sense, so does "off of." However, "off of" meaning "from" in phrases
like "borrow five dollars off of Clarice" is definitely nonstandard.
Til/until
Since it looks like an abbreviation for "until," some people argue that
this word should always be spelled "'til" (though not all insist on the
apostrophe). However, "till" has regularly occurred as a spelling of
this word for over 800 years and it's actually older than "until." It is
perfectly good English.
"Teenage" vs. "teenaged"
Some people object that the word should be "teenaged," but unlike the
still nonstandard "ice tea" and "stain glass," "teenage" is almost
universally accepted now.
Don't use "reference" to mean "cite."
Nouns are often turned into verbs in English, and "reference" in the
sense "to provide references or citations" has become so widespread that
it's generally acceptable, though some teachers and editors still
object.
unquote/endquote
Some people get upset at the common pattern by which speakers frame a
quotation by saying "quote . . . unquote," insisting that the latter
word should logically be "endquote"; but illogical as it may be,
"unquote" has been used in this way for about a century, and "endquote"
is nonstandard.
Persuade vs. convince
Some people like to distinguish between these two words by insisting
that you persuade people until you have convinced them, but "persuade"
as a synonym for "convince" goes back at least to the 16th century. It
can mean both to attempt to convince and to succeed. It is no longer
common to say things like "I am persuaded that you are an illiterate
fool," but even this usage is not in itself wrong.
Normalcy vs. normality
The word "normalcy" had been around for more than half a century when
President Warren G. Harding was assailed in the newspapers for having
used it in a 1921 speech. Some folks are still upset, but in the US
"normalcy" is a perfectly normal--if uncommon--synonym for "normality."
Aggravate vs. irritate Some people claim that "aggravate" can only mean
"make worse" and should not be used to mean "irritate," but the latter
has been a valid use of the word for four centuries, and "aggravation"
means almost exclusively "irritation."
You shouldn't pronounce the "e" in "not my forte."
Some people insist that it's an error to pronounce the word "forte" in
the expression "not my forte" as if French-derived "forte" were the same
as the Italian musical term for "loud": "for-tay." But the original
French expression is "pas mon fort," which not only has no "e" on the
end to pronounce--it has a silent "t" as well. It's too bad that when we
imported this phrase we mangled it so badly, but it's too late to do
anything about it now. If you go around saying what sounds like "that's
not my fort," people won't understand what you mean.
However, those who use the phrase to mean "not to my taste" ("Wagnerian
opera is not my forte") are definitely mistaken. Your forte is what
you're good at, not just stuff you like.
"Preventive" is the adjective, "preventative" the noun.
I must say I like the sound of this distinction, but in fact the two are
interchangeable as both nouns and adjectives, though many prefer
"preventive" as being shorter and simpler. "Preventative" used as an
adjective dates back to the 17th century, as does "preventive" as a
noun.
People are healthy; vegetables are healthful.
Logic and tradition are on the side of those who make this distinction,
but I'm afraid phrases like "part of a healthy breakfast" have become so
widespread that they are rarely perceived as erroneous except by the
hyper-correct. On a related though slightly different subject, it is
interesting to note that in English adjectives connected to sensations
in the perceiver of an object or event are often transferred to the
object or event itself. In the 19th century it was not uncommon to
refer, for instance, to a "grateful shower of rain," and we still say "a
gloomy landscape," "a cheerful sight" and "a happy coincidence."
Crops are raised; children are reared.
Old-fashioned writers insist that you raise crops and rear children, but
in modern American English children are usually "raised."
Dinner is done; people are finished.
I pronounce this an antiquated distinction rarely observed in modern
speech. Nobody really supposes the speaker is saying he or she has been
roasted to a turn. In older usage people said, "I have done" to indicate
they had completed an action. "I am done" is not really so very
different.
"You've got mail" should be "you have mail."
The "have" contracted in phrases like this is merely an auxiliary verb,
not an expression of possession. It is not a redundancy. Compare:
"You've sent the mail."
it's "cut the muster," not "cut the mustard."
This etymology seems plausible at first. Its proponents often trace it
to the American Civil War. We do have the analogous expression "to pass
muster," which probably first suggested this alternative, but although
the origins of "cut the mustard" are somewhat obscure, the latter is
definitely the form used in all sorts of writing throughout the
twentieth century. Common sense would suggest that a person cutting a
muster is not someone being selected as fit, but someone eliminating the
unfit.
Here is the article on "cut the mustard" from the "faq" (frequently
asked questions list) of the UseNet newsgroup alt.usage.english:
This expression meaning "to achieve the required standard" is first
recorded in an O. Henry story of 1902: "So I looked around and found a
proposition [a woman] that exactly cut the mustard."
It may come from a cowboy expression, "the proper mustard", meaning "the
genuine thing", and a resulting use of "mustard" to denote the best of
anything. O. Henry in Cabbages and Kings (1894) called mustard "the main
attraction": "I'm not headlined in the bills, but I'm the mustard in the
salad dressing, just the same." Figurative use of "mustard" as a
positive superlative dates from 1659 in the phrase "keen as mustard",
and use of "cut" to denote rank (as in "a cut above") dates from the
18th century.
Other theories are that it is a corruption of the military phrase "to
pass muster" ("muster", from Latin "monstrare"="to show", means "to
assemble (troops), as for inspection"); that it refers to the practice
of adding vinegar to ground-up mustard seed to "cut" the bitter taste;
that it literally means "cut mustard" as an example of a difficult task,
mustard being a relatively tough crop that grows close to the ground;
and that it literally means "cut mustard" as an example of an easy task
(via the negative expression "can't even cut the mustard"), mustard
being easier to cut at the table than butter.
The more-or-less synonymous expression "cut it" (as in "sorry, doesn't
cut it") seems to be more recent and may derive from "cut the mustard".
it's "carrot on a stick," not "carrot or stick."
Authoritative dictionaries agree, the original expression refers to
offering to reward a stubborn mule or donkey with a carrot or
threatening to beat it with a stick and not to a carrot being dangled
from a stick.
The Usenet Newsgroup alt.usage.english has debated this expression
several times. No one there presented definitive evidence, but
dictionaries agree the proper expression is "the carrot or the stick".
One person on the Web mentions an old "Little Rascals" short in which an
animal was tempted to forward motion by a carrot dangling from a stick.
I think the image is much older than that, going back to old magazine
cartoons (certainly older than the animated cartoons referred to by
correspondents on alt.usage.english); but I'll bet that the cartoon idea
stemmed from loose association with the original phrase "the carrot or
the stick" rather than the other way around. An odd variant is the claim
broadcast on National Public Radio March 21, 1999 that one Zebediah
Smith originated this technique of motivating stubborn animals. This is
almost certainly an urban legend.
Note that the people who argue for "carrot on a stick" never cite any
documentable early use of the supposed "correct" expression. For the
record, here's what the Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary has
to say on the subject: "carrot, sb. Add: 1. a. fig. [With allusion to
the proverbial method of tempting a donkey to move by dangling a carrot
before it.] An enticement, a promised or expected reward; freq.
contrasted with "stick" (=punishment) as the alternative."
[Skipping references to uses as early as 1895 which refer only to the
carrot so don't clear up the issue.]
"1948 Economist 11 Dec. 957/2 The material shrinking of rewards and
lightening of penalties, the whittling away of stick and carrot. [Too
bad the Economist's writer switched the order in the second part of this
example, but the distinction is clear.]
"1954 J. A. C. Brown Social Psychol.of Industry i. 15 The tacit
implication that . . . most men . . . are . . . solely motivated by fear
or greed (a motive now described as " the carrot or the stick")
"1963 Listener 21 Feb. 321/2 Once Gomulka had thrown away the stick of
collectivization, he was compelled to rely on the carrot of a price
system favourable to the peasant."
The debate has been confused from time to time by imagining one stick
from which the carrot is dangled and another kept in reserve as a whip;
but I imagine that the original image in the minds of those who
developed this expression was a donkey or mule laden with cargo rather
than being ridden, with its master alternately holding a carrot in front
of the animal's nose (by hand, not on a stick) and threatening it with a
switch. Two sticks are too many to make for a neat expression.
For me, the clincher is that no one actually cites the form of the
"original expression." In what imaginable context would it possibly be
witty or memorable to say that someone or something had been motivated
by a carrot on a stick? Why not an apple on a stick, or a bag of oats?
Boring, right? Not something likely to pass into popular usage.
This saying belongs to the same general family as "you can draw more
flies with honey than with vinegar." It is never used except when such
contrast is implied.
This and other popular etymologies fit under the heading aptly called by
the English "too clever by half."
People should say a book is titled such-and-such rather than "entitled."
No less a writer than Chaucer is cited by the Oxford English Dictionary
as having used "entitled" in this sense, the very first meaning of the
word listed by the OED. It may be a touch pretentious, but it's not
wrong.
"Spitting image" should be "spit and image."
According to the Oxford English Dictionary the earlier form was "spitten
image," which may indeed have evolved from "spit and image." it's a
crude figure of speech: someone else is enough like you to have been
spat out by you, made of the very stuff of your body. In the early 20th
century the spelling and pronunciation gradually shifted to the less
logical "spitting image," which is now standard. it's too late to go
back. There is no historical basis for the claim sometimes made that the
original expression was "spirit and image."
"Lion's share" means all of something, not the larger part of something.
Even though the original meaning of this phrase reflected the idea that
the lion can take whatever he wants--typically all of the slaughtered
game, leaving nothing for anyone else--in modern usage the meaning has
shifted to "the largest share." This makes great sense if you consider
the way hyenas and vultures swarm over the leftovers from a typical
lion's kill.
"Connoisseur" should be spelled "connaisseur."
When we borrowed this word from the French in the 18th century, it was
spelled "connoisseur." Is it our fault the French later decided to shift
the spelling of many OI words to the more phonetically accurate AI? Of
those Francophone purists who insist we should follow their example I
say, let 'em eat "bifteck."
OTHER COMMONLY MISSPELLED WORDS
Here is a list of some of the most commonly misspelled words in English
which I consider not interesting enough to write up as separate entries.
These are the correct spellings. Reading over the list probably won't
improve your spelling much, but choosing a few which you find
troublesome to write out correctly a few times may.
absence, abundance, accessible, accidentally, acclaim, accommodate,
accomplish, accordion, accumulate, achievement, acquaintance, across,
address, advertisement, aggravate, alleged, annual, apparent,
appearance, argument, atheist, athletics, attendance, auxiliary,
badminton, balloon, barbecue, barbiturate, bargain, basically, beggar,
beginning, believe, biscuit, bouillon, boundary, Britain, business,
calendar, camouflage, cantaloupe, cemetery, chagrined, challenge,
characteristic, changing, chief, cigarette, climbed, collectible,
colonel, colossal, column, coming, committee, commitment, comparative,
competent, completely, concede, conceive, condemn, condescend,
conscientious, consciousness, consistent, continuous, controlled,
convenient, coolly, corollary, correlate, correspondence, counselor,
courteous, courtesy, criticize, deceive, defendant, deferred, dependent,
descend, description, desirable, despair, desperate, develop,
development, difference, dilemma, dining, disappearance, disappoint,
disastrous, discipline, disease, dispensable, dissatisfied, doesn't,
dominant, drunkenness, easily, ecstasy, efficiency, eighth, either,
eligible, enemy, entirely, equipped, equivalent, especially, exaggerate,
exceed, excellence, excellent, exhaust, existence, expense, experience,
experiment, explanation, extremely, exuberance, fallacious, fallacy,
familiar, fascinate, fictitious, finally, financially, fluorescent,
forcibly, foreign, forfeit, formerly, forty, fourth, fulfill,
fundamentally, gauge, generally, genius, government, governor, grievous,
guarantee, guerrilla, guidance, guttural, handkerchief, happily, harass,
height, heinous, hemorrhage, heroes, hesitancy, hindrance, hoarse,
hoping, humorous, hypocrisy, hypocrite, ideally, idiosyncrasy,
ignorance, imaginary, immediately, implement, incidentally, incredible,
independence, independent, indicted, indispensable, inevitable,
influential, information, inoculate, insurance, intelligence, intercede,
interference, interrupt, introduce, irrelevant, irresistible, island,
jealousy, judicial, knowledge, laboratory, legitimate, leisure, length,
lenient, liaison, lieutenant, likelihood, likely, longitude, loneliness,
losing, lovely, luxury, magazine, maintain, maintenance, manageable,
maneuver, marriage, mathematics, medicine, millennium, millionaire,
miniature, minuscule, minutes, mischievous, missile, misspelled,
mortgage, mosquito, mosquitoes, murmur, muscle, mysterious, narrative,
naturally, necessary, necessity, neighbor, neutron, ninety, ninth,
noticeable, nowadays, nuisance, obedience, obstacle, obstinate,
occasion, occasionally, occurred, occurrence, official, omission, omit,
omitted, opinion, opponent, opportunity, oppression, optimism,
ordinarily, origin, original, outrageous, overrun, panicky, parallel,
parliament, particularly, pavilion, peaceable, peculiar, penetrate,
perceive, performance, permanent, permissible, permitted, perseverance,
persistence, physical, physician, picnicking, piece, pilgrimage,
pitiful, planning, pleasant, portray, possess, possessive, potato,
potatoes, practically, prairie, preference, preferred, prejudice,
preparation, prescription, prevalent, primitive, privilege, probably,
procedure, proceed, professor, prominent, pronounce, pronunciation,
propaganda, psychology, publicly, pursue, quandary, quarantine,
questionnaire, quizzes, realistically, realize, really, recede, receipt,
receive, recognize, recommend, reference, referred, relevant, relieving,
religious, remembrance, reminiscence, renege, repetition,
representative, resemblance, reservoir, resistance, restaurant,
rheumatism, rhythm, rhythmical, roommate, sacrilegious, sacrifice,
safety, salary, satellite, scary, scenery, schedule, secede, secretary,
seize, sentence, separate, sergeant, several, shepherd, shining,
similar, simile, simply, sincerely, skiing, solely, soliloquy,
sophomore, souvenir, specifically, specimen, sponsor, spontaneous,
statistics, stopped, strategy, strength, strenuous, stubbornness,
subordinate, subtle, succeed, success, succession, Sudoku, sufficient,
supersede, suppress, surprise, surround, susceptible, suspicious,
syllable, symmetrical, synonymous,
tangible, technical, technique, temperature, tendency, themselves, theories, therefore, thorough, though, through, till, tomorrow, tournament, tourniquet, transferred, truly, twelfth, tyranny,
unanimous, unnecessary, until, usage, usually,
vacuum, valuable, vengeance, vigilant, village, villain, violence, visible,
warrant, Wednesday, weird, wherever, wholly,
yacht, yield,
zoology
MORE ERRORS
People send me quite a few word confusions which don't seem worth
writing up but which are nevertheless entertaining or interesting. I
simply list a number of these below for your amusement.
What was said What was meant
a stigmatism astigmatism
abolishment abolition
abraded upbraided
acrosst across
ad homonym ad hominem
aerobic numbers Arabic numbers
affidavid affidavit
alphabeticalize alphabetize
alsome, allsome awesome
altercations alterations
alterior ulterior
ambliance ambulance
anachronism acronym
anchors away anchors aweigh
ancy antsy
anticlimatic anticlimactic
aperpos a propos
apples and organs apples and oranges
arm's way harm's way
artical article
as a pose to as opposed to
ashfault asphalt
assessible accessible
assumably presumably
at leased at least
authoritarian source authoritative source
back round background
balling out bawling out
based around based on
batter an eyelid bat an eyelid
beautify a saint beatify a saint
begs belief beggars belief
besiege beseech
beyond approach beyond reproach
bids well bids fair, bodes well
binded bound
Bladerunner (film) Blade Runner
bled like a stuffed pig bled like a stuck pig
blessing in the sky blessing in disguise
blindsighted blindsided
blow a casket blow a gasket
a board of director a member of a board of directors
boom to the economy boon to the economy
bored of bored with
bottles the mind boggles the mind
bowl in a china shop bull in a china shop
bran new brand new
built off of built on or upon
BVD player DVD player
by in large or enlarge by and large
Cadillac converter catalytic converter
card shark cardsharp
carport tunnel carpal tunnel
case and point case in point
cease and decease cease and desist
cease the day seize the day
cheap at half the price cheap at twice the price
chalked full chock-full
chester drawers chest of drawers
chicken pops chicken pox
chomp at the bit champ at the bit
chow ciao
circus sized circumcised
clearified clarified
collaborating evidence corroborating evidence
component opponent
conservative effort concerted effort
conversate converse
coronated crowned
coronet cornet
cortage cortege
coruscating excoriating
coup de gras coup de grace
a couple guys a couple of guys
cream de mint creme de menthe
crimp my style cramp my style
crossified crucified
crutch of the matter crux of the matter
culvert sack cul de sac
cumberbun cummerbund
cursing through his coursing through his
veins veins
cut to the chaff cut to the chase
dappled in dabbled in
darkest before the darkest before the dawn storm
day in age day and age
dead wringer dead ringer
debockle debacle
decidated dedicated
deformation of character defamation of character
deja vous deja vu
Samuel R. Delaney Samuel R. Delany
detrius detritus
diabolically opposed diametrically opposed
dialate dilate
die heart diehard
differ to defer to
diswraught distraught
doggy dog world dog-eat-dog world
do diligence due diligence
do to due to
documentated documented
dottering doddering
down the pipe down the pike
dresser draw dresser drawer
drownded drowned
drownding drowning
drudged up dredged up
dry reach dry retch
electorial college electoral college
end justifies the end justifies the meaning means
enervate energize
Episcopalian church Episcopal church
escape goat scapegoat
esculate escalate
exasperated exacerbated
excape escape
exhilarator accelerator
expecially especially
expeculation speculation
expediate expedite
exuberant price exorbitant price
exulted status exalted status
eyesaw, eye soar eyesore
face the piper face the music, pay the piper
fair to midland fair to middling
far and few between few and far between
fast majority vast majority
fate accommpli fait accompli
fathom a guess hazard a guess
Federal Drug Food and Drug Administration Administration
final throws final throes
first come, first serve first come, first served
flamingo dancer flamenco dancer
flaw in the ointment fly in the ointment
flustrated frustrated
focus like a razor focus like a laser
foilage foliage
foul swoop fell swoop
four-stair heating forced-air heating
Franklin Delanor Franklin Delano Roosevelt Roosevelt
frentic fanatic or frenetic
front in center front and center
full ball full bore
garner wages garnish wages
gave me slack gave me flak
genuses genera
gentile manners genteel manners
gentlelady gentlewoman
glaucomole glaucoma
glaze over gloss over
gleam glean
godforsaken right God-given right
gone array gone awry
got my dandruff up got my dander up
grant it granted
greatfruit grapefruit
harbringer harbinger
harps back harks back
hare's breath hair's breadth
heared heard
heart-rendering heart-rending
hearst hearse
Heineken remover Heimlich maneuver
here on end here on in
hewn cry hue and cry
high dungeon high dudgeon
hit a high bar clear a high bar
hobbiest hobbyist
hold down the fort hold the fort
howsomever however
hurtles to overcome hurdles to overcome
I seen I saw or I've seen
ice tea iced tea
ideallic ideal or idyllic
if I don't say so if I do say so
imbedded embedded
immaculate degeneration macular degeneration
impaling doom impending doom
imput input
in another words in other words
in lieu of in light of
in loo of in lieu of
in mass en masse
in sink in synch
in tact intact
in the same vane or vain in the same vein
incredulous incredible
indiscrepancy discrepancy
insinnuendo insinuation or innuendo
insuremountable insurmountable
internally grateful eternally grateful
International Workers Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) of the
World
intragul integral
Issac Isaac
it's beggars belief it beggars belief
ivy tower ivory tower
jack of all traits jack of all trades
jaundra genre
key fab key fob
kindly kind of
kit gloves kid gloves
Klu Klux Klan Ku Klux Klan
lacksadaisical lackadaisical
lamblasted, landblasted lambasted
land up end up, land
landlover landlubber
lapse into a comma lapse into a coma
larnyx larynx
laxidaisical lackadaisical
livelyhood livelihood
love nuts lug nuts
love one and other love one another
low and behold lo and behold
ludicrust ludicrous
Lex Luther Lex Luthor
Martin Luthor King Martin Luther King
magnate school magnet school
make head or tale make head or tail
malice of forethought malice aforethought
marquis marquee
masonary masonry
make ends meat make ends meet
mean time meantime
memorized mesmerized
menestrate menstruate
meter out justice mete out justice
mix words mince words
misconscrew misconstrue
Mississippi Marsala Mississippi Masala
mister meaner misdemeanor
momento memento
muncho man macho man
muriel mural
myocardial infraction myocardial infarction
new leash on life new lease on life
neck in neck neck and neck
needles to say needless to say
nitch niche
no holes barred, no holds barred no bars held
Nobel lariat Nobel laureate
notary republic notary public
notch it up a bit take it up a notch
odiferous odoriferous
odviously obviously
off my own back off my own bat
off the deep edge off the deep end, over the edge
oject d'art objet d'art
on mass en masse
on the same hand on the other hand, by the same token
once and a while once in a while
one pony-trick one-trick pony
overhauls overalls
overjealous overzealous
oxymoron real moron
pacific specific
paddle lock padlock
pain-staking painstaking
pair of parenthesis pair of parentheses
palatable feeling palpable feeling
pantent patent
parody of virtue paragon of virtue
part in parcel part and parcel
partying gift parting gift
pastorial pastoral
patriarticle patriarchal
peacemeal piecemeal
pedastool pedestal
pension penchant
pentacle of his career pinnacle of his career
peon of praise paean
plain around playin' around
permiscuous promiscuous
periphial peripheral
perk up its ears prick up its ears
perscription prescription
Peruvian interest prurient interest
perverbial proverbial
phantom it fathom it
pick fun poke fun or pick on
pigment of his figment of his
imagination imagination
pillow to post pillar to post
pin a finger pin the blame on, point a finger at
play it by year play it by ear
plentitude plenitude
plural pneumonia double pneumonia, pleural pneumonia
poison ivory poison ivy
portentious portentous
poultrygeist poltergeist
pratfall pitfall
predominately predominantly
present company present company acccepted excepted
prevaricate procrastinate
prevert pervert
prolong the inevitable delay the inevitable
protagonist proponent
punkin, pumkin pumpkin
radical chick radical chic
ramsack ransack
ranking file rank and file
readdress the balance redress the balance
radioactive increase retroactive increase
rebel rouser rabble rouser
recluse recuse
recreate the wheel reinvent the wheel
repel rappel
repungent repugnant
rockweiler rottweiler
roiling boil rolling boil
rubble rousing rabble rousing
ruffled grouse ruffed grouse
run rapid run rampant
screed door screen door
seizure salad Caesar salad
self-defacing self-effacing
sense of false security false sense of security
sequences sequins
set a president set a precedent
shock ways shockwaves
short sided shortsighted
should've went should have gone
shutter to think shudder to think
side by each side by side
similiar or simular similar
six and a half of one, six of one, a dozen of the other half a
dozen of the other
skewer the results skew the results
skiddish skittish
sleep acnea sleep apnea
slither of cake sliver of cake
smack dad smack dab
smashed potatoes mashed potatoes
smoking mirrors smoke and mirrors
smothered onions smothered with onions
soak and wet soaking wet
something or rather something or other
somulent somnolent
sorted past or story sordid past or story
St. John's wart St. John's wort
stain glass stained glass
stainless teal stainless steel
stolled stole
strident stringent
strum up support drum up support
subsiding on subsisting on
substantative substantive
sufficive to say it suffices to say
supremist supremacist
tactile squad tactical squad
techknowledgy technology
terminity temerity
thankyou thank you
Theolonius Monk Thelonious Monk
thread a fine line tread a fine line
Tiajuna Tijuana
tie me over tide me over
time and memorial time immemorial
time and time and again time and time again
times the number multiply the number
tittering on the brink teetering on the brink
to each's own to each his own
took it for granite took it for granted
tooth and tong tooth and nail, hammer and tongs
trader to the cause traitor to the cause
two sense worth two cents' worth
turpentime turpentine
tyrannical yolk tyrannical yoke
udderly utterly
underlying contest underlying context
unloosen loosen
unchartered territory uncharted territory
ungangly ungainly
up and Adam up and at 'em
upgraded upbraided
Valentimes Valentines
valevictorian valedictorian
vaulted vaunted
verbage verbiage
very close veins varicose veins
viadock viaduct
visa versa vice versa
vocal chords vocal cords
voiceterous boisterous
vunerable vulnerable
wait ago way to go
weary wary
wetted to the idea wedded to the idea
wheedle down whittle down
whelp welt
wideth width
Wimbleton Wimbledon
windshield factor wind chill factor
witch which
wither in agony writhe in agony
withering around writhing around
without further adieu without further ado
whoa is me woe is me
wolf in cheap clothing wolf in sheep's clothing
working progress work in progress
world-renown world-renowned
worldwind whirlwind
worse case scenario worst-case scenario
worth its weight in worth its salt, or worth its weight in gold salt
worth wild worthwhile
Commonly Made Suggestions
I am getting a tremendous amount of mail about this site. I enjoy the
compliments, try to answer the queries, and ignore the occasional
insult. (One wit wrote of my site: "I could care less!" Cute.) The
volume of correspondence has exceeded my ability to respond to all of
it; so please forgive me if you don't hear back from me. I do read your
letters.
Although I am now retired from Washington State University, that doesn't
mean I spend a lot of time doing e-mail. I check it once or twice a day
when I am not traveling, but I am not constantly sitting in front of the
computer. I also have hand problems that prevent me from typing at long
stretches at a time, so if you receive a very short reply to a long
note, that's probably the reason. I'm not trying to be impolite, but I
simply can't engage in lengthy e-mail exchanges.
And although I appreciate good prose (with real capital letters), don't
be afraid I'll nitpick your letter for writing flaws. I don't normally
critique other people's writing unless I'm hired to.
I also receive many suggestions for additions. These are usually
welcome, and I adopt many of them; but at least half my mail involves
points I have already covered in one way or another. If you would be so
kind, please go through the following checklist before writing me.
If your first encounter with my site was through a link to the list of
errors, please go to the introductory page and read that first. If you
are creating a link to my site, please link to that page at
http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/; otherwise users will miss important
introductory remarks. The ":8080"string found in some links is obsolete.
If you think a common error is missing from my list, use the Google
Custom Search engine just above the alphabetical list of errors to
search the site.
Other places to look: "More Errors," "Commonly misspelled words," and
"Non-Errors." This is not a general English grammar site, nor am I a
grammarian. I am a literature professor interested in English usage,
some of which involves grammar. You will find a list of comprehensive
English grammar and writing sites at the bottom of my list of errors
under "Other Good Resources." These are the folks to ask for help with
your writing.
This is not a site offering a tutorial service for people studying
English. In my list of links on the main pages listing errors I include
sites which do and which provide resources for the study of English as a
second language. Try one of them instead. I am not an ESL specialist and
have a full-time job which does not involve online interactive teaching.
I hope you find what I have written useful and I do answer occasional
questions, but this site does not provide a detailed question-and-answer
service.
Before you write to insist that some usage I recommend against is
actually standard now, consider that although many dictionaries take it
as their task to keep up with popular usage, my guide is meant to alert
you to even very popular usage patterns that may get you into trouble
with other people you encounter. No matter how many dictionaries say
that "I could care less" is now a legitimate variant on the traditional
"I couldn't care less," my job is to protect you from people who do not
agree with this. Some dictionaries' approach is to tell the
traditionalists to get over it. This is not likely to work. A usage
guide's approach is to warn you that this usage may make you appear less
well informed than the traditional one. What you do with the information
is up to you, but at least you know that if you go with the new form
you're taking a risk.
Please do not write to me asking for a link on my site to yours. This is
a university non-profit Web site which does not allow advertising. And
the noncommercial links I create are always created at my own
initiative, and I am very picky about what I link to. If you have
checked thoroughly and still want to write me, please feel free; but be
aware that I do not have time to deal with all my correspondence.
"Common Errors" is not my main Web project, and I work on it only
sporadically (sometimes not for many months at a stretch). To see what
other sorts of things I spend my time on, check out my home page and the
World Civilizations site I manage.
If you believe I have not sent you a response you deserve, consider
these possibilities before deciding that I am deliberately not answering
you: 1) I may be traveling and not doing e-mail, 2) your return address
may be incorrect, causing my replies to you to "bounce" (if you rarely
get replies to your e-mails, this is a good possibility), or 3) you have
erred on the side of caution by blocking all incoming correspondence by
people unknown to you.
One more important point: this is a hobby for me, and not my job. I do
not have the time to deal with long, complex messages covering a
multitude of points. Short, focused messages are most likely to be
answered.
Before writing me, check the following list of commonly made
suggestions.
Add "would of" Look under "C" for "could of/should of/would of."
Add "intensive purposes." "For all intensive purposes" is listed under
"F." You shouldn't end a sentence with a preposition. Nonsense. See the
second item under "Non-Errors."
You should say "Write to me" rather than "Write me." Some people
following the British tradition object to this usage; it's standard in
the US. The expression probably evolved in analogy to expressions like
"call me," "phone me" and "tell me." In the US, "write me" will do just
fine in informal writing such as I use on this site.
The word is "pernickety," not "persnickety." The original Scottish
dialect form was indeed "pernickety," but Americans changed it to
"persnickety" a century ago, and "pernickety" is generally unknown in
the US. The Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary calls
"pernickety" obsolete, but judging from my correspondence, it's still in
wide use across the Atlantic.
Americans have it all wrong, the correct usage is English (Canadian,
Australian, etc.). Read my page called "The President's English." Note
that it was titled during the Clinton era, is just a joke referring to
the phrase "the Queen's English," and has no connection with any
particular president. And before writing to tell me that I should not
claim that American English is THE international standard, go back and
read again what I've written; I do not claim that.
A name which ends in an S needs an additional S after the apostrophe
when it is made possessive, e.g., "Paul Brians's Page." Some styles call
for the extra S, some don't. I was forced by the publisher of my second
book to follow this rule and I swore I would never do it again. I think
it's ugly.
Please add [some particularly obscure word]. This site is concerned with
common errors in English, not bizarre or esoteric ones, although I often
enjoy reading about them. I admit to discussing some not-so-common
errors if I find them amusing enough.
What is the correct spelling of _________? Please try a dictionary
first. The best on-line one is the WWWebster Dictionary
(Merriam-Webster)
You've misspelled the title of an article. When an item involves
misspelling, the misspelled form is the one used for the title of the
entry and for the name of the page. This helps people who don't know the
correct spelling to find the entry. Remember this is a list of errors.
I was always taught X but all the authorities I've looked in say Y.
What's happening to the English language? It's changing--always has
changed, and always will. When you reach the point that nobody seems to
agree with your standard of usage any more, you may have simply been
left behind. There is no ultimate authority in language--certainly not
me--nor any measure of absolute "correctness." The best guide is the
usage of literate and careful speakers and writers, and when they differ
among themselves one has to make a choice as to which one prefers. My
goal is to keep my readers' writing and speech from being laughed at or
groaned over by average literate people.
How can you possibly approve of ___________? Your effrontery in caving
in to this ignorant nonsense is appalling [ranting, raving, foaming at
the mouth . . .]. It's odd how some people with high standards of
correctness seem to have no notion of manners at all. You and I both
know that I am not the most conservative of commentators on usage. If
you want to make a logical case for a rule I don't accept, please do so
politely.
You should add more information about this word; it has other meanings
than the ones you discuss. My goal is to keep the entries as compact as
possible, focusing only on those aspects of the words discussed which
lend themselves to error. The sort of detailed discussion an unabridged
dictionary provides is inappropriate here.
It would be easier to read through your site if you put navigational
links on each page back to where the reader left off in the list of
errors.
This site is designed for purposeful searches (use the Google Custom
Search engine just above the alphabetical list of errors or just look
down the list for the appropriate place in the alphabet) and casual
browsing. Few people set out to read their way in order through all the
entries. But if you want to do this, there are two methods you can use.
If you want to read the individual entries in order, when you have
finished one, instead of clicking the link that says "Return to list of
errors" just press alt-left arrow to go back to the spot you left in the
list of errors. On a Mac, the equivalent sequence is command
["Apple"]-left arrow. Or click the back button in your browser.
If you would like to read straight through the whole body of the site as
text on a single page I have provided a separate version which is much
more suitable for this purpose and will keep you from having to click
through over 1,400 pages. Click on the link called "The whole site on
one page" to go to http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.txt.
Because this page is not written in HTML, it lacks special characters
like em-dashes and curled apostrophes, but it contains basically the
same information as the formatted site.
Please use a different font on your site. The code for this site
specifies no particular font. What you see is the font your individual
Web browser uses as its default. You can go into your browser's settings
menu and change the default text font to anything you like, and--while
you're at it--set the font size to something that pleases you as well.
Your site shows ugly gibberish wherever it should display quotation
marks and apostrophes. This site uses special codes to create properly
curled quotation marks and apostrophes, and real dashes. Some browsers
ignore the code and render the curled marks as straight ones, but other,
older ones display the code itself. There are two solutions: 1) upgrade
to a more recent version of your favorite browser, or 2) use the
all-text version of the site which lacks the problem characters.
Note that with thousands of instances to be changed I had to use
automatic global search-and-replace routines to curl these marks, and
sometimes they misfired. I've tried hard to find the errors that
resulted (typically a right quotation mark and a space where an
apostrophe should be), but whenever I think I've found the last one
somebody points out another. Keep 'em coming: I do really want to get
all of these fixed.
Why don't you say when you last updated your site? You'll find the
latest revision date at the bottom of the all-text version of the site.
You should refer your readers to the on-line versions of Strunk and
Fowler. Well, I just did, didn't I? But not with enthusiasm. Because of
copyright restrictions these are both very early editions (1918 and
1908!). If you're looking for confirmation of your views you may find
solace, but the average reader has no way of knowing whether their
advice still makes sense today. Would you use a 1908 dictionary to
determine the meaning of a word now?
You left out one of my pet peeves! I may simply not have gotten around
to it yet, but remember to try the Search field before writing.
Still want to write? My address is paulbrians@gmail.com. Please don't
call me "Brian." My name is Paul Brians.
Paul Brians Emeritus Professor of English Washington State University,
Pullman
Version of January 20, 2015.
[http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.txt]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.origin.GREEK,
_DESCRIPTION:
Why Do We Call Our Letters the “Alphabet"?
The word "alphabet" comes from the first two Greek letters: "alpha" and "beta."
According to lexicographical estimates, more than 150,000 English words are
derived from the Greek language. This includes a great deal of
international scientific vocabulary. In fact, a decades-long Greek study
found that one out of every four English words is of Greek origin.
Furthermore, the Ancient Greeks are credited with developing the first true
alphabet -- a word formed by its first two letters, "alpha" and "beta."
Read More: http://www.wisegeek.com/why-do-we-call-our-letters-the-alphabet.htm?m {2016-09-20}
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.A:,
lagEng'word.AFTER:
* after-569i,
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:after a few drinks _stxSbj:he _stxVrb:{was beginning} _stxObj:to speak thickly. [WordNet 2.0]
· _stxEngl: After initiation, the youths started to interact with the older members. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl:#after: implantation of the blastocyst in the uterine wall _stxSbj:the trophoblast _stxVrb:divides#into: two layers, the chorion and the placenta. [WordNet 2.0]
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:after playing hard _stxSbj:[the children] _stxVrb:{were thirsty}. [WordNet]
· _stxEngl: (After she _sxtVrb:{had learned} to drive), ([Alice] _stxVrb:{felt more independent}).
· _stxEngl: Things weren't so bad, after all. I _sxtVrb:{was} _stxSbc:among friends _stxArg:again. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: [A squinting modifier] _sxtVrb:{is} |[an ambiguously placed modifier] that (_sxtVrb:{can modify} either the word before it or the word after it)|.
· _stxEngl: Claire _sxtVrb:{stared} _stxArg:after him _stxArg:until he disappeared around a corner. [HarperCollins]
lagEng'word.AT:
* at-569i,
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:They _stxVrb:{will meet} _stxWhom:us#place.point:at [the newest cafι#place.in:in the market].
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:[My brother the research associate] _stxVrb:{works}#place=at: a large polling firm.
· _stxEngl: @At the feast@, we _sxtVrb:{will eat} heartily.
at location We don't have a coffee maker at work.
at time Class begins at 7 AM.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.B:,
lagEng'word.BECAUSE:
· _stxEngl: Many families _sxtVrb:{break up}#why:because of a lack of money. [HarperCollins]
==> Πολλές οικογένειες διαλύονται λόγω έλλειψης χρημάτων [google]
lagEng'word.BEFORE:
* lagEng'before,
* before-569i,
* b4@cptCore569
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:I _stxVrb:{saw} _stxObj:them _stxTime:before (Christmas).
==> Preposition (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:I _stxVrb:saw _stxObj:them _stxTime:before (they saw me).
==> Conjunction (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: It's interesting _stxObj:(that _stxSbj:he _sxtVrb:{sent} _stxTowhom:me _stxObj:the book _stxTime:(twenty days) before (the deadline for my book)). [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I_sxtVrb:{'d seen} _stxObj:the film _stxTime:before. ==> Adverb (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: I'_sxtVrb:{d seen} _stxObj:the film _stxTime:before. Adverb (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: I _sxtVrb:{saw} _stxObj:them _stxTime:before Christmas. Preposition (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: I saw _stxObj:them _stxTime:before they saw me. Conjunction (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: He spent _stxObj:his early life _stxSpace:in Sri Lanka _stxTime:before moving to England. [HarperCollins]
=== _Pronoun: TIME: INDEFINITE-PAST:
=== _ADVERB:: before_pronoun.554:
· _stxEngl: I'd seen the film @before@. Adverb (traditionally).
· _stxEngl: The war had ended only a month or so before. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I've been here before. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I had met Professor Lown before. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: She had never been to Italy before. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: had never seen him before. [mg06] ==> δεν τον είχα δει ποτέ στο παρελθόν, στο'παρελθόν_advb,
* You use before when you are talking about time. For example, if something happened the day before a particular date or event, it happened during the previous day. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The war _sxtVrb:{had ended} only a month or so before. [HarperCollins]
lagEng'word.BY:
* by-569i,
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:I _stxVrb:{will have been studying} _stxObj:Greek#howlong=for: three years#time=by: the end of this term.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.C:,
lagEng'word.COULD:
* could-569i,
* subjunctive-mood: POSSIBILITY in present, past or future. 2004-08-23
· _stxEngl: _sxtVrb:{Could you bring} the wine? [WordNet 2.0]
* I could have been written:
· _stxEngl: The symbol V, for example, _sxtVrb:{could have been replaced} by saw instead of chased.
· _stxEngl: The regulations were relaxed and the prisoners could get out and about a bit. [HarperCollins]
There was so much furniture you could hardly move without bumping into something.
· _stxEngl: Maybe if we could go someplace together, just you and I. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:they _stxVrb:could not act#without: official communication from Moscow. [WordNet 2.0]
· _stxEngl: They could see that I was terrified, and hid _stxObj:me _stxTime:until the coast was clear. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:he _stxVrb:could hear _stxObj:the clang of distant bells. [WordNet 2.0]
· _stxEngl: She could see the muscles of his shoulders beneath his T-shirt. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: He crouched as near to the door as he could. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I would gladly help you, if I could.
I threw caution to the wind and rode as fast as I could.
· _stxEngl: {There have been} [[proposals] that (lexical concepts {could be based} not on a prototype, but on a number of different exemplar representations)].
· _stxEngl: Nobody {could forget} that today was Tuesday.
* (c) HarperCollins Publishers:
Could is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb. Could is sometimes considered to be the past form of can, but in this dictionary the two words are dealt with separately.
1 You use could to indicate that someone had the ability to do something. You use could not or couldn't to say that someone was unable to do something.
For my return journey, I felt I could afford the extra and travel first class.
I could see that something was terribly wrong.
He could not resist telling her the truth.
When I left school at 16, I couldn't read or write.
There was no way she could have coped with a baby around.
MODAL
2 You use could to indicate that something sometimes happened.
Though he had a temper and could be nasty, it never lasted.
He could be very pleasant when he wanted to.
MODAL
3 You use could have to indicate that something was a possibility in the past, although it did not actually happen.
He could have made a fortune as a lawyer.
You could have been killed!.
He did not regret saying what he did but felt that he could have expressed it differently.
MODAL
4 You use could to indicate that something is possibly true, or that it may possibly happen.
Doctors told him the disease could have been caused by years of working in smokey clubs.
An improvement in living standards could be years away.
He was jailed in February 1992 and could be released next year.
MODAL
= might
5 You use could not or couldn't to indicate that it is not possible that something is true.
They argued all the time and thought it couldn't be good for the baby.
Anne couldn't be expected to understand the situation.
He couldn't have been more than fourteen years old.
MODAL
6 You use could to talk about a possibility, ability, or opportunity that depends on other conditions.
Their hope was that a new and better East Germany could be born.
I knew that if I spoke to Myra, I could get her to call my father.
MODAL
7 You use could when you are saying that one thing or situation resembles another.
The charming characters she draws look like they could have walked out of the 1920s.
MODAL
8 You use could, or couldn't in questions, when you are making offers and suggestions.
I could call the local doctor.
We need money right? We could go around and ask if people need odd jobs done or something.
`It's boring to walk all alone.'n`Couldn't you go for walks with your friends?'.
You could look for a career abroad where environmental jobs are better paid and more secure.
It would be a good idea if you could do this exercise twice or three times on separate days.
MODAL
9 You use could in questions when you are making a polite request or asking for permission to do something. Speakers sometimes use couldn't instead of `could' to show that they realize that their request may be refused.
Could I stay tonight?.
Could I speak to you in private a moment, John?.
I wonder if some time I could have a word with you.
Sir, could you please come to the commanding officer's office?.
Could we go outside just for a second?.
He asked if he could have a cup of coffee.
Couldn't I watch you do it?
MODAL politeness
10 People sometimes use structures with if I could or could I as polite ways of interrupting someone or of introducing what they are going to say next. (SPOKEN, FORMAL)
Well, if I could just interject.
Could I stop you there?.
Could I ask you if there have been any further problems?.
First of all, could I begin with an apology for a mistake I made last week?
MODAL politeness
= may
11 You use could to say emphatically that someone ought to do the thing mentioned, especially when you are annoyed because they have not done it. You use why couldn't in questions to express your surprise or annoyance that someone has not done something.
We've come to see you, so you could at least stand and greet us properly.
Idiot! You could have told me!.
He could have written.
Why couldn't she have said something?.
But why couldn't he tell me straight out?
MODAL emphasis
12 You use could when you are expressing strong feelings about something by saying that you feel as if you want to do the thing mentioned, although you do not do it.
I could kill you! I swear I could!.
`Welcome back' was all they said. I could have kissed them!.
She could have screamed with tension.
MODAL emphasis
13 You use could after `if' when talking about something that you do not have the ability or opportunity to do, but which you are imagining in order to consider what the likely consequences might be.
If I could afford it I'd have four television sets.
If only I could get some sleep, I would be able to cope.
MODAL
14 You use could not or couldn't with comparatives to emphasize that someone or something has as much as is possible of a particular quality. For example, if you say `I couldn't be happier', you mean that you are extremely happy.
The rest of the players are a great bunch of lads and I couldn't be happier.
Darling Neville, I couldn't be more pleased for you.
The news couldn't have come at a better time.
MODAL emphasis
15 In speech, you use how could in questions to emphasize that you feel strongly about something bad that has happened.
How could you allow him to do something like that?.
How could I have been so stupid?.
How could she do this to me?.
How could you have lied to us all these years?
MODAL emphasis
16 You say `I couldn't' to refuse an offer of more food or drink. (INFORMAL, SPOKEN)
`More cake?'n`Oh no, I couldn't.'
CONVENTION
(c) HarperCollins Publishers.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.F:,
lagEng'word.FAST:
* fast-569i,
* _Adverb:
· _stxEngl: He's taking a dangerous drug: it _stxVrb:{acts}#how:very fast#where:on the central nervous system.
lagEng'word.FOR:
* for-569i,
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:I _stxVrb:{will have been studying} _stxObj:Greek#howlong=for: three years#time=by: the end of this term.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.I:,
lagEng'word.IN:
* in-569i,
* PLACE: DEFINITE-INSIDE:
* TIME:
* NounSpecialNominative:
* ADJECTIVE:
_ADVERB:
pronoun.adverb.in:
= μέσα_pronoun:
· _stxEngl: I'm afraid he's not in right now. [mg06]
==> φοβούμαι ότι δεν βρίσκεται εδώ αυτή τη στιγμή, εδώ_advb, εκεί_advb,
· _stxEngl: I _sxtVrb:{told} him to come in. [mg06]
==> του είπα να έρθει μέσα
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: ( _stxVrb=entity:...#accompaniment:IN ...):
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:Correlative conjunctions _stxTime:always _stxVrb:{appear}#accompaniment:in pairs.
* IN_TIME_INTERVAL: in_conj.055:
· _stxEngl: The meal _stxVrb:{was cooked and eaten} in @half an hour@.
· _stxEngl: Pat _sxtVrb:{drinks} /both coffee in the morning and tea in the afternoon/.
· _stxEngl: in September, in March (months).
· _stxEngl: in the winter/spring/autumn (seasons).
· _stxEngl: in 1996, in 1998 (years).
· _stxEngl: in the 20th century (centuries).
· _stxEngl: in the morning/afternoon/evening, in an hour, in a minute, in a week/few days/year.
=== _CONJUNCTION: in_conj:
· _stxEngl: Ties _sxtVrb:{were broken} _stxTime:in 1949 when the papal nuncio was refused entry into Belgium. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: Pat _sxtVrb:{drinks} _stxObj:both coffee in the morning and tea in the afternoon.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.M:,
lagEng'word.MAY:
* may-569i,
may may
May is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb.
1 You use may to indicate that something will possibly happen or be true in the future, but you cannot be certain.
We may have some rain today.
Rates may rise, but it won't be by much and it won't be for long.
I may be back next year.
I don't know if they'll publish it or not. They may.
Scientists know that cancer may not show up for many years.
MODAL vagueness
= might
2 You use may to indicate that there is a possibility that something is true, but you cannot be certain.
Civil rights officials say there may be hundreds of other cases of racial violence.
Throwing good money after bad may not be a good idea, they say.
MODAL vagueness
= might
3 You use may to indicate that something is sometimes true or is true in some circumstances.
A vegetarian diet may not provide enough calories for a child's normal growth.
Up to five inches of snow may cover the mountains.
...families that may have both parents working.
MODAL
= might
4 You use may have with a past participle when suggesting that it is possible that something happened or was true, or when giving a possible explanation for something.
He may have been to some of those places.
The chaos may have contributed to the deaths of up to 20 people.
Investigators say that a fuel explosion may have caused the crash.
The events may or may not have been connected.
MODAL vagueness
= might have
5 You use may in statements where you are accepting the truth of a situation, but contrasting it with something that is more important.
I may be almost 50, but there's not a lot of things I've forgotten.
The elderly man may not be typical, but he speaks for a significant body of opinion.
Walking exercise may be boring at times but early on a clear sunny morning there can be nothing finer.
MODAL
6 You use may when you are mentioning a quality or fact about something that people can make use of if they want to.
The bag has narrow straps, so it may be worn over the shoulder or carried in the hand.
Some of the diseases of middle age may be prevented by improving nutrition.
MODAL
= can
7 You use may to indicate that someone is allowed to do something, usually because of a rule or law. You use may not to indicate that someone is not allowed to do something.
Any two persons may marry in Scotland provided that both persons are at least 16 years of age on the day of their marriage.
Adolescents under the age of 18 may not work in jobs that require them to drive.
MODAL
8 You use may when you are giving permission to someone to do something, or when asking for permission. (FORMAL)
Mr Hobbs? May we come in?.
If you wish, you may now have a glass of milk.
`You may leave.'n`Yes, sir.'
MODAL
= can
9 You use may when you are making polite requests. (FORMAL)
I'd like the use of your living room, if I may.
May I come with you to Southampton?.
Ah, Julia, my dear, here is our guest. May we have some tea?
MODAL politeness
= can
10 You use may, usually in questions, when you are politely making suggestions or offering to do something. (FORMAL)
May we suggest you try one of our guest houses.
May we recommend a weekend in Stockholm?.
Do sit down. And may we offer you something to drink?.
May I help you?
MODAL politeness
= can
11 You use may as a polite way of interrupting someone, asking a question, or introducing what you are going to say next. (FORMAL, SPOKEN)
`If I may interrupt for a moment,' Kenneth said.
Anyway, may I just ask you one other thing?.
If I may return to what we were talking about earlier.
MODAL politeness
= can
12 You use may when you are mentioning the reaction or attitude that you think someone is likely to have to something you are about to say.
You know, Brian, whatever you may think, I work hard for a living.
You may consider it useless, but for our customers it's an all-important sign of good service.
MODAL
13 You use may in expressions such as I may add and I may say in order to emphasize a statement that you are making.
They spent their afternoons playing golfmextremely badly, I may addmaround Loch Lomond.
Both of them, I may say, are thoroughly reliable men.
MODAL emphasis
14 If you do something so that a particular thing may happen, you do it so that there is an opportunity for that thing to happen.
...the need for an increase in the numbers of surgeons so that patients may be treated as soon as possible...
The door is shut so that no one may overhear what is said.
MODAL
= can
15 People sometimes use may to express hopes and wishes. (FORMAL)
Courage seems now to have deserted him. May it quickly reappear.
MODAL: MODAL n v
(c) HarperCollins Publishers.
lagEng'word.MIGHT:
* might-569i,
· _stxEngl: I _stxVrb:{kept} _stxObj:the engine#how:running#why=because: it _sxtVrb:{might be} necessary to leave fast.
· _stxEngl: Nobody _stxVrb:{might forget} that today was Tuesday.
· _stxEngl: Peace it seemed _sxtVrb:{might at last be} no more than a few months away.
· _stxEngl: if you persist, you _sxtVrb:{might succeed}
· _stxEngl: We have [newer generations] of retirees who have completely different expectations of what later life _sxtVrb:{might bring} to them. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: [knowledge] {is considered} to be any form of information that one _sxtVrb:{might be} able to manipulate in one's brain.
· _stxEngl: `Why didn't you tell me, Archie?'--`Because you _sxtVrb:{might have casually mentioned} it to somebody else.' [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: Coils buried in tunnels below the ground _sxtVrb:{might soon be used} to store large amounts of electricity. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: he did not reply, for he knew that he _sxtVrb:{might insult} me. [mg06]
_sxtVrb:{MIGHT'verber-551}:
* Might is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb.
* You use might to indicate that something will possibly happen or be true in the future, but you cannot be certain. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: There's a report today that smoking might be banned totally in most buildings. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The two countries might go to war. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I might well regret it later. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: He said he might not be back until tonight. [HarperCollins]
MODAL vagueness = may
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.O:,
lagEng'word.OVER:
* over-569i,
* _Nominative:
· _stxEngl: ([She] _stxVrb:{held} /the book/ "OVER the table".) as adverbial.
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:She _stxVrb:{held} _stxObj:the book#OVER: the table.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.P:,
lagEng'word.PRIOR:
* prior-569i,
* _Nominative:
= ΠΡΙΝ'ΑΠΟ.1104:
= before.1104:
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:((Prior) to (the study)), _stxSbj:scientists _stxVrb:{thought} _stxObj:that human language _sxtVrb:{developed} 40,000 years ago, around the time cave paintings and symbols _sxtVrb:{appeared}.
· _stxEngl: _sxtVrb:{Obtain} visa _stxTime:prior to arrival.
· _stxEngl: It is important to enrich the soil prior to planting. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: It is not always necessary to gut the fish prior to freezing. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The embryos were tested to determine their sex prior to implantation. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: He knew about the interview prior to its publication and had actually previewed the piece. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: In the car industry, the August sales will involve a build up of stocks prior to this date. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: A man seen hanging around the area prior to the shooting could have been involved. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: No show prior to `On The Town' had told so much of its story through dance. [HarperCollins]
* _Adjective:
· _stxEngl: The caves can be visited only by prior arrangement. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: He claimed he had no prior knowledge of the protest. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The Constitution requires the president to seek the prior approval of Congress for military action. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: For the prior year, they reported net income of $1.1 million. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The firm I wanted to use had prior commitments. [HarperCollins]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.S:,
lagEng'word.SHALL:
* shall-569i,
shall shall;
Shall is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb.
1 You use shall with `I' and `we' in questions in order to make offers or suggestions, or to ask for advice.
Shall I get the keys?.
I bought some lovely raisin buns at the bakery. Shall I bring you one with some tea?.
Shall I telephone her and ask her to come here?.
Well, shall we go?.
Let's have a nice little stroll, shall we?.
What shall I do?.
MODAL
2 You use shall, usually with `I' and `we', when you are referring to something that you intend to do, or when you are referring to something that you are sure will happen to you in the future.
We shall be landing in Paris in sixteen minutes, exactly on time.
I shall sail out on the twenty-second.
I shall know more next month, I hope.
I shall miss him terribly.
MODAL
3 You use shall with `I' or `we' during a speech or piece of writing to say what you are going to discuss or explain later. (FORMAL)
In Chapter 3, I shall describe some of the documentation that I gathered.
We shall refer here to three significant trends that arose in the previous decade.
The building, as we shall see, is very different in its internal planning, with a great complex of halls and rooms.
MODAL
4 You use shall to indicate that something must happen, usually because of a rule or law. You use shall not to indicate that something must not happen.
The president shall hold office for five years.
The Security Council shall decide what measures shall be taken to restore peace and security.
The bank shall be entitled to debit the amount of such liability and all costs incurred in connection with it to your Account.
You shall not make this speech.
If you want to pry into other people's business you shall not do it here, young man.
MODAL
5 You use shall, usually with `you', when you are telling someone that they will be able to do or have something they want.
Very well, if you want to go, go you shall.
`I want to hear all the gossip, all the scandal.'n`You shall, dearie, you shall!'.
`What I would like, is a membership list and some information on how the Society is run.'n`Then that is what you shall have.'
MODAL
6 You use shall with verbs such as `look forward to' and `hope' to say politely that you are looking forward to something or hoping to do something. (FORMAL)
Well, we shall look forward to seeing him tomorrow.
I shall hope to see you in my office, young lady, and we'll review your portfolio.
MODAL politeness
7 You use shall when you are referring to the likely result or consequence of a particular action or situation.
When the big City law firms finally decide to put the lid on their entertainments, we shall know that times really are hard.
This is our last chance and we shall need to take it if we are to compete and survive.
MODAL
(c) HarperCollins Publishers.
lagEng'word.SHOULD:
* should-569i,
* should-551,
· _stxEngl: How should I take this message? [WordNet 2.0]
* should used to express
- condition,
- obligation or propriety,
- probalility, or
- futurity from a point of view in the past.
[Franklin LM-6000, 1991]
· _stxEngl: [Nobody] _stxVrb:{should forget} /(that today was Tuesday)/.
· _stxEngl: [The health department] _sxtVrb:{has decided} /that ([all high school students] _stxVrb:{should be immunised} /(against meningitis)/).
· _stxEngl: _stxObj:[whom] [we] _stxVrb:{should} /(invite)/?
· _stxEngl: [You] _stxVrb:{should ussually set off} /(non-restrictive elements with commas)/.
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:[I myself] _stxVrb:{believe} /that (aliens _sxtVrb:{should abduct} /(my sister)/.
· _stxEngl: [Calls to Bhutan] _stxVrb:{should be made} /through the international operator/.
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:I myself _stxVrb:believe _stxObj:that aliens should abduct my sister.
· _stxEngl: She should be back by ten o'clock at the latest. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The Shakers believed that furniture should be plain, simple, useful, practical and of sound construction.
· _stxEngl: _stxObj:whom _stxSbj:we _stxVrb:should invite? ==> we should invite /x/.
· _stxEngl: _stxSbj:The new test _stxVrb:should enable _stxObj:doctors _stxObj:(to detect the disease early). [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: The health department has decided that all high school students should be immunised against meningitis. ????.
· _stxEngl: We're not saying that activists should put all their effort and time into party politics. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: You should usually set off non-restrictive elements with commas
· _stxEngl: The ship ran aground where there should have been a depth of 35ft. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: He is anxious that there should be no delay. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: /whom/ [we] {should invite}?
· _stxEngl: I _stxVrb:should like TO FISH tonight.
· _stxEngl: [Calls to Bhutan] should be made through the international operator.
· _stxEngl: The bananas should be eaten within two days. [HarperCollins]
should should;
Should is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb.
1 You use should when you are saying what would be the right thing to do or the right state for something to be in.
I should exercise more.
The diet should be maintained unchanged for about a year.
He's never going to be able to forget it. And I don't think he should.
Sometimes I am not as brave as I should be.
Should our children be taught to swim at school?
MODAL
2 You use should to give someone an order to do something, or to report an official order.
All visitors should register with the British Embassy.
The European Commission ruled that British Aerospace should pay back tens of millions of pounds.
MODAL
3 If you say that something should have happened, you mean that it did not happen, but that you wish it had. If you say that something should not have happened, you mean that it did happen, but that you wish it had not.
I should have gone this morning but I was feeling a bit ill.
I should have been in the shade like all the other tourists, then I wouldn't have got burned.
You should have done that yesterday you idiot!.
You should have written to the area manager again.
I shouldn't have said what I did.
MODAL
4 You use should when you are saying that something is probably the case or will probably happen in the way you are describing. If you say that something should have happened by a particular time, you mean that it will probably have happened by that time.
You should have no problem with reading this language.
The voters should by now be in no doubt what the parties stand for.
The doctor said it will take six weeks and I should be fine by then.
We should have finished by a quarter past two and the bus doesn't leave till half past.
MODAL
5 You use should in questions when you are asking someone for advice, permission, or information.
Should I or shouldn't I go to university?.
What should I do?.
Please could you advise me what I should do?.
Should I go back to the motel and wait for you to telephone?.
Should I fetch your slippers?.
Should we tell her about it?
MODAL
6 You say `I should', usually with the expression `if I were you', when you are giving someone advice by telling them what you would do if you were in their position. (FORMAL)
I should look out if I were you!.
James, I should refuse that consultancy with Shapiro, if I were you.
I should go if I were you.
MODAL
7 You use should in conditional clauses when you are talking about things that might happen. (FORMAL)
If you should be fired, your health and pension benefits will not be automatically cut off.
Should you buy a home from Lovell, the company promises to buy it back at the same price after three years.
Should Havelock become the first Englishman to retain his world title, he will be the last to do so under the present system.
MODAL
8 You use should in `that' clauses after certain verbs, nouns, and adjectives when you are talking about a future event or situation.
He raised his glass and indicated that I should do the same.
I insisted that we should have a look at every car.
My father was very keen that I should fulfill my potential.
George was sincerely anxious that his son should find happiness and security.
It seems such a pity that a distinguished and honored name should be commercialized in such a manner.
There is a wish among competitors that the Federation should change the test every four years.
MODAL
9 You use should in expressions such as I should think and I should imagine to indicate that you think something is true but you are not sure.
I should think it's going to rain soon.
`I suppose that was the right thing to do.'n`I should imagine so.'.
`Can we be talking about the same thing?'n`I should hope so.'
MODAL vagueness
10 You use should in expressions such as I should like and I should be happy to show politeness when you are saying what you want to do, or when you are requesting, offering, or accepting something.
I should be happy if you would bring them this evening.
`I should like to know anything you can tell me,' said Kendal.
I should like a word with the carpenter.
I should like to ask you to come with us for a quiet supper.
That is very kind of you both. I should like to come.
`You can go and see her tomorrow afternoon if you feel like it.'n`I should be delighted to do so.'.
She thought, `I should like her for a friend.'.
MODAL politeness
11 You use should in expressions such as You should have seen us and You should have heard him to emphasize how funny, shocking, or impressive something that you experienced was. (SPOKEN)
You should have heard him last night!.
You should have seen him when he first came outmit was so sad.
He started crying and I cried too. You should have seen us.
You should have seen his roses! As good a show as in the Botanic Garden.
You should have seen Boris's face when Hugh tapped him on the shoulder. Talk about surprise!
MODAL emphasis
12 You use should in question structures which begin with words like `who' and `what' and are followed by `but' to emphasize how surprising or shocking a particular event was. (SPOKEN)
I'm making these plans and who should I meet but this blonde guy and John.
MODAL emphasis
(c) HarperCollins Publishers.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.T:,
lagEng'word.THAN:
* than-569i,
THAN'conjunction!~conj:
* semo.conjunction.noun: two-comparison-relation#cptCore546.108#:
· _stxEngl: [Temperate climate] _stxVrb:{is} |cooler than much of the U.S.|
· _stxEngl: [Winters] _stxVrb:{are} warmer and ([summers] {are} |[cooler] than in [New England]|.
* You use than in order to link two parts of a contrast, for example in order to state a preference. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I _sxtVrb:{would [rather] stare} at a clear, star-filled sky than a TV set. [HarperCollins]
· _stxEngl: I would sooner give up sleep than miss my evening class. [HarperCollins]
CONJ-COORD
lagEng'word.THE:
* the-569i,
Definite Article: the
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.
...
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
* "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
* "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
...
Geographical use of the
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.
Do not use the before:
* names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
* names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
* names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
* names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
* names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
* names of continents (Asia, Europe)
* names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
* names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
* points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
* geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
* deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula
Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
* Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
* Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
* Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science
[http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/540/01/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng'word.W:,
lagEng'word.WHEN:
* when-569i:
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _sxtVrb:{Call} _stxObj:the movers#time.when: (you are ready).
* _Nominative:
· _stxEngl: _stxVrb:{Call} _stxObj:the movers _stxTime:when (you are ready).
* _Adverb:
= πότε.556#cptCore556.2.019#:
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:when ::vrbs:_sxtVrb:{will he return}? ==> _stxSbj:he _stxVrb:will return _stxTime:when.
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:When ::vrbs:_sxtVrb:{does the court of law sit}? [WordNet 2.0]
· _stxEngl: _stxTime:When ::vrbs:_sxtVrb:{will the new President take} _stxObj:office? [WordNet 2.0]
lagEng'word.WHITH:
* whith-569i,
=== _CONJUNCTION:
· _stxEngl: _stxVrb:{cover} _stxObj:the child#instrument=with: a blanket. [WordNet 2.0]
lagEng'word.WOULD:
* would-569i,
* Would is a modal verb. It is used with the base form of a verb. In spoken English, would is often abbreviated to 'd.
1 You use would when you are saying what someone believed, hoped, or expected to happen or be the case.
No one believed the soldiers stationed at the border would actually open fire.
Would he always be like this?.
Once inside, I found that the flat would be perfect for my life in Paris.
He expressed the hope that on Monday elementary schools would be reopened.
A report yesterday that said British unemployment would continue to rise.
I don't think that he would take such a decision.
MODAL
2 You use would when saying what someone intended to do.
The statement added that although there were a number of differing views, these would be discussed by both sides.
George decided it was such a rare car that he would only use it for a few shows.
He did not think he would marry Beth.
MODAL
3 You use would when you are referring to the result or effect of a possible situation.
Ordinarily it would be fun to be taken to fabulous restaurants.
It would be wrong to suggest that police officers were not annoyed by acts of indecency.
It would cost very much more for the four of us to go from Italy.
...identity cards without which fans would not be able to get into stadiums.
MODAL
4 You use would, or would have with a past participle, to indicate that you are assuming or guessing that something is true, because you have good reasons for thinking it.
You wouldn't know him.
His fans would already be familiar with Caroline.
That would have been Della's car.
He made a promise to his great-grandfather? That would have been a long time ago.
It was half seven; her mother would be annoyed because he was so late.
MODAL
5 You use would in the main clause of some `if' and `unless' sentences to indicate something you consider to be fairly unlikely to happen.
If only I could get some sleep, I would be able to cope.
I think if I went to look at more gardens, I would be better on planning and designing them.
A policeman would not live one year if he obeyed these regulations.
the targets would not be achieved unless other departments showed equal commitment.
MODAL
6 You use would to say that someone was willing to do something. You use would not to indicate that they refused to do something.
They said they would give the police their full cooperation.
She indicated that she would help her husband.
David would not accept this.
He wouldn't say where he had picked up the information.
MODAL
7 You use would not to indicate that something did not happen, often in spite of a lot of effort.
He kicked, pushed, and hurled his shoulder at the door. It wouldn't open.
He kept trying to start the car and the battery got flatter and flatter, until it wouldn't turn the engine at all.
The paint wouldn't stick to the wallpaper.
MODAL
8 You use would, especially with `like', `love', and `wish', when saying that someone wants to do or have a particular thing or wants a particular thing to happen.
She asked me what I would like to do and mentioned a particular job.
Right now, your mom would like a cup of coffee.
Ideally, she would love to become pregnant again.
He wished it would end.
Anne wouldn't mind going to Italy or France to live.
MODAL
would rather: see rather.
9 You use would with `if' clauses in questions when you are asking for permission to do something.
Do you think it would be all right if I smoked?.
Mr. Cutler, would you mind if I asked a question?
MODAL
10 You use would, usually in questions with `like', when you are making a polite offer or invitation.
Would you like a drink?.
Would you like to stay?.
Perhaps you would like to pay a visit to London.
MODAL politeness
11 You use would, usually in questions, when you are politely asking someone to do something.
Would you do me a favour and get rid of this letter I've just received?.
Would you come in here a moment, please?.
Would you excuse us for a minute, Cassandra?.
Oh dear, there's the doorbell. See who it is, would you, darling.
MODAL politeness
= could
12 You say that someone would do something when it is typical of them and you are critical of it. You emphasize the word would when you use it in this way.
I was amazed, during a `Women In Rock' debate, to be told, `Well, you would say that: you're a man.'.
`Well, then Francesca turned round and said, jThat's a stupid question.k'n`She would, wouldn't she.'
MODAL disapproval
13 You use would, or sometimes would have with a past participle, when you are expressing your opinion about something or seeing if people agree with you, especially when you are uncertain about what you are saying.
I think you'd agree he's a very respected columnist.
I would have thought it a proper job for the Army to fight rebellion.
`Was it much different for you when you started at the Foreign Office?'n`Worse, I'd expect.'.
I would imagine that you can't grow seeds actually in these big plastic bags.
MODAL vagueness
14 You use I would when you are giving someone advice in an informal way.
If I were you I would simply ring your friend's bell and ask for your bike back.
I would not, if I were you, be inclined to discuss private business with the landlady.
There could be more unrest, but I wouldn't exaggerate the problems.
MODAL
15 You use you would in negative sentences with verbs such as `guess' and `know' when you want to say that something is not obvious, especially something surprising.
Chris is so full of artistic temperament you'd never think she was the daughter of a banker.
Inside, he admits, his emotions may be churning, but you would never guess it.
MODAL
16 You use would to talk about something which happened regularly in the past but which no longer happens.
Sunday mornings my mother would bake. I'd stand by the fridge and help.
`Beauty is only skin deep,' my mother would say.
MODAL
= used to
17 You use would have with a past participle when you are saying what was likely to have happened by a particular time.
Within ten weeks of the introduction, 34 million people would have been reached by our television commercials.
MODAL
18 You use would have with a past participle when you are referring to the result or effect of a possible event in the past.
My daughter would have been 17 this week if she had lived.
If I had known how he felt, I would never have let him adopt those children.
If I had not been enjoying the work, I would not have done so much of it.
MODAL
19 If you say that someone would have liked or preferred something, you mean that they wanted to do it or have it but were unable to.
I would have liked a life in politics.
She would have liked to ask questions, but he had moved on to another topic.
He also had made it a practice to dine there regularly, though he would have preferred being at home.
MODAL
20 You use would, usually in negative sentences, to criticize something that someone has done and to express your disapproval of it.
I would never have done what they did.
MODAL
21 If you say `would that' something were the case, you are saying that you wish it were the case. (FORMAL)
Would that he could have listened to his father.
PHR: PHR cl
= if only
(c) HarperCollins Publishers.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEng.SPECIFIC,
_SPECIFIC:
* oral-English,
* alphabetic-English,
* international-English,
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.genericNo.ESTONIAN (lagEst),
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore667,
* McsEngl.language.human.estonian@cptCore667,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.estonian@cptCore667,
* McsEngl.lgEt@cptCore667,
* McsEngl.lagEst@cptCore667,
_DESCRIPTION:
Estonian eesti keel
Native to Estonia
Ethnicity Estonians
Native speakers 1.29 million (date missing)[1]
Language family Uralic Finnic Estonian
Writing system Latin (Estonian alphabet) Estonian Braille
Official language in Estonia European Union
Regulated by Institute of the Estonian Language / Eesti Keele Instituut, Emakeele Selts (semi-official)
Language codes ISO 639-1 et
ISO 639-2 est
ISO 639-3 est – inclusive code
Individual codes:
ekk – Standard Estonian
vro – Vυro
Glottolog esto1258[2]
Estonian (eesti keel pronounced ['e?sti 'ke?l] ( listen)) is the official language of Estonia, spoken natively by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various migrant communities. It belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family.
One distinctive feature that has caused a great amount of interest among linguists is what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phonemic length: short, long, and "overlong", such that /s?d?/, /s??d?/ and /s??d?/ are distinct. In actuality, the distinction is not purely in the phonemic length, and the underlying phonological mechanism is still disputed.[citation needed]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'cdLng.UNIT.C (sentence),
_GENERIC:
* sentence#cptCore557#
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'sentence'order,
_DESCRIPTION:
The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#Grammar]
===
However, as one would expect from an agglutinative language, the word order is quite free and non-neutral word order can be used to stress some parts of the sentence or in poetic text, as in Finnish grammar. For example, consider the sentence mees tappis karu which means (a/the) man killed (a/the) bear and uses the neutral SVO word order. The sentence can be rephrased using OVS word order as karu tappis mees — a normal Estonian sentence that could be more precisely translated as it was (a/the) man who killed the bear, i. e. the sayer emphasizes that the killer was a man, probably assuming the listener knows that a bear was killed. The other four word orders (tappis mees karu, tappis karu mees, mees karu tappis, karu mees tappis) are also possible in certain contexts, especially if more words are added to the three-word sentences.
Sometimes the form of the verb, nouns and adjectives in the sentence are not enough to determine the subject and object, e. g. mehed tapsid karud (the men killed the bears) or isa tappis karu (father killed the bear) — in the first sentence because in plural, the nominative case is used in Estonian both for subject and telic object, and in the second sentence because in singular, the nominative, genitive and partitive forms of the word isa are the same, as well as those of the word karu (unlike the word mees which has different forms: sg. nom. mees, sg. gen. mehe, sg. part. meest). In such sentences, word order is the only thing that distinguishes the subject and the object: listener presumes that the former noun (mehed, isa) is the subject and the latter (karud, karu) is the object. In such situations, the sayer cannot interchange the subject and the object for emphasis (at least unless it is obvious from the context which noun is the subject).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'question,
_DESCRIPTION:
Questions begin with an interrogative word (interrogative pro-forms or kas (yes/no-question), eks (yes-question), ega (no-question)), followed by the SVO word order (in spoken language, interrogative words are sometimes left out, but instead there is either a change in intonation or VSO word order); answers: jah/jaa (yes), ei (no).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'cdLng.UNIT.B (lingo-name),
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'conjunction,
Adpositions[edit]
The following lists are not exhaustive.
Postpositions
with the genitive case and declinable (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): alla - all - allt (under), ette - ees - eest (in front of), juurde - juures - juurest (at), jδrele - jδrel - jδrelt (after), keskele - keskel - keskelt (in the middle), kohale - kohal - kohalt (above), kυrvale - kυrval - kυrvalt (beside), kδtte - kδes - kδest (in the hand of), lδhedale - lδhedal - lδhedalt (near), peale - peal - pealt (on), sisse - sees - seest (in), taha - taga - tagant (behind), vahele - vahel - vahelt (between), δδrde - δδres - δδrest (by)
with the genitive case and non-declinable: eest / jaoks (for), jδrgi (according to), kaudu (via), kohta (about), pδrast (on account of), vastas (vis-ΰ-vis), vastu (against), όle (over), όmber (around)
with the partitive case: mφφda (along)
with the elative case: alla (down), lδbi (through), peale / saadik (since)
Prepositions
with the genitive case: lδbi (through), peale (besides), όle (over), όmber (around)
with the partitive case: alla (down), enne (before), kesk / keset (amid), mφφda (along), piki (alongside), pδrast (after), vastu (against)
with the terminative case: kuni (until)
with the abessive case: ilma (without)
with the comitative case: koos / όhes (with)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case,
_SPECIFIC:
Nominative Genitive Partitive Illative Inessive Elative Allative Adessive Ablative Translative Terminative Essive Abessive Comitative
===
Locative cases make up six or eight of these fourteen (depending on interpretation).
There are also some additional cases such as the prolative (jalgsi, "by foot"; kδsitsi, "by hand"),[2] which are not traditionally counted among the 14 grammatical cases.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_grammar]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Abessive (-ta),
* McsEngl.estta,
* McsEngl.estabessive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'abessive,
_DESCRIPTION:
In linguistics, abessive (abbreviated abe or abess), caritive and privative (abbreviated priv) are names for a grammatical case expressing the lack or absence of the marked noun. In English, the corresponding function is expressed by the preposition without or by the suffix -less.
The name abessive is derived from Latin abesse "to be away/absent", and is especially used in reference to Uralic languages. The name caritive is derived from Latin carere "to lack", and is especially used in reference to Caucasian languages. The name privative is derived from Latin privare "to deprive".
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abessive_case]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Comitative (-ga),
* McsEngl.estga,
* McsEngl.estcomitative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'comitative,
_DESCRIPTION:
The comitative case (abbreviated com) is a grammatical case that denotes accompaniment.[1]:17–23In English,the preposition "with", in the sense of "in company with" or "together with," plays a substantially similar role (other uses of "with", e.g. with the meaning of "using" or "by means of" (I cut bread with a knife), correspond to the instrumental case or related cases).
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Essive (-na),
* McsEngl.estna,
* McsEngl.estessive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'essive,
_DESCRIPTION:
The essive or similaris case (abbreviated ess) is one example of a grammatical case, an inflectional morphological process by which a form is altered or marked in order to indicate its grammatical function.[1] Marking of the essive case on a noun can express it as a definite period of time during which something happens or during which a continuous action was completed. The essive case can also denote a form as a temporary location, state of being, or character in which the subject was at a given time. The latter of these meanings is often referred to as the equivalent of the English phrase “as a ___”.[2]
...
In the Estonian language, this case is marked by adding "-na" to the genitive stem.[11] Marking of this case in Estonian denotes the capacity in which the subject acts. The essive case is used for indicating "states of being", but not of "becoming", which is instead marked by either the translative case, the elative case, or the nominative case.[12]
Example: laps "child" -> lapse "of child" -> lapsena "as a child", "when (I) was a child".
Example: Ta tφφtab insenerina "He works as an engineer."[13]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essive_case]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Genitive (-de|te),
* McsEngl.estde,
* McsEngl.estgenitive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'genitive,
_DESCRIPTION:
Main uses of the genitive
2.2
To show possession, the possessor is named first, in the genitive. Some prepositions and most postpositions require the genitive case.
pro.fessoriGen raamatNom = the professor's book
Limo.naad ja riis on pruuniGen lauaGen peal. = The lemonade and rice are on the brown table.
[http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etmorf.htm]
The formation of the genitive
2.8
The genitive always ends in a vowel. The genitive of most words is obtained by adding to the nominative a vowel (a, e, i, or u; most often i). No vowel is added if the nominative already ends in a vowel.
restoran = restaurant, restorani
.diivan = sofa, .diivani
muusika = music, muusika
2.9
If the nominative ends in -ne, then usually in the genitive -ne is replaced by -se.
ak.tiivne = active, ak.tiivse
2.10
Some words that in the nominative end in r, l, or n, lose the previous vowel in the genitive.
.teater = theater, .teatri
mi.nister = minister, mi.nistri
sep.tember = September, sep.tembri
.peegel = mirror, .peegli
2.11
Some words have an additional syllable in the genitive.
lόhike = short, lόhikese
hele = light (not dark), heleda
sale = slim, saleda
tόse = fat (not slim), tόseda
2.12
If a monosyllabic word in the nominative ends in a consonant, then the word is declined following the pattern of lamp. For the words that follow this pattern, in the geinitive the stressed syllable is long, sometimes short, but never overlong, as in the nominative.
lamp = lamp, lambi
pruun = brown, pruuni
sokk = sock, soki
pδev = day, pδeva
2.13
Some words that follow the pattern of lamp lose a consonant in the genitive or replace a consonant by another one.
laud = table, laua
juht = driver, juhi
halb = bad, halva
[http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etmorf.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.LOCATIVE,
* McsEngl.estlocative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'locative,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Ablative (-lt from off),
* McsEngl.estlt,
* McsEngl.establative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'ablative,
_DESCRIPTION:
In grammar, ablative case (abbreviated abl) is a grammatical case (a type of noun inflection) in various languages that is used generally to express motion away from something, although the precise meaning may vary by language. The name "ablative" derives from the Latin ablatus, the (irregular) perfect passive participle of auferre "to carry away".[1] There is no ablative case in Germanic languages.
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Adessive (-l on),
* McsEngl.elstl,
* McsEngl.estadessive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'adessive,
_DESCRIPTION:
In Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, the adessive case (abbreviated ade; from Latin adesse "to be present") is the fourth of the locative cases with the basic meaning of "on". For example, Estonian laud (table) and laual (on the table), Hungarian asztal and asztalnαl (at the table). It is also used as an instrumental case in Finnish.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adessive_case]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Allative (-le onto),
* McsEngl.estle,
* McsEngl.estallative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'allative,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Elative (-st out of),
* McsEngl.estst,
* McsEngl.estelative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'elative,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Illative (-sse into),
* McsEngl.estsse,
* McsEngl.estillative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'illative,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Inessive (-s in),
* McsEngl.ests,
* McsEngl.estinessive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'inessive,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Nominative (-d),
* McsEngl.estd,
* McsEngl.estnominative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'nominative,
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Partitive (-id -e),
* McsEngl.estid,
* McsEngl.estpartitive,
* McsEngl.lagEst'partitive,
_SUFFIX:
- id | sid
- e | i | u
_DESCRIPTION:
The partitive case (abbreviated ptv or more ambiguously part) is a grammatical case which denotes "partialness", "without result", or "without specific identity". It is also used in contexts where a subgroup is selected from a larger group, or with numbers.
Main uses of the partitive:
2.3
In its basic meaning, the partitive indicates an indeterminate whole, of which only a part is under consideration. In particular, it is used after words of quantity.
kilo .riisiPtv = a kilo of rice
klaas limo.naadiPtv = a glass of lemonade
2.4
In a nominative noun group with a cardinal number except 'one', the noun following the number is in the partitive singular.
kaks .pruuniPtv .sokkiPtv = two brown socks
2.5
In sentences expressing an on-going, incomplete, or repeated action and in negative sentences, the direct object is in the partitive case; this is the so-called partial object. In other sentences, the direct object is in the genitive or nominative case (in plural it is always in the nominative case); this is the so-called total object.
Kirjutan raamatutPtv. = I am writing a book.
Ostan raamatuGen. = I shall buy a book.
Ostan pruunidNom.Pl sokidNom.Pl. = I shall buy brown socks.
[http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etmorf.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Terminative (-ni),
* McsEngl.estni,
* McsEngl.estterminative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'terminative,
_DESCRIPTION:
In morphology, the terminative case (abbreviated term) is a case specifying a limit in space and time and also to convey the goal or target of an action.
...
In the Estonian language, the terminative case is indicated by the '-ni' suffix:
jυeni: "to the river" / "as far as the river"
kella kuueni: "until six o'clock"
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminative_case]
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'case.Translative (-ks),
* McsEngl.estks,
* McsEngl.esttranslative,
* McsEngl.lagEst'translative,
_DESCRIPTION:
The translative case (abbreviated transl) is a grammatical case that indicates a change in state of a noun, with the general sense of "becoming X" or "change to X".
...
Examples in Estonian:
must auk "black hole", (muutus/muundus) mustaks auguks "(turned into) a black hole"
kell kuus "(at) six o' clock", kella kuueks "by six o' clock"
name::
* McsEngl.estnoun'declension,
Declension of nouns
Case
Number Nominative Genitive Partitive Illative Inessive Elative Allative Adessive Ablative Translative Terminative Essive Abessive Comitative
Singular - - - -sse -s -st -le -l -lt -ks -ni -na -ta -ga
Plural -d -de / -te -id / -sid / -e / -i / -u -sse -s -st -le -l -lt -ks -ni -na -ta -ga
MOOD:
* indicative
* conditional
* imperative
* quotative
INSTANTNESS:
* instant
* interval
DIRECTION (VOICE):
* active
* passive
PERFECTIVENESS:
* perfect
* imperfect
* pluperfect
INTERROGATION:
* noninterrogative
* interrogative
AFFIRMATION:
* positive
* neggative
PERSON:
* first
* second
* third
Active-Direction Passive-Direction
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect
Prt Inst I write I have written I am written I have been written
ma kirjutan Ma olen kirjutanud Ma olen kirjutanud Ma olen kirjutanud
Intv I am writing I have been writing I am being written I have being written
Kirjutan Ma olen kirjalikult Olen kirjutatakse Olen kirjutatakse
Pst Inst I wrote I had written I was written I had been written
kirjutasin Olin kirjutanud Olin kirjutanud Mul oli kirjutatud
Intv I was writing I had been writing I was being written I had being written
Kirjutasin Olin kirjalikult Olin kirjutatakse Mul oli kirjutatud
Ftr Inst I will write I will have written I will be written Iwill have been written
Ma kirjutasin Ma olen kirjutanud Ma ei kirjutata Ma ei ole kirjutanud
Intv I will be writing I will have been writing I will being written I will have being written
Rδδgin kirjalikult Ma olen kirjalikult Ma kirjutatakse Ma ei kirjutatud
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'cdLng.UNIT.A (letter-phoneme),
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'alphabet,
* McsEngl.alphabet.Estonian,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrZYuU6qhIc,
The official Estonian alphabet has 27 letters:
A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, �, Z, �, T, U, V, Υ, Δ, Φ, ά.
Alphabet[edit]
Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters δ, φ, ό, and υ, plus the later additions � and �.
The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, �, and � appear in loanwords and foreign names only.
Φ and ό are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish and Swedish (when followed by 'r'), Δ is pronounced [ζ], as in English mat. The vowels Δ, Φ and ά are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter υ denotes /?/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ? /??/ and the Vietnamese o, and is used to transcribe the Russian ?.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#Alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'letter,
_KEYBOARD:
* Δ 196/228 δ,
* Φ 214/246 φ,
* Υ 213/245 υ,
* ά 220/252 ό,
* � 138/154 �,
* � 142/158 �,
_LETTER:
fntTNR: The official Estonian alphabet has 27 letters: A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, �, Z, �, T, U, V, Υ, Δ, Φ, ά. The letters F, �, Z, � are so-called "foreign letters" (vυυrtδhed), and occur only in loanwords and foreign proper names. Occasionally, the alphabet is recited without them, and thus has only 23 letters: A, B, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, Υ, Δ, Φ, ά.
Additionally C, Q, W, X and Y are used in writing foreign proper names. They do not occur in Estonian words, and are not officially part of the alphabet. Including all the foreign letters, alphabet consists of the following 32 letters:
A a [??]
B b [b?e?]
C c [tse?] Not officially part of the alphabet; only used in loanwords
D d [d?e?]
E e [e?]
F f [eff] Only used in loanwords
G g [g°e?]
H h [h??] or [h??]
I i [i?]
J j [jot??]
K k [k??]
L l [ell]
M m [emm]
N n [enn]
O o [o?]
P p [pe?]
Q q [ku?] Not officially part of the alphabet; only used in loanwords
R r [err]
S s [ess]
� � [???] Only used in loanwords
Z z [ze?] Only used in loanwords
� � [?e?] Only used in loanwords
T t [te?]
U u [u?]
V v [ve?]
W w [k?ksisve?] Not officially part of the alphabet; only used in loanwords
Υ υ [??]
Δ δ [ζ?]
Φ φ [ψ?]
ά ό [y?]
X x [iks] Not officially part of the alphabet; only used in loanwords
Y y [igrek] or [ypsilon] Not officially part of the alphabet; only used in loanwords
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_orthography]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'Φ /e2/ 214/246,
1) /e2/:
* /e round/
* like German φ, similar to e in her
- φφkul (= owl)
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'Υ /o2/ 213/245,
lagEst'o_tilda:
* a uniquely Estonian sound pronounced with the tongue in the same position as the o sound, but with lips unrounded; kind of halfway between the e in get and the u in hung. The closest sound in English is the "i" in "cousin" or "ai" in "bargain"
===
The letter υ denotes /?/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ? /??/ and the Vietnamese o, and is used to transcribe the Russian ?.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#Alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'ά // 220/252,
1) /i2/
* /i round/
* like German ό, similar to ew in few
- όlane /i2lana/ (= anemone)
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'Š /ssa/ 138/154,
1) /ss/:
- �a�lυkk /ssasslo2kk/ (= kebab)
* The alternative spellings Sh for � and Zh for � are accepted in typed and printed text.
Only used in loanwords
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'Ž /zze/ 142/158,
1) /zz/:
- �urnaal (= magazine)
* The alternative spellings Sh for � and Zh for � are accepted in typed and printed text.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'E /e/,
1) /e/:
- eesti
* like e in get
2) /a/:
- hobune /hobuna/ (= horse)
- naine /naina/ (= woman)
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'C /ce/,
1) /c/:
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
1) /f/:
- foto
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
lagEst'q:
* ku
* []
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
lagEst'w:
* kaksizve
* []
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
lagEst'x:
* iks
* []
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
lagEst'y:
* iyrek
* []
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
1) /z/:
- zoopark /zoopark/ (= zoo)
* The letters C, F, Q, W, X, Y and Z are only used in foreign loan-words and foreign names – native Estonian words have no use for them.
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'orthography,
_DESCRIPTION:
Estonian orthography is the system used for writing the Estonian language and is based on the Latin alphabet. The Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_orthography]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'palatalization,
_DESCRIPTION:
Palatalization
The consonants denoted by t, d, l, n, and s are palatalized in certain words, which is not shown in spelling. Before i or j the sounds denoted by t, d, l, n, and s are always palatalized. They are never palatalized before a, o, u. In Estonian Grammar Dictionary, palatalization is shown with the apostrophe (') after t, d, l, n, or s; before i or j the apostrophe is not used ( pruun' = brown; mόn't = a coin; pos'tiljon = a postman; in the last word there are three palatalized consonants: s, t, and l).
[http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etpron.htm]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'phoneme,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'phoneme.VOWEL,
* McsEngl.lagEst'vowel-phoneme,
The duration of vowel sounds can be short, long, or overlong, depending on the word. Short vowels are written with one letter, long and overlong vowels with two. Overlong vowels often change the
pitch or stress of the syllable as well as the duration. There is no written distinction between long and overlong vowels. Example:
short sada (SAH-dah) ? one hundred
long saada (SAAH-dah) ? send!
overlong saada (SAAAH-dah) ? to get
[http://languagephrases.com/estonian/vowels-in-estonian-alphabet/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'evoluting,
_DESCRIPTION:
Modern standard Estonian has evolved on the basis of the dialects of Northern Estonia.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#History]
{time.2000}:
Joined the European Union 1 May 2004
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#State_language]
{time.2000}:
The return of Soviet immigrants to their countries of origin has brought the proportion of Estonians in Estonia back above 70%. And again as in Latvia, today many of the remnant non-Estonians in Estonia have adopted the Estonian language; about 40% at the 2000 census.[10]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#State_language]
{time.1991}:
During the Perestroika era, The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language was adopted in January 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the restoration of Republic of Estonia's independence. Estonian went back to being the only state language in Estonia which in practice meant that use of Estonian was promoted while the use of Russian was discouraged.[13]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#State_language]
{time.1919}:
After the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945, 97.3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian[10] and spoke the language.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#State_language]
{time.13th century}:
The oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#History]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'program,
* McsEngl.lagEst'tool,
_DICTIONARY:
* english-estonian: http://www.filosoft.ee/dict_enet//
* english-estonian: http://dict.ibs.ee//
* estonian-english: http://aare.pri.ee/dictionary.html?switch=en,
* resources: http://www.cl.ut.ee/ressursid//
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language,
* institute of the estonian language: http://en.eki.ee/index.php,
* Morphology Guide: http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etmorf.htm,
* Pronunciation guide: http://lpcs.math.msu.su/~pentus/etpron.htm,
_DIALECTS:
The Estonian dialects[14][15] are divided into two groups – the northern and southern dialects, historically associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct kirderanniku dialect, that of the northeastern coast of Estonia.
The northern group consists of the keskmurre or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the lδδnemurre or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Lδδnemaa and Pδrnumaa, the saarte murre (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the idamurre or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi.
The southern group (South Estonian language) consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Vυru (Vυro) and Setu (Seto) dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether.[16] Also, Seto and Vυro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession.[10][17]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language#Dialects]
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst.SPOKEN,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'pronunciation,
_DESCRIPTION:
In some ways, Estonian pronunciation is quite easy because words are normally spoken exactly as they are written.
However, in many cases the letters are pronounced differently to in English. Estonian also has several letters which don't occur in English, including one (Υ) which is rather tricky to pronounce as it has a very distinctive sound.
[http://www.speakestonian.co.uk/phrases/alphabet_and_pronunciation]
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* http://everything2.com/title/Estonian+pronunciation,
name::
* McsEngl.lagEst'stress,
_DESCRIPTION:
The stress of each word normally falls on the first syllable, which gives the language a distinctive rhythm. A notable exception is the word aitδh ("thanks") where the stress is on the second syllable. Some words of foreign origin are also stressed on syllables other than the first.
[http://www.speakestonian.co.uk/phrases/alphabet_and_pronunciation]
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.genericNo.FINNISH (lagFin),
* McsEngl.conceptCore670,
* McsEngl.language.human.finnish,
* McsEngl.lagFin,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.finnish,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.suomi,
* McsEngl.lgFi,
* McsEngl.suomi-language,
_DESCRIPTION:
Finnish (About this sound suomi (help·info), or suomen kieli) is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meδnkieli, a Finnish dialect, are spoken. The Kven language, a dialect of Finnish, is spoken in Northern Norway.
Finnish is the eponymous member of the Finnic language family and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages. It modifies and inflects nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs, depending on their roles in the sentence.
Finnish
Suomen kieli
Pronunciation ['suo?mi]
Native to Finland, Russia, Estonia, Sweden, Norway
Native speakers
5.0 million (1993)[1]
Language family
Uralic
Finnic
Finnish
Writing system
Latin (Finnish alphabet)
Finnish Braille
Signed forms
Signed Finnish
Official status
Official language in
Finland
European Union
recognised as minority language in:
Sweden[2]
Russian Federation:
Republic of Karelia[3]
Regulated by Language Planning Department of the Institute for the Languages of Finland
Language codes
ISO 639-1 fi
ISO 639-2 fin
ISO 639-3 fin
Glottolog finn1318[4]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language]
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'codeLingo.UNIT.A,
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'alphabet,
* McsEngl.alphabet.Finnish,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nem94I_gnK0,
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAc8Z4pfhFo,
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'B /be/,
Occurs in relatively new loanwords, such as banaani 'banana' and bussi 'bus'. Typically pronounced as [b?] or [p].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'C /se/,
Occurs in unestablished loanwords, such as curry and cesium. Typically pronounced as [k] or [s].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'D /de/,
1) /d/:
- duuri /duuri/ (=major)
In present standard language, d stands for [d], but it may be pronounced as [d?] or [t?], and the pronunciation in dialects varies greatly. Natively used in Western dialects as [?] and not at all in Eastern dialects.
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'F /ef/,
F, f δf, δffδ /ζf/, /'ζf.fζ/, occasionally /ef/ Occurs in relatively new loanwords, such as asfaltti 'asphalt' or uniformu 'uniform'. Historically and in dialectal pronunciation (apart from some Western dialects), /f/ is typically replaced with /?/ or medially /h?/ (e.g. kahvi /'kah.?i/ ? Swedish kaffe 'coffee'). Even newer loanwords may have an alternative spelling where v has replaced f (asvaltti, univormu).
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'G /ge/,
1) /g/:
gaselli /gaselli/ (= gazelle)
G, g gee /ge?/ Occurs natively in the digraph ng, which marks the long velar nasal [??] (with no [g] sound). Otherwise g only occurs in relatively new loanwords, such as gaala 'gala' and geeni 'gene'. Typically pronounced [g°] or [k].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'H /ho/,
1) /h/:
- hiihtδδ /hiihta2a2/ (= to ski)
H, h hoo /ho?/ Normally a voiceless fricative, but the precise pronunciation depends on the preceding vowel; between two vowels may be pronounced as breathy-voiced [?].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'J /yyi/,
1) /yy/:
- juoda /yyuoda/ (= to drink)
Without exception [j] (English consonant y), as in German and Swedish, never fricative or affricate as in French or English.
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'L /el/,
1) /l/:
- laiva (= ship)
L, l δl, δllδ /ζl/, /'ζl.lζ/, occasionally /el/
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'M /em/,
1) /m/
- mekko (= dress)
M, m δm, δmmδ /ζm/, /'ζm.mζ/, occasionally /em/
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'N /en/,
1) /n/
- naula (= nail)
N, n δn, δnnδ /ζn/, /'ζn.nζ/, occasionally /en/
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'O /o/,
1) /o/:
- opettaa (= to teach)
O, o oo /o?/ The precise pronunciation tends to be between [o] and [?].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Q /gu/,
1) /g/
- Qatar
Q, q kuu /ku?/ Mainly occurs in foreign proper names (in loanwords digraph qu has often been replaced with kv). Typically pronounced as [k].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'R /er/,
1) /r/
- ruoka (= food)
R, r δr, δrrδ /ζr/, /'ζr.rζ/, occasionally /er/
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'S /es/,
1) /s/:
- sisko (= sister)
S, s δs, δssδ /ζs/, /'ζs.sζ/, occasionally /es/
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'T /te/,
1) /t/:
- tuuli (= wind)
T, t tee /te?/ The precise pronunciation tends to be dental [t?] rather than alveolar [t].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'U /u/,
1) /u/:
- utelias (= curious)
The precise pronunciation tends to be between [u] and [o].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'V /ve/,
1) /v/:
- vanukas (= pudding)
Typically pronounced as approximant [?] rather than fricative [v].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'X /a2ks/,
1) /ks/:
X, x δks, δksδ /ζks/, /'ζk.sζ/, occasionally /eks/ Occurs in unestablished loanwords, such as taxi or fax, but there is often a preferred alternative where x has been replaced with digraph ks (taksi, faksi). Typically pronounced as [ks].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Y /i2/,
1) /i2/:
- ylφs /i2lo2s/ (= up)
Y, y yy /y?/ The precise pronunciation tends to be between [y] and [ψ].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Z /tset/,
1) /ts/:
Z, z tset, tseta /tset/, /'tse.t?/ Occurs in unestablished loanwords, such as zeniitti /tse.ni?t.ti/ 'zenith' or pizza, but there may be an alternative spelling with ts (e.g. pitsa). Typically pronounced [ts], but sometimes as [s] or [z?].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Ε /ruotsalainen o/ 197/229,
1) /o/:
Ε, ε ruotsalainen oo /o?/, /'ruot.s??l?i.nen o?/ The "Swedish o", carried over from the Swedish alphabet and redundant in Finnish; retained especially for writing Finland-Swedish proper names (such as Stεhlberg). Pronounced as [o]. No Finnish words contain a letter ε.
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Φ /e2/ 214/246,
1) /e2/:
* φljy /elyye/ (= oil)
Φ, φ φφ /ψ?/ The precise pronunciation tends to be between [ψ] and [�].
W, w kaksois-vee,
tupla-vee /?e?/,
/'k?k.sois??e?/,
/'tup.l???e?/ The "double-v" may occur natively as an archaic variant of v, but otherwise in unestablished loanwords and foreign proper names only. It occurs in some rare surnames such as Waltari (e.g. Mika Waltari, a world-famous author) or in some rare first names such as Werner (e.g. Werner Sφderstrφm, a well-known publisher). In collation the letter w is treated like v. Typically pronounced [?].
In addition, w is traditionally listed after v, although officially it is merely a variant of the latter and can be alphabetized as v.[2]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_orthography#Alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Š 352/353,
Š, š hattu-δs,
hattu-δssδ;
suhu-δs,
suhu-δssδ /'hattu.ζs/,
/'hattu.ζssζ/;
/'suhu.ζs/,
/'suhu.ζssζ/ The "s with a hat" is a rare variant of s. It occurred in some relatively new loanwords, such as �akki 'chess' and �illinki 'shilling', but is often replaced with digraph sh (�ampoo ? shampoo) or, in more established loanwords, with plain s (sampoo). In theory pronounced as [?] but in practice often as [s].
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'Ž 381/382,
Ž, ž hattu-tset,
hattu-tseta /'hat.tu?tset/,
/'hat.tu?tse.t?/ The "z with a hat" is a rare variant of z. It occurs in some unestablished loanwords, such as d�onkki 'junk', and foreign proper names, but is often replaced with digraph zh. In theory pronounced as [?] but the actual pronunciation may vary.
Similarly, � and � are variants of s and z, but they are often overlooked, as they are only used in some relatively new loanwords and foreign names, and may be replaced with sh and zh, respectively,[3] if it is technically impossible to reproduce � and �.[4] The Finnish keyboard layout doesn't include � or �; thus, in practice, only highly formal sources such as official texts, encyclopedias or Helsingin Sanomat use them.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_orthography#Alphabet]
name::
* McsEngl.lagFin'vowel,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GRPkSKeOQDw,
Vowel Harmony[edit]
Finnish, like all Finno-Uralic languages, has vowel harmony and it affects what vowels go with which words. It also affects the postpositions and endings of words.
In Finnish, there are eight vowels, a, e, i, o, u, y, δ and φ. They are grouped into three groups; front, neutral and back vowels. See the diagram:
Finnish vowel harmony Venn diagram.svg
The vowels in blue are front vowels (or "hard"), the vowels in green are neutral and the vowels in yellow are back vowels (or "soft").
In Finnish, single words contain only vowels of the same type as the initial, stressed syllable. So, for example, the word, aaltoileva contains only neutral and back vowels, while δidillδ contains only front and neutral vowels. With respect to vowel harmony, compound words are separate words, e.g. tyφmaa, with -ta suffixed tyφ|maa|ta.
When a word contains only neutral vowels, its suffixes use front vowels. For example, when the postposition -lla or -llδ is added to kieli, it becomes kielellδ, not kielella.
As a consequence, Finnish speakers often have trouble pronouncing foreign words which do not obey vowel harmony. For example, some Finns may pronounce olympia as olumpia because of the difficulty in producing the sounds of o and y in a row.
Vowel harmony applies to foreign words, too. For example, chat is heard as tsδt and consequently the frequentatitive verb "to chat" is tsδttδillδ (also spelled chattδillδ, chattailla, chδttδillä, etc.). (Note: Is this really about "vowel harmony" if there's only one vowel in the word "chat"? ch turns into ts because producing the ch sound takes effort, and ts does not.)
name::
* McsEngl.conceptCore42,
* McsEngl.french-language@cptCore42,
* McsEngl.language.french@cptCore42,
* McsEngl.lagHmn.french@cptCore42,
* McsElln.ΓΑΛΛΙΚΗ_ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
* McsElln.ΓΛΩΣΣΑ.ΓΑΛΛΙΚΗ@cptCore42,
ΓΑΛΛΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a#...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.lagFra'ATTRIBUTE,
_ATTRIBUTE:
* LETTER#cptCore78.5#
* ACCENT#cptCore59.21#
* LETTERS to SOUND REPRESENTATION#cptCore571#
* SOUNDS to LETTER REPRESENTATION
name::
* McsEngl.lagFra'UNIT,
* McsEngl.alphabet.French,
* McsEngl.lagFra'alphabet,
* http://www.frenchtutorial.com/en/learn-french/pronunciation/alphabet,
French uses the 26 letters of the alphabet plus a few "add-ons": accents on vowels (θ, ι, etc...) or cedilla (η).
_ALPHABET:
(32 numbers the-difference capital-small)
A, ΐ(192)ΰ(224), Β(194)β(226),
B
C, Η(199)η(231)
D
E, Θ(200)θ(232), Ι(201)ι(233), Κ(202)κ(234), (203)λ(235),
F
G
H
I, Ξ(206)ξ(238), Ο(207)ο(239),
J
K
L
M
N
O, Τ(212)τ(244),
P
Q
R
S
T
U, Ω(217)ω(249), Ϋ(219)ϋ(251), ά(220)ό(252),
V
W
X
Y
Z
===
* grave θ
* aigu ι
* circonflexe κ
* trιma λ
* cιdille η
_ALPHABET:
lagFra01a,
lagFra02be,
lagFra03se,
lagFra04de,
lagFra05ec,
lagFra06ef,
lagFra07ze,
lagFra08ass,
lagFra09i,
lagFra10zzi,
lagFra11ka,
lagFra12el,
lagFra13em,
lagFra14en,
lagFra15o,
lagFra16pe,
lagFra17kku,
lagFra18er,
lagFra19es,
lagFra20te,
lagFra21ic,
lagFra22ve,
lagFra23dubluve,
lagFra24iks,
lagFra25igrek,
lagFra26zet,
name::
* McsEngl.lagFra'dictionary,
How Is France Trying to Preserve the French Language?
A commission has proposed new tech vocab for French speakers, ie. "mobile multifonction" instead of "smartphone."
The French are continuing their long tradition of attempting to stop
English words from "infiltrating" their language, and are now focusing
specifically on tech vocab. For example, the members of a commission tasked
with protecting the French language do not want their compatriots to use
the English language term “smartphone.” They want the device to be
called le mobile multifonction instead -- or mobile for short. The
Commission d'enrichissement de la langue franηaise also has its sights set
on a variety of other English terms, proposing French alternatives to"fiber
optics" (fibronique), “email” (courrier ιlectronique), and
“hashtag” (mot-diθse).
Read More: http://www.wisegeek.com/how-is-france-trying-to-preserve-the-french-language.htm?m {2018-01-23}
name::
* McsEngl.lagFra'expression,
* McsEngl.expression.french,
_LAISSEZ_FAIRE:
/'lese feay/
* expression.laissez_faire,
The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let [them] do," but it broadly implies "let it be," "let them do as they will," or "leave it alone."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez-faire]
RAISON_D'E^TRE:
/rei'zon 'detra/
* expression.raison_d'etre,
Raison d'κtre, a French phrase meaning "reason for existence"
name::
* McsEngl.lagFra'spelling,
_DESCRIPTION:
Although french spelling appears complicated, it still remains more phonetic than that of English.
name::
* McsEngl.lagHmn.genericNo.GERMAN (lagDeu),
* McsEngl.conceptCore41,
* McsEngl.german-language@cptCore41,
* McsEngl.langoGerman@cptCore41, {2012-08-30}
* McsEngl.language.human.german@cptCore41,
* McsEngl.language.german@cptCore41,
* McsEngl.lagDeu@cptCore41, {2012-08-30} [iso.639-3]
====== lagoGreek:
* McsElln.ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑ,
====== lagoGerman:
cptDeu.Deutsch,
Language codes
ISO 639-1: de
ISO 639-2: ger (B) deu (T)
ISO 639-3: variously:
deu — Modern German
gmh — Middle High German
goh — Old High German
gsw — Swiss German
swg — Swabian German
gct — Alema'n Coloniero
wae — Walser German
bar — Austro-Bavarian
cim — Cimbrian
mhn — Mo'cheno
yid — Yiddish
sxu — Upper Saxon
sli — Lower Silesian language
wep — Westphalian
pdt — Plattdeutsch
pfl — Palatinate German
vmf — Main-Frankonian
ksh — Ko"lsch
ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗ ΓΛΩΣΣΑ είναι ΓΛΩΣΣΑ#cptCore93.a#...
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'WholeNo-relation,
name::
* McsEngl.GERMAN'LANGUAGE & ΙΝΔΟΕΥΡΠΑΙΚΗ ΟΙΚΟΓΕΝΕΙΑ,
Τα γερμανικά ανήκουν στο γερμανικό κλάδο της λεγόμενης ινδοευρωπαικής γλωσσικής οικογένειας μαζί με τη δανική, αγγλική, ολλανδική, νορβηγική και σουηäική γλώσσα, με τις οποίες έχει στενή συγγένεια.
[GRUNDKURS, 1982, 3#cptResource464#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'codeLingo.UNIT.B (lingo-names),
ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΟ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΟ ονομάζω ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΟ της 'γερμανικής-γλώσσας#cptCore41.a#'.
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
_GENERIC:
* NOUNER#cptCore256.3#
CASE:
NOMINATIVE/ΟΝΟΜΑΣΤΙΚΗ
AKKUSATIVE/ΑΙΤΙΑΤΙΚΗ
ΤΟ ΑΝΤΙΚΕΙΜΕΝΟ ΒΡΙΣΚΕΤΑΙ ΣΥΧΝΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΙΤΙΑΤΙΚΗ. ΑΛΛΑ ΜΟΝΟ ΣΕ ΑΡΣΕΝΙΚΑ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΑ ΔΙΑΦΕΡΕΙ Η ΑΙΤΙΑΤΙΚΗ ΑΠΟ ΤΗΝ ΟΝΟΜΑΣΤΙΚΗ.
[Grundkurs deutsch, 1982, 17#cptResource464#]
ΣΤΗ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗ ΟΛΑ ΤΑ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΑ ΓΡΑΦΟΝΤΑΙ ΜΕ ΤΟ ΠΡΩΤΟ ΓΡΑΜΜΑ ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ.
[Grundkurs deutsch, 1982, 6#cptResource464#]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'codeLingo.UNIT.A (letter-phoneme),
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'Letter (26+4=30),
* McsEngl.alphabet.German,
* McsEngl.german'letter,
* McsEngl.lngDeu'DIKTETRO,
* McsEngl.lagDeu'alphabet,
The German alphabet consists of the same 26 letters as the modern Roman alphabet:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
The German language additionally uses three letters with diacritics and one ligature:
ä(Alt0228), φ(A0246), ό(A0252) / Δ(A0196), Φ(A0214), ά(A0220)
ί(Alt0223) (called es-zett or scharfes s (sharp s) )
[wikipedia]
The German alphabet#pl:\DATA1\data.INFO\LANGUAGE\GERMAN\SOUND\alphabet.mp3# ("\Program Files\Winamp\winamp.exe" "\DATA1\data.INFO\LANGUAGE\GERMAN\SOUND\alphabet.mp3"):
letter name /sound/ example meaning
A a a /a/ Apfel apple
B b bi /b/ Buch book
C c ci /c/ Ceasar Ceaser
D d di /d/ Dorf village/town
E e e /e/ Ende end
F f ef /f/ frisch fresh
G g gi /g/ ganz completely
H h ha /h/ Haus house
I i i /i/ innen inside
J j yyot /yy/ Jacke jacket
K k ka /k/ Katze cat
L l el /l/ Lampe lamp
M m em /m/ Mutter mother
N n en /n/ nicht not
O o o /o/ Obst fruit
P p pi /p/ Pass passport
Q q ku /k/ Quelle source
R r er /r/ Rad wheel
S s es /s/ Suppe soup
T t ti /t/ Tisch table
U u u /u/ Uhr clock/o'clock
V v fau /f/ Vater father
W w vi /v/ Wasser water
X x iks /ks/ Xylophon xylophone
Y y Ipsilon /yy/ Yoghurt yoghurt
Z z cet /cc/ Zahn tooth
Δ δ, -ee /e/ Δrger anger
Φ φ E /ex/ Φkonomie economy
ά ό I /ix/ άberblick overview
ί escet /s/ Straίe street
digraphs (letter combinations)
ch /hh/ täglich daily
sch /ss/ Schule school
[http://www.single-serving.com/German/alphabet/alphabet.mp3]
[http://www.single-serving.com/German/GP/alphabet.php]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'A /a/,
To get used to the difference between the long "a" and short "a" vowel sounds, practice the following pairs of words:
Staat (state) Stadt (city)
kam (came) Kamm (comb)
Frage (question) Flagge (flag)
Kahn (barge) kann (is able)
kam Kamm
Frage Flagge
Kahn kann
lagDeu'AI, lagDeu'AY /ai/:
The sounds "ai", "ay", "ei" and "ey" all equate to the English vowel sound in "mine". To help you remember, try to think of the German river "Rhein":
Main (River Main) Saite (string)
Bayern (Bavaria) Karl May (German author)
Teil (part) breit (wide)
Meyer (German surname) Speyer (German town
[http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/pronounce/]
lagDeu'AU /au/:
1) s.14.au.out##
- aus (= from)
- frau (= lady)
2) ΣΑΝ /o/ ΣΕ ΓΑΛΛΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ:
Restaurant,
au στη γαλική γλώσσα προφέρεται σαν <ο> και äιατηρείται στις γαλικές λέξεις που έχει η γερμανική γλώσσα:
restaurant.
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'B /b/,
/p/ ΣΑΝ <Π> ΠΡΙΝ ΑΠΟ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΚΑΙ ΣΤΟ ΤΕΛΟΣ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ
gibt es (is there),
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'C /ci/,
ΣΑΝ <Κ> ΚΑΙ ΥΠΑΡΧΕΙ ΣΕ ΞΕΝΙΚΕΣ ΛΕΞΕΙΣ
cafe, Cassette,
lagDeu'CH:
1) s.68.h1.machen##
machen (do), kochen (cook), suchen (ask), rauchen (smoke)
2) s.52.h.hit:
ich (I), rechts (right),
3) ΣΑΝ <Κ> ΣΤΗΝ ΑΡΧΗ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΠΡΟΕΛΕΥΣΗΣ:
charakter,
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'D /di/,
2) [t]:
2) ΣΑΝ <Τ>, ΣΤΟ ΤΕΛΟΣ, ΣΤΟ <dt>:
Deutschland,
lagDeu'DT [t]:
Note that the letter combination "dt" is always pronounced as "t":
Stadt (city) Sta"dte (cities)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'E /i/,
To learn to distinguish between the long "e" sound and the short "e" sound, listen and repeat the following pairs of words:
Heer (army) Herr (gentleman)
Hehl (secret) hell (bright)
Beet ((flower-)bed) Bett (bed)
ie: i2.12.seat:
sieben(zi2ben)=seven.
e: e.24.greek:
sechs(zeks)=six.
ei: ai.13.ice:
ein=one, a,
mein=my,
frei,
1) short e /e/:
The short "e" sound - which can only be written "e" - sounds like the "e" in English "get" or "set":
wenn (when) fett (fat)
Dreck (dirt) echt (genuine)
Fell (fur) Nest (nest)
rechts (right)
2) long "e" [ii]:
The long "e" sound - which can be written "e", "eh", or "ee" - is pronounced like the "a" sound in the English "day" or "played", but the German sound is a longer one which does not slide away into English "ee":
sehr (very) mehr (mehr)
Meer (sea) Teer (tar)
Beet ((flower-)bed) Gel (gel)
3) lagDeu'EI, lagDeu'EY /ai/:
The sounds "ai", "ay", "ei" and "ey" all equate to the English vowel sound in "mine". To help you remember, try to think of the German river "Rhein":
Main (River Main) Saite (string)
Bayern (Bavaria) Karl May (German author)
Teil (part) breit (wide)
Meyer (German surname) Speyer (German town
...
The sound "ei" approximates to the English words "wine" or "line". It might be helpful to remember the children's character "Heidi"!
Click on the icon to listen to and practise the following pairs of words containing the German "ei" sound:
frei (free) Rhein (River Rhein)
heil (healthy) dreist (sly)
Kreis (circle) weit (far)
[http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/pronounce/]
EI s.13.ai.ice
nein (= no), mein (= my), zwei (= two)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'G /gi/,
1) /G/:
ΠΡΟΦΕΡΕΤΑΙ ΣΑΝ <ΓΚ> ΜΕΤΑ ΑΠΟ ΤΟ <n>:
bringen (bring), geradeaus (straight ahead),
bringen.
gesprδch /gespreh/ (=talk).
2) /K/:
ΣΑΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ Κ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΡΧΗ ΤΩΝ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ.
tag /tak/ (=day).
3) /HH/:
Note that the suffix "-ig" at the end of a word is pronounced "ich":
Pfennig (pfennig) Honig (honey)
with ig at the end of words:
zwanzig(tsvantsih)=twenty.
"G" is also pronounced no differently from in English - when it precedes a vowel.
But "g" hardens to a "k", when it occurs at the end of a word or syllable, or before an "s" or a "t".
Click here to listen to the sound files Click on the icon to listen to the following pairs of words which show the difference between the two "g" sounds:
bu"rgen (to vouch for) Burg (castle)
Ju"rgen (boy's name) Jo"rg (boy's name)
tagen (to meet) Tag (day)
fliegen (to fly) Flug (flight)
lagDeu'GN [GN]:
In the English sounds "gn" and "kn", only the second consonant is pronounced (i.e. "sign", "know").
In German however, both consonants are pronounced, although both the "g" and the "k" are spoken as a brief soft explosion in combination with a more dominant "n".
Click here to listen to the sound files Click on the icon to listen to the following pairs of words:
Gnom (gnome) Gnade (mercy)
Knie (knee) Knecht (vassal)
Kneipe (pub) Knopf (button)
Click here to listen to the sound files Practise the differences between "kn" and the simple "n" sounds by listening to the following pairs of words:
Knabe (boy) Narbe (scar)
Knechte (vassals) Na"chte (nights)
Knobel (dice) nobel (nobel)
Knie (knee) nie (never)
Knoten (knot) Noten (notes)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'H /ha/,
1) s.40.nothing, In the meadle of a word
fahren (drive)
2) ΣΤΗΝ ΑΡΧΗ ΤΩΝ ΜΟΝΟ ΜΕ ΤΗΝ ΠΝΟΗ:
hotel, Hamburg,
The German letter "h" is always clearly pronounced at the beginning of a word, or when a word beginning with "h" appears as a second element in a compound noun.
Haus (house) hier (here)
Heim (home) Haupt (head)
Bahnhof (station) Hochhaus (block of flats)
But if an "h" occurs in the middle of a word on the other hand, it is not pronounced and the preceding vowel is lengthened:
stehen (to stand) gehen (to go)
fahren (to travel) Lehrer (teacher)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'I /i/,
lagDeu'IE:
1) /ii/:
The sound "ie" is usually the same sound as in the English words "teeth" or "beef", but with a little more tension:
Click on the icon to listen to and practise the following pairs of words containing the German "ie" sound:
Bier (beer) viel (many)
Stier (bull) Frieden (peace)
When "ie" appears at the end of a word, it can be pronounced in two separate ways. It is pronounced as the normal "ie" sound outlined above - but only if the final syllable of the word is stressed:
Biographie (biography) Symphonie (symphony)
Akademie (academy) Philosophie (philosophy)
sie (she), vielen
2) /ie/:
BUT when "ie" appears unstressed at the end of a word, it is pronounced as two separate vowels:
Familie (family) Petersilie (parsley)
Folie (film) Materie (matter)
Linie (line)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'J /yyot/,
1) /yy/
ONLY before a, e, i, o, u.
ΒΡΙΣΚΕΤΑΙ ΜΟΝΟ ΠΡΙΝ ΑΠΟ ΤΑ ΦΩΝΗΕΝΤΑ a, e, i, o, u ΚΑΙ ΠΡΟΦΕΡΕΤΑΙ ΣΑΝ ΓΙΑ, ΓΙΕ, ΓΙ, ΓΙΟ, ΓΙΟΥ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΟΙΧΑ
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'P /pi/,
lagDeu'PF [PF]:
The "pf" letter combination is very common in German, but not in English where "stepfather" is one of the few instances. In German, both consonants need to be pronounced as a combined sound, although the "p" is spoken as a brief soft explosion in combination with a more dominant "f".
Click here to listen to the sound files Click on the icon to listen to the following pairs of words:
Pfund (pound) Pfennig (pfennig)
Pferd (horse) Pfingsten (Whitsun)
Pfeil (arrow) Pfirsich (peach)
Kopf (head) Tropfen (drop)
Click here to listen to the sound files Practice distinguishing between "pf" and a normal "f" sound by saying the following words which contain both sounds:
Pfeffer (pepper) Pfiff (whistle)
Pfeife (pipe) Pfaffe (cleric)
Click here to listen to the sound files And then learn to distinguish between the following pairs of words:
Pfund (pound) Fund (discovery)
Pfand (deposit) fand (found)
Pflug (plough) Flug (flight)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'Q /ku/,
lagDeu'QU [KV]:
As in English, the German letter "q" is always followed by the letter "u".
But with the exception of a small number of borrowed words, "qu" is always pronounced "kv" as in the Yiddish word "kvetch".
Quittung (receipt) Quelle (source)
quer (diagonally) Qualita"t (quality)
Quiz (quiz) quietschen (to squeak)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'S /es/,
1) /z/:
ΣΑΝ ΤΟ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ <Ζ> ΠΡΙΝ ΑΠΟ ΦΩΝΗΕΝΤΑ
sie (she/her), so (as, so),
before vowels:
sie=she,
sind,
so,
2) /s/:
das (= the), ist (= is), wissen (= to know),
das,
ist,
skonto /skonto/ (=discount).
lagDeu'SCH /SS/:
Schmidt (= a name)
Schach /ssaks/ (=chess).
Schlόssel,
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'T /ti/,
"T" is pronounced the same as its English equivalent, only with slightly less release of air.
lagDeu'TH [T]:
There is no English "th" sound in German - this combination is always pronounced like the English "t".
Theater (theatre) [TIA1TER] Thema (theme) [TIIMA]
Athlet (athlete) Methode (method)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'V /fau/,
1) /f/:
The German letters "v", "f" and "ph" are pronounced like the English "f" as in "fish" or "face".
viel (much) vier (four)
Viertel /fiirte/ (= quarter) von (from)
Vogel (bird) Vater (father)
Volk (people) verlieren (to lose)
vielen (many)
viel (=much).
2) /v/:
In a few loan words from other languages, "v" is pronounced as it is in English:
Vase (vase) Vehikel (vehicle)
Verb (verb) vakant (vacant)
at foreign words:
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'W /vi/,
/v/
The German letter "w" is always pronounced like the English "v" in "very" and "video":
Wagen (car) Wein (wine)
Wasser (water) Winter (winter)
wunderbar (wonderful) erwarten (to expect)
wo (where),
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'Y /ixpsilon/,
The pronunciation of the German "y" depends on the position of the letter in the word.
1) [IX#ql:ds.ix#]:
If it is positioned within a word it sounds just like "u"" - which English-speakers invariably forget!
typisch (typical) Physik (physics)
Pyramide (pyramid) Gymnasium (gymnasium)
Rhythmus (rhythm) Hymne (hymn)
The only exception to this is the word for "y" - "Ypsilon" - where the word gets pronounced as "u"".
2) [I]:
If "y" stands at the beginning or end of a word, then it is pronounced in exactly the same way as it is in English:
Hobby (hobby)
Party (party) Handy (mobile phone)
3) [YX#ql:ds.yx#]:
Yoga (yoga)
The only exception to this is the word for "y" - "Ypsilon" - where the word gets pronounced as "u""
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'Z /cet/,
The letter "z" is always pronounced like the "ts" sound in the English words "lots" or "cats".
This can be hard for an English speaker to get used to, particularly when the sound occurs at the beginning of a word. Try to think of how we say the "tsetse" fly in English!
zwei (two) zwo"lf (twelve)
Zug (train) Zimmer (room)
Ziel (destination) Zelt (tent)
Herz (heart) Salz (salt)
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'letter-to-phoneme,
* McsEngl.conceptCore87,
* McsEngl.german'letterToPhoneme@cptCore87,
* McsEngl.german-language-letter-phoneme-correspodence,
* McsEngl.letter'phoneme'correspodence'german@cptCore87,
* McsEngl.mapping.diktim.german,
* McsElln.ΓΡΑΜΜΑ-ΦΩΝΗΜΑ-ΑΝΤΙΣΤΟΙΧΙΑ-ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗΣ-ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ,
_WHOLE:
* german language#cptCore41#
_DESCRIPTION:
ΓΡΑΜΜΑ-ΦΩΝΗΜΑ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΟΙΧΙΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ είναι ΓΡΑΜΜΑ-ΦΩΝΗΜΑ-ΑΝΤΙΣΤΟΙΧΙΑ#cptCore70.a# της 'γερμανικης-γλωσσας#cptCore41.a#'.
[hmnSngo.1995.04_nikos]
name::
* McsEngl.C c;; (τσι); lagDeu'c,
c: k.57.kept:
only with foreign words.
cafe=cafι.
ch: h1.68.machen, back: after a, o, u, au:
machen=do,
kochen=cook,
suchen=ask,
rauchen=smoke,
ch: h.52.hit: after e, i, ie, ei, δ, eu, δ, φ, ό:
ich=I,
rechts=to the right,
ch: k.57.kept, at the begining of greek words:
charakter=character.
ch: h.52.hit:
after e,i, ie, ei, eu, δ, δu, φ, ό,
ich=I.
rechts=to the right.
name::
* McsEngl.D d; (ντι); lagDeu'd,
d: d.54.do:
dahinter=behind it.
direkt=direct.
d: t.64.ten,
at the end of words, dt:
leid(lait)=tut mir leid=excuse me
Schmidt(ssmit)= a name.
und(unt)=and.
name::
* McsEngl.H h;; (χα); lagDeu'h,
h: nothing at the meadle of a word (not with ch) and makes the syllable long:
fahren(fa2ren)=drive.
nehmen(nemen)=take.
uhr(uar)=clock.
name::
* McsEngl.I i;; (ι); lagDeu'i,
ie: i.29.greek:
vielen(filen)=very,
sie(zi)=she,
zieben(ziben)=seven,
name::
* McsEngl.U u;; (ου); lagDeu'u,
name::
* McsElln.Ä ä;; (ε); lagDeu'ä,
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'vowel,
_DESCRIPTION:
ΟΛΑ ΤΑ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΑ ΦΩΝΗΕΝΤΑ ΜΠΟΡΟΥΝ ΝΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ
- ΜΑΚΡΟΧΡΟΝΑ ΚΑΙ ΚΛΕΙΣΤΑ (Schrφder) ή
- ΒΡΑΧΥΧΡΟΝΑ ΚΑΙ ΑΝΟΙΧΤΑ (Kφln).
LONG-SHORT VOWELS:
Staat (state) /SSTAAT/ Stadt (city) /SSTAT/
kam (came) /KAAM/ Kamm (comb) /KAM/
Frage (question) /FRAGE/ Flagge (flag) /FLAGE/
Kahn (barge) /KAAN/ kann (is able) /KAN/
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'phoneme.LONG-VOWEL,
* McsEngl.lagDeu'longVowel,
Long Vowels:
1) A vowel is usually long if it is followed by a single consonant:
Bad (bath) Rad (wheel)
rot (red) gut (good)
2) A vowel is usually long if it is doubled:
Meer (sea) Paar (pair)
Boot (boat) Saat (seed)
3)A vowel is usually long if it is followed by a silent "h":
Lehrer (teacher) Fahrer (driver)
roh (raw) Kuh (cow)
4)The vowel combination "ie" is usually long:
vier (four) Spiel (game)
Lied (song) schier (sheer)
5)An unstressed vowel at the end of a word is usually long, unless the vowel is "-e":
Lotto (lottery) Vati (daddy)
Sofa (sofa) Mofa (moped)
[http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/pronounce/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'phoneme.SHORT-VOWEL,
* McsEngl.lagDeu'ShortVowel,
Short Vowel:
1) A vowel is usually short if it is followed by two or more consonants:
rasch (hasty) Bett (bed)
bunt (colourful) Nuss (nut)
2) A vowel is usually short when it precedes the combination "ck":
lecker (tasty) Socken (socks)
Lu"cke (hole) Wrack (wreck)
3) Note however that if the root form of the word is long, but the inflected form is followed by two consonants, the long vowel remains long:
haben (to have) gehabt (had)
gro? (big) gro"?te (biggest)
[http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/pronounce/]
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'dictionary,
* McsEngl.language.german.DICTIONARY,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* LEO German-English-French-Spanish (with PRONUNCIATION): http://dict.leo.org/?lang=en&lp=ende/
* The odge (Online Dictionary German-English) more than 210,000 words: http://odge.info//
* The Maschler German-English Online Dictionary: http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/dict//
* GREEK<=>GERMAN: http://www.dict.gr//
name::
* McsEngl.lagDeu'Resource,
_ADDRESS.WPG:
* sounds: http://www.youtube.com/embed/-_xUIDRxdmc?rel=0,
* LEO German-English-French-Spanish dictionaries (with PRONUNCIATION):
http://dict.leo.org/?lang=en&lp=ende/
* ΒΙΚΙΠΑΙΔΕΙΑ: Γερμανική γλώσσα
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1:
===
ALPHABET/PRONUNCIATION:
* WITH SOUNDS AND EXAMPLES:
http://www.single-serving.com/German/alphabet.php:
* A Guide to German Pronunciation
* http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/pronounce//
* http://web.wm.edu/modlang/gasmit/pronunciation/?svr=www
* blitztag videos:
http://www.teachertube.com/uvideos.php?UID=64559
===
* cases, numbers
===
TRANSLATION
* German-Greek-German
http://www1.worldlingo.com/en/products_services/worldlingo_translator.html:
===
GRAMMAR/
* German Dictionaries and Grammar
http://www.canoo.net/index_en.html
===
ONLINE COURSES:
* online Beginners' German course designed by the German Department of the University of Exeter:
*
http://www.utils.ex.ac.uk/german/abinitio//
* http://www.interdeutsch.de/eng/index.html:
===
LINKS
* http://www.flcc.gr/linksde.htm,
ΤΗ ΓΛΩΣΑ ΤΗ ΜΙΛΟΥΝ 90 ΕΚΑΤΟΜΥΡΙΑ ΑΝΘΡΩΠΟΙ. 79 ΕΚ. ΣΤΗ ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΑ, 7 ΕΚ. ΣΤΗΝ ΑΥΣΤΡΙΑ, ΚΑΙ 4 ΕΚ. ΣΤΗΝ ΕΛΒΕΤΙΑ.
[Grundkurs deutsch, 1982, 3#cptResource464#]
page-wholepath: https://synagonism.net / dirFolioViews / FvMcsCore / FvMcsCore4