science
senso-concept-Mcs

McsHitp-creation:: {2019-12-21},

overview of science

description::
· science is a-collection of scientific-knowledge on an-entity|subject AND the-scientists and organizations related to it.

name::
* McsEngl.McsEdu000002.last.html//dirEdu//dirMcs!⇒science,
* McsEngl.dirMcs/dirEdu/McsEdu000002.last.html!⇒science,
* McsEngl.S!=science,
* McsEngl.science,
* McsEngl.science!=McsEdu000002,
* McsEngl.entity'science!⇒science,
· "science" from Latin "scientia"-knowledge, from PIE-root "skei"-cut|split, Greek "σκίζειν" [{2021-02-06} https://www.etymonline.com/word/science]
====== langoSinago:
* McsSngo.sio!=science, {2021-12-28}, from Chinese xué,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.kēxué-科学!=science,
* McsZhon.科学-kēxué!=science,
====== langoEsperanto:
* McsEspo.scienco!=science,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.επιστήμη!=science,
· "επιστήμη" < (λόγιο) < αρχαία ελληνική ἐπιστήμη < ἐπίσταμαι (γνωρίζω καλά) [https://el.wiktionary.org/wiki/επιστήμη]

01_area-of-study of science

description::
· area-of-study of science is any-entity that researches.
· the-most generic entity that researches.
· the-most whole entity that researches.
· the-most parent entity that researches.

* info-referent,
* infoNo-referent,

name::
* McsEngl.area-of-study--of-science,
* McsEngl.referent-of-science,
* McsEngl.science'01_area-of-study,
* McsEngl.science'att001-area-of-study,
* McsEngl.science'area-of-study,
* McsEngl.science'referent,
* McsEngl.subject-of-science,
* McsEngl.subject-matter--of-science,

02_knowledge of science

description::
· the-scientific-knowledge of a-science.

name::
* McsEngl.science'02_knowledge,
* McsEngl.science'att002-knowledge,
* McsEngl.science'knowledge,

nomenclature of science

description::
· the-set of names of concepts used in a-science.
===
"Nomenclature (UK: /nəˈmɛŋkləˌtʃər/, US: /ˈnoʊmənˌkleɪtʃər/)[1][2] is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences.[3] The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms used in scientific and any other disciplines.[4]
Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language.
Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and descriptive linguistics.
The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems.[citation needed] Probably the best known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of organisms."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.science'att012_nomenclature,
* McsEngl.science'nomenclature,
* McsEngl.science'terminology,

branch of science

description::
· any node in a-classification-tree.
· "(n) discipline, subject, subject area, subject field, field, field of study, study, bailiwick (a branch of knowledge) "in what discipline is his doctorate?"; "teachers should be well trained in their subject"; "anthropology is the study of human beings""
[{2023-08-22 retrieved} http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=discipline]

name::
* McsEngl.branch//science,
* McsEngl.discipline//science,
* McsEngl.division-of-science,
* McsEngl.field//science,
* McsEngl.science'branch,
* McsEngl.subbranch//science,
* McsEngl.superbranch//science,

specific-tree-of-branch//science::
* parent-child-branch,
* whole-part-branch,
* generic-specific-branch,

theory of science

description::
· theory is knowledge on a-subject, part of a-science, with a-known author.
· and the-theorists and organizations related to it.

name::
* McsEngl.science'att004-theory!⇒theory,
* McsEngl.science'theory!⇒theory,
* McsEngl.theory,
* McsEngl.theory-of-science!⇒theory,
* McsEngl.thr!⇒theory,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.lǐlùn-理论!=theory,
* McsZhon.理论-lǐlùn!=theory,
====== langoEsperanto:
* McsEspo.teorio!=theory,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.θεωρία!=theory,

descriptionLong::
"In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for, or empirically contradict ("falsify") it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,[1] in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal terms is better characterized by the word hypothesis).[2] Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable conjectures, and from scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of the way nature behaves under certain conditions.
Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives among values.[3]:131 A theory can be a body of knowledge, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.[4]:46
The word theory or "in theory" is more or less often used erroneously by people to explain something which they individually did not experience or tested before.[5] In those instances, semantically, it is being substituted for another concept, a hypothesis. Instead of using the word hypothetically, it is replaced by a phrase: "in theory". In some instances the theory's credibility could be contested by calling it "just a theory" (implying that the idea has not even been tested).[6] Hence, that word "theory" is very often contrasted to "practice" (from Greek praxis, πρᾶξις) a Greek term for doing, which is opposed to theory.[6] A "classical example" of the distinction between "theoretical" and "practical" uses the discipline of medicine: medical theory involves trying to understand the causes and nature of health and sickness, while the practical side of medicine is trying to make people healthy. These two things are related but can be independent, because it is possible to research health and sickness without curing specific patients, and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing how the cure worked.[a]"
[{2020-03-28} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory]

subject of theory

description::
· the-referent of theory.

name::
* McsEngl.theory'subject,

author of theory

description::
· one or more humans that created the-theory

name::
* McsEngl.theorist,
* McsEngl.theory'author!⇒theorist,

evaluation of theory

description::
"If you have a theory, you must try to explain what’s good and what’s bad about it equally. In science, you learn a kind of standard integrity and honesty."
[Richard Feynman https://twitter.com/ProfFeynman/status/1274023269734047744]

name::
* McsEngl.theory'evaluation,

03_rlnReferent of science

description::
· the-relation between the-scientific-knowledge of the-science and its referent.
* true,
* ...,
* false,
"If you find science boring, you're learning it from a wrong teacher!"
[{2020-07-06} https://twitter.com/ProfFeynman/status/1280186442174480384]

name::
* McsEngl.science'03_mapping-relation,
* McsEngl.science'evaluation,
* McsEngl.science'mapping-relation,
* McsEngl.science'referent-relation,
* McsEngl.science'rlnReferent,

04_scientist of science

description::
· scientist is a-human that contributes to a-science.

name::
* McsEngl.hmnWorker.021-scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.hmnWorker.scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.human.scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.scholar!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.science'04_scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.science'att005_scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.science'scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.scientist!⇒wrkrScience,
* McsEngl.wrkrScience, {2021-06-21},
===
"The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell,[21] which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher."
[{2021-03-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century#Science_and_technology]

specific-tree-of-wrkrScience::
* mainstream-wrkrScience,
* mainstreamNo-wrkrScience,

qualification of wrkrScience

description::
· any skill-(theoritical-practical), diploma, education and experience a-scientist has.

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'qualification,

bias of wrkrScience

description::
"It is not required for the scientists to be unbiased, which would be impossible in any case. Scientists are flesh-and-blood people like everyone else. Some will be politically left-leaning or right-leaning and this will cause them to propose different hypotheses (e.g., concerning the ability of price systems to regulate economic activities for the common good). The difference is that when people operate in scientific mode, they are forced to change their minds when their hypotheses are rejected on the basis of empirical data or logical contradiction."
[{2023-12-10 retrieved} https://evonomics.com/from-political-gridlock-to-scientific-progress-the-promise-of-evonomics/]

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'bias,

product of wrkrScience

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'product,

award of wrkrScience

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'award,

job of wrkrScience

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'job,

place of wrkrScience

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrScience'place,

05_organization of science

description::
· an-organization related to a-science.

name::
* McsEngl.oznScience,
* McsEngl.science'05_organization!⇒oznScience,
* McsEngl.science'att006_organization!⇒oznScience,
* McsEngl.science'organization!⇒oznScience,

academic-school of oznScience

description::
· "An academic school is a larger unit within a university that offers a variety of programs in a particular field of study, such as the School of Arts and Sciences or the School of Business. An academic department is a smaller unit within a school that focuses on a particular discipline, such as the Department of English or the Department of Mathematics."
[{2023-08-23 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.academic-school--of-science,
* McsEngl.science'att013-academic-school,
* McsEngl.science'academic-school,

academic-department of oznScience

description::
· "An academic school is a larger unit within a university that offers a variety of programs in a particular field of study, such as the School of Arts and Sciences or the School of Business. An academic department is a smaller unit within a school that focuses on a particular discipline, such as the Department of English or the Department of Mathematics."
[{2023-08-23 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.academic-department--of-science,
* McsEngl.science'att014-academic-department,
* McsEngl.science'academic-department,

learned-society of oznScience

description::
· "A learned society (/ˈlɜːrnɪd/; also learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and science.[1] Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honour conferred by election.[2]
Most learned societies are non-profit organizations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results, and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.[3]"

name::
* McsEngl.academic-association,
* McsEngl.learned-academy,
* McsEngl.learned-society,
* McsEngl.science'att015-learned-society,
* McsEngl.science'learned-society,
* McsEngl.scolarly-society,

06_conference of science

description::
· a-conference related to science.

name::
* McsEngl.science'06_conference,
* McsEngl.science'att016-conference,
* McsEngl.science'conference,

scientific-method of science

description::
· scientific-method is the-mapping-method a-science uses to create its model|knowledge.

name::
* McsEngl.science'att017-scientific-method,
* McsEngl.science'scientific-method,
* McsEngl.scientific-method,

descriptionLong::
"The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.[1][2][3]
Though diverse models for the scientific method are available, there is in general a continuous process that includes observations about the natural world. People are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways. The most conclusive testing of hypotheses comes from reasoning based on carefully controlled experimental data. Depending on how well additional tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported, a general theory may be developed.[4]
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from one to another. The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions.[5][6] A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.[7]
The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis.[8] Experiments can take place anywhere from a garage to CERN's Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles.[9] Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.[10][11]"
[{2020-08-08} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method]

relation-to-other-sciences of science

description::
· a-science has relations with other sciences.

name::
* McsEngl.science'relation-to-other-sciences,

relation-to-society of science

description::
"The saddest aspect of life right now is that science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom."
-- Isaac Asimov (1920 - 1992)
[{2020-08-29} https://twitter.com/PhysInHistory/status/1299762470123315200]

name::
* McsEngl.science'att009-relation-to-society,
* McsEngl.science'relation-to-society,
* McsEngl.society'relation-to-science,

relation-to-religion of science

description::
"Science is a culture of doubt; religion is a culture of faith."
[{2020-12-07} https://twitter.com/ProfFeynman/status/1335771943593594882]

name::
* McsEngl.science'att011-relation-to-religion,
* McsEngl.science'relation-to-religion,
* McsEngl.religion'relation-to-science,

info-resource of science

addressWpg::
* arXiv is a free distribution service and an open-access archive for 1,661,988 scholarly articles in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science, quantitative biology, quantitative finance, statistics, electrical engineering and systems science, and economics: https://arxiv.org/,
* https://sci-hub.st/: Sci-Hub is the most controversial project in modern science. The goal of Sci-Hub is to provide free and unrestricted access to all scientific knowledge. a-database of 88,343,822 research articles and books. Previously this knowledge was only available for high prices that most people cannot pay. Sci-Hub has revolutionized science by making all paid knowledge free.
* https://brushingupscience.com/about/,

name::
* McsEngl.science'attResource,
* McsEngl.science'Infrsc,

philosophy-of-science

description::
"Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.[1] The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science."
[{2020-07-31} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science]

name::
* McsEngl.science'att010-philosophy-of-science,
* McsEngl.science'philosophy-of-science,
* McsEngl.philosophy-of-science,

book.science-in-history

description::
"Science in History is a four-volume book by scientist and historian John Desmond Bernal, published in 1954. It was the first comprehensive attempt to analyse the reciprocal relations of science and society throughout history. It was originally published in London by Watts. There were three editions up to 1969. It was republished by MIT Press in 1971 and is still in print.
The Volumes
Vol.1, The Emergence of Science, ISBN 0-262-52020-6
Vol.2, The Scientific and Industrial Revolution, ISBN 0-262-52021-4
Vol.3, The Natural Sciences in Our Time, ISBN 0-262-52082-6
Vol.4, The Social Sciences: Conclusion, ISBN 0-262-52023-0"
[{2024-01-21 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_History]

Volume-1
Part-1: THE EMERGENCE AND CHARACTER OF SCIENCE
Part-2: SCIENCE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
Part-3: SCIENCE IN THE AGE OF FAITH
Volume-2
Part-4: THE BIRTH OF MODERN SCIENCE
Part-5: SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY
Volume-3
Part-6: SCIENCE IN OUR TIME
Volume-4
Part-7: CONCLUSIONS

name::
* McsEngl.irBook.000010.Bernal.science-in-history.{1954},
* McsEngl.irBook.{1954}.Bernal.science-in-history,
* McsEngl.irBook.Bernal.science-in-history.{1954},
* McsEngl.science'att018-book.science-in-history,
* McsEngl.science-in-history.book.Beranl,

addressWpg::
* https://ia800604.us.archive.org/27/items/B-001-002-183/B-001-002-183_hocr.html,

DOING of science

description::
"Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts.
When someone says 'science teaches such and such', he is using the word incorrectly.
Science doesn't teach anything, experience teaches it."
[https://twitter.com/ProfFeynman/status/1276571176144265217-{2020-06-26}]

name::
* McsEngl.science'doing,

specific-tree-of-science'doing::
* educating,
* learning,
* researching,
* teaching,

researching of science

description::
"Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications."[1] It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research has three steps:
* 1. Pose a question.
* 2. Collect data to answer the question.
* 3. Present an answer to the question.
This should be a familiar process. You engage in solving problems every day and you start with a question, collect some information, and then form an answer. Research is important for three reasons.
* 1. Research adds to our knowledge: Adding to knowledge means that educators undertake research to contribute to existing information about issues
* 2.Research improves practice: Research is also important because it suggests improvements for practice. Armed with research results, teachers and other educators become more effective professionals.
* 3. Research informs policy debates: research also provides information to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics.[2]"
[{2020-07-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research]

name::
* McsEngl.research!⇒researching,
* McsEngl.researching,
* McsEngl.science'att007-researching!⇒researching,
* McsEngl.science'researching!⇒researching,
* McsEngl.scienticif-research!⇒researching,

info-resource of researching

description::
* https://www.rd-alliance.org/, "The Research Data Alliance (RDA) builds the social and technical bridges to enable the open sharing and re-use of data"

name::
* McsEngl.researching'Infrsc,

EVOLUTING of science

description::
">timeline of science:
Creating a comprehensive timeline of science is a vast undertaking, as science spans numerous fields and eras. However, I can provide a high-level overview that highlights some key milestones across various scientific disciplines. Keep in mind that this overview won't be exhaustive but will touch upon significant developments in science history.
**Prehistoric Times**
- **Stone tools and fire use**: Early humans develop basic technology.
**Ancient Times**
- **Mesopotamia (3000 BCE)**: Early developments in mathematics and astronomy.
- **Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE - 300 BCE)**: Advances in medicine, mathematics, and construction.
- **Ancient Greece (800 BCE - 200 CE)**: Philosophical foundations of science, advancements in physics, mathematics, astronomy (e.g., Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes).
**Middle Ages**
- **Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th Century)**: Significant contributions in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering.
- **European Middle Ages (5th to 15th Century)**: Slow scientific progress, preservation of ancient knowledge.
**Renaissance (14th to 17th Century)**
- **Copernican Revolution**: Heliocentric model of the solar system.
- **Galileo Galilei**: Observational astronomy, laws of motion.
- **Isaac Newton**: Laws of motion, universal gravitation.
**18th Century**
- **Industrial Revolution**: Significant technological advances.
- **Age of Enlightenment**: Scientific methodology, taxonomy.
**19th Century**
- **Charles Darwin**: Theory of evolution by natural selection.
- **Gregor Mendel**: Foundations of genetics.
- **Michael Faraday**: Electromagnetism.
- **Louis Pasteur**: Germ theory of disease.
**20th Century**
- **Albert Einstein**: Theory of relativity.
- **Quantum Mechanics**: Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger.
- **DNA Structure**: James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin.
- **Space Exploration**: Moon landing, space probes.
**21st Century**
- **Human Genome Project**: Completed in 2003.
- **Advancements in AI and technology**: Ongoing developments in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, biotechnology.
This timeline offers a glimpse into the evolution of scientific thought and discovery, highlighting how each era built upon the knowledge of the previous ones, leading to our current understanding of the universe and our place in it."
[{2024-01-12 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/592a3b4f-2944-4df2-b04c-cd1a638638de]

">timeline of science:
Here is a timeline of some of the most significant scientific discoveries throughout history:
**Ancient Civilizations**
* **Mesopotamia (3500-1500 BC)**: The Babylonians developed a sophisticated system of astronomy, including a calendar and methods for predicting celestial events.
* **Ancient Egypt (3100-332 BC)**: The Egyptians made significant contributions to mathematics, engineering, and medicine. They built the pyramids, developed a complex irrigation system, and discovered treatments for various diseases.
* **Ancient Greece (800-146 BC)**: Greek philosophers and scientists laid the foundations for many modern scientific disciplines, including physics, astronomy, and biology. They made groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics, geometry, and logic.
**Middle Ages**
* **Europe (5th-15th centuries)**: Despite the dominance of religious thought during this period, there were still significant advances in science, particularly in astronomy and medicine. The invention of the astrolabe and the introduction of Arabic numerals helped to advance scientific knowledge.
**Renaissance and Enlightenment**
* **Europe (15th-18th centuries)**: The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods saw a resurgence of scientific inquiry and a rejection of traditional authority. Scientists like Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Isaac Newton made groundbreaking discoveries that revolutionized our understanding of the universe.
**19th Century**
* **Europe and North America (19th century)**: The 19th century was a time of rapid scientific progress, with discoveries in fields such as chemistry, physics, and biology. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity had a profound impact on our understanding of the natural world.
**20th Century**
* **Worldwide (20th century)**: The 20th century saw even more rapid scientific progress, with the development of new technologies such as the transistor, the laser, and the computer. These inventions have had a transformative impact on society, leading to advancements in communication, medicine, and industry.
**21st Century**
* **Worldwide (21st century)**: Scientific progress continues to accelerate in the 21st century, with new discoveries being made all the time. Scientists are working on fields such as nanotechnology, biotechnology, and artificial intelligence, which have the potential to revolutionize our world.
This is just a brief overview of some of the most significant scientific discoveries throughout history. Science is a vast and ever-evolving field, and there are many more important milestones that could be mentioned."
[{2024-01-12 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/5f045130e081b6b0]

name::
* McsEngl.science'attEvoluting,
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-science,
* McsEngl.science'evoluting,

{2019-12-21}::
=== McsHitp-creation:
· creation of current concept.

{1800i100}-science-institutionalization::
"The institutionalization of science occurred throughout the 18th century."
[{2023-08-23 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_science#Early_beginnings]
* McsEngl.{science'1800i100}-science-institutionalization,

{1665}-science-first-scientific-journal::
"publication of Philosophical Transactions, generally considered the first scientific journal, in 1665 by the Royal Society (London)."
[{2023-08-23 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_science#Early_beginnings]
* McsEngl.{science'1665}-science-first-journal,

revolution of science

description::
">scientific revolution:
The Scientific Revolution was a period of significant change in thought and understanding in the fields of science, technology, philosophy, and human cognition. This period, generally considered to have occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries, marked a profound shift from medieval views of the world, which were often based on tradition and religious dogma, to a framework built on empirical evidence, experimentation, and rational thought.
Key aspects and events of the Scientific Revolution include:
1. **Copernican Revolution**: Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the universe in the early 16th century, challenging the long-held geocentric model. This shift was not just scientific but also philosophical, altering how humans viewed their place in the universe.
2. **Advancements in Astronomy and Physics**: Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei made significant contributions. Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's telescopic observations further supported the heliocentric model. Galileo's work also laid the groundwork for Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation.
3. **Development of the Scientific Method**: The Scientific Revolution saw the formulation and application of the scientific method. Figures like Francis Bacon and René Descartes emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and rational deduction in scientific inquiry.
4. **Advances in Medicine and Chemistry**: Andreas Vesalius's work in anatomy challenged prevailing notions of the human body. William Harvey's study of the circulatory system and Robert Boyle's work in chemistry were also significant.
5. **Impact on Society and Philosophy**: The Scientific Revolution had a profound impact on society and philosophy. It contributed to the Enlightenment, encouraging a questioning attitude towards tradition, authority, and the church. This period saw the gradual separation of science from philosophy and religion, laying the foundations for modern science.
6. **Institutional Changes**: This period also saw the establishment of scientific societies and academies, such as the Royal Society in England and the Académie des Sciences in France, which played crucial roles in promoting scientific research and dissemination of knowledge.
The Scientific Revolution is not just a historical event but a transformative process that shaped the modern world. It fundamentally changed how humans understand the natural world and their place within it, leading to the birth of modern science."

">timeline of scientific revolution:
The Scientific Revolution, a pivotal period in history that fundamentally changed our understanding of the natural world, spanned roughly from the mid-16th century to the early 18th century. Here's a timeline highlighting some key events and contributions:
### 16th Century
- **1543**: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), proposing a heliocentric model of the universe.
- **1572**: Tycho Brahe observes a supernova, challenging the Aristotelian belief in the unchangeability of the heavens.
### Early 17th Century
- **1609**: Johannes Kepler publishes "Astronomia Nova", containing his first two laws of planetary motion.
- **1610**: Galileo Galilei publishes "Sidereus Nuncius" (Starry Messenger), detailing his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter and phases of Venus, supporting Copernican heliocentrism.
- **1619**: Kepler publishes "Harmonices Mundi", where he describes his third law of planetary motion.
### Mid-17th Century
- **1632**: Galileo publishes "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", comparing the Copernican and Ptolemaic models.
- **1637**: René Descartes' "Discourse on the Method" advocates for the use of deductive reasoning in scientific inquiry.
- **1642-1651**: Thomas Hobbes' "Leviathan" discusses, among other things, a materialistic view of the universe.
### Late 17th Century
- **1661**: Robert Boyle publishes "The Sceptical Chymist", laying the foundations of modern chemistry.
- **1662**: Establishment of the Royal Society in London.
- **1687**: Isaac Newton publishes "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), outlining the laws of motion and universal gravitation.
### Early 18th Century
- **1704**: Newton's "Opticks", exploring light and color, is published.
### General Developments
- Throughout the 17th century, advancements in various scientific fields occurred, including medicine (William Harvey's work on the circulatory system) and mathematics (development of calculus independently by Newton and Leibniz).
This timeline provides an overview of some of the most significant moments and publications of the Scientific Revolution. Each event and figure contributed to the transformation from a primarily Aristotelian and Ptolemaic worldview to a new understanding based on observation, experimentation, and mathematical reasoning."
[{2024-01-27 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/2af65093-a37c-4c3e-b0e3-a0f7dfed353b]

name::
* McsEngl.revolution.science,
* McsEngl.science'revolution,
* McsEngl.scientific-revolution,

PARENT-CHILD-TREE of science

name::
* McsEngl.science'parent-child-tree,

parent-child-branch of science

description::
· any node in the-evolution-tree of science.

name::
* McsEngl.Scipcbranch,
* McsEngl.Scipcbranch!=parent-child-branch,
* McsEngl.parent-child-branch--of-science!⇒Scipcbranch,
* McsEngl.science'branch.parent-child!⇒Scipcbranch,

WHOLE-PART-TREE of science

name::
* McsEngl.science'whole-part-tree,

whole-tree-of-science::
* human-society,
* Sympan,

part::
* field,
* theory,
* school,

whole-part-branch of science

description::
· any node in the-whole-part-tree of science.

name::
* McsEngl.Sciwpbranch,
* McsEngl.Sciwpbranch!=science-whole-part-branch,
* McsEngl.science'branch.whole-part!⇒Sciwpbranch,
* McsEngl.science'whole-part-field!⇒Sciwpbranch,
* McsEngl.subfield-of-science!⇒Sciwpbranch,
* McsEngl.whole-part-field--of-science!⇒Sciwpbranch,

mereology

description::
"In logic, philosophy and related fields, mereology (from Greek μέρος 'part' (root: μερε-, mere-, 'part') and the suffix -logy, 'study, discussion, science') is the study of parts and the wholes they form. Whereas set theory is founded on the membership relation between a set and its elements, mereology emphasizes the meronomic relation between entities, which—from a set-theoretic perspective—is closer to the concept of inclusion between sets.

Mereology has been explored in various ways as applications of predicate logic to formal ontology, in each of which mereology is an important part. Each of these fields provides its own axiomatic definition of mereology. A common element of such axiomatizations is the assumption, shared with inclusion, that the part-whole relation orders its universe, meaning that everything is a part of itself (reflexivity), that a part of a part of a whole is itself a part of that whole (transitivity), and that two distinct entities cannot each be a part of the other (antisymmetry), thus forming a poset. A variant of this axiomatization denies that anything is ever part of itself (irreflexivity) while accepting transitivity, from which antisymmetry follows automatically.

Although mereology is an application of mathematical logic, what could be argued to be a sort of "proto-geometry", it has been wholly developed by logicians, ontologists, linguists, engineers, and computer scientists, especially those working in artificial intelligence. In particular, mereology is also on the basis for a point-free foundation of geometry (see for example the quoted pioneering paper of Alfred Tarski and the review paper by Gerla 1995).

In general systems theory, mereology refers to formal work on system decomposition and parts, wholes and boundaries (by, e.g., Mihajlo D. Mesarovic (1970), Gabriel Kron (1963), or Maurice Jessel (see Bowden (1989, 1998)). A hierarchical version of Gabriel Kron's Network Tearing was published by Keith Bowden (1991), reflecting David Lewis's ideas on gunk. Such ideas appear in theoretical computer science and physics, often in combination with sheaf theory, topos, or category theory. See also the work of Steve Vickers on (parts of) specifications in computer science, Joseph Goguen on physical systems, and Tom Etter (1996, 1998) on link theory and quantum mechanics."
[{2023-11-17 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology]

name::
* McsEngl.mereology,
* McsEngl.science.014-mereology,
* McsEngl.science.mereology,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of science

name::
* McsEngl.science'generic-specific-tree,

generic-tree-of-science::
* knowledgeBrain,
* infoBrain,
* infoBio,
* model,
* entity,

generic-specific-branch of science

description::
· any node in the-generic-specific-tree of science.
· any specific of the-area-of-study of science.
· field-of-science is a-(widely)-recognized INSTANCE of science.

name::
* McsEngl.Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.Scigsbranch!=generic-specific-branch-of-science,
* McsEngl.Gsfield-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch, {2023-08-15},
* McsEngl.Scigsbranch, {2023-08-15},
* McsEngl.Scigsbranch!=science-generic-specific-field,
* McsEngl.classification-of-science,
* McsEngl.branch-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.discipline-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.field-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.generic-specific-branch-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.science.004-field!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.science.branch!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.science.discipline!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.science.field!⇒Scigsbranch,
* McsEngl.science.specifics-division,
* McsEngl.science-classification,
* McsEngl.scientific-discipline,
* McsEngl.scientific-field,
* McsEngl.topic-of-science!⇒Scigsbranch,

science.SPECIFIC

name::
* McsEngl.science.specific,

specific::
* formal-science,
* natural-science,
* social-science,
===
* applied,
* appliedNo,
===
* biology,
* chemistry,
* economics,
* linguistics,
* mathematics,
* philosophy,
* sociology,

science.spec-div.FOS-2007

description::
"About Field of science and technology classification
1. Definition
This classification is the Eurostat standard code list for the classification of fields of science and technology (FOS 2007). The classification of field of science is based on the nomenclature suggested by UNESCO: Recommendation concerning the International Standardisation of Statistics on Science and Technology.
2. Objectives
Classification of all the field of science and technology
Approved by consensus by experts
Used in Pan-European and Worldwide organisations
3. Owner
FOS 2007 has been developed under the supervision of the OECD.
4. Intended audience
FOS 2007 has been developed in order to provide to all persons and organisations that may need to have a classification of the field of science and technology such a tool. The main target was the statistical institutes or organisations that may need to create statistics on the topic. This classification should be used for the R&D expenditure of the government, higher education and PNP (Private Non-Profit) sectors and if possible of the BE (Business enterprise) sector and for personnel data in all sectors.
5. Long description
FOS 2007 defines six fields of science, which are:
natural sciences,
engineering and technology,
medical sciences,
agricultural sciences,
social sciences, and
humanities.
6. Known implementations
UNESCO and Eurostat both use this classification, as well as countries that have to deal with or provide information to them. Furthermore, United Nations’ UNstats has implemented FOS 2007 as well.
7. History / Key milestones
The previous FOS classification from the Frascati Manual in 2002 did not fully reflect changes in the science and technology area, especially with regard to emerging technology fields such as ICT, biotechnology and nanotechnology. Therefore, in 2002, the Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators (NESTI) decided to set up a Task Force to work on this specific issue. They provided the current version of FOS in 2007. This Task Force was led by OECD and had on board the Netherlands, Australia, Norway, Portugal, as well as Eurostat and UNESCO.
8. Additional documents
UNESCO: Recommendation concerning the International Standardisation of Statistics on Science and Technology: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13135&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
Revised Field of Science and Technology (FOS) Classification in the Frascati Manual: http://www.oecd.org/science/inno/38235147.pdf"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://joinup.ec.europa.eu/collection/eu-semantic-interoperability-catalogue/solution/field-science-and-technology-classification/about]

name::
* McsEngl.FOS-2007,
* McsEngl.field-of-science-and-technology-classification,
* McsEngl.science.spec-div.FOS-2007,

addressWpg::
* SciNoBo: A Hierarchical Multi-Label Classifier of Scientific Publications: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2204.00880.pdf,

science.spec-div.wikipedia

description::
"The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups:
* Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology.
* Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science (or biology).
* Social sciences: the study of human behavior in its social and cultural aspects.[1]
Scientific knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2] This verifiability may well vary even within a scientific discipline.[3][4]
Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity- and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.[5]"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science]

name::
* McsEngl.science.spec-div.wikipedia,

science.autonomous

description::
· a-prerequisite of Autosoc.

· science readable by machines and humans in conceptual-systems form.

name::
* McsEngl.Autosci!=autonomous-science,
* McsEngl.Autosoc'att008-science,
* McsEngl.Autosoc'science,
* McsEngl.autonomous-science!⇒Autosci,
* McsEngl.science.017-autonomous!⇒Autosci,
* McsEngl.science.autonomous!⇒Autosci,

science.school

description::
· a-subject[a] is-modeled diferently by scientists.
· a-school is one model of the-area-of-study[a].

name::
* McsEngl.science'att003-school,
* McsEngl.science.school,
* McsEngl.school-of-science,

science.social-011

description::
"Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, communication science and political science.[1]
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share the same goals and methods."
[{2023-10-06 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science]

name::
* McsEngl.sciSocial,
* McsEngl.science.011-social,
* McsEngl.science.social,
* McsEngl.social-science,

science.natural-012

description::
"Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.[1] Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature".[2]
Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.[3] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.[4] Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.[5]"
[{2023-10-06 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science]

name::
* McsEngl.natural-science,
* McsEngl.sciNatural,
* McsEngl.science.012-natural,
* McsEngl.science.natural,

science.formal-013

description::
"Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them.[citation needed]"
[{2023-10-06 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science]

name::
* McsEngl.formal-science!⇒sciFormal,
* McsEngl.sciFormal!=formal-science,
* McsEngl.science.013-formal!⇒sciFormal,
* McsEngl.science.formal!⇒sciFormal,

domain-of-discource of sciFormal

description::
"In the formal sciences, the domain of discourse, also called the universe of discourse, universal set, or simply universe, is the set of entities over which certain variables of interest in some formal treatment may range."
[{2023-11-13 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_of_discourse]

name::
* McsEngl.domain-of-discource//sciFormal,
* McsEngl.sciFormal'domain-of-discource,
* McsEngl.universal-set//sciFormal,
* McsEngl.universe//sciFormal,
* McsEngl.universe-of-discource//sciFormal,

evoluting of sciFormal

description::
">evolution of formal-sciences:
The evolution of formal sciences has been a complex and rich journey that spans centuries. Here's a brief overview of the evolution of some key formal sciences:

1. **Ancient Mathematics:**
- **Babylonian Mathematics (c. 2000 BCE):** Babylonians made significant contributions to mathematics, particularly in the development of early algebra and the use of numerical systems.
- **Greek Mathematics (6th century BCE - 5th century CE):** Euclid's "Elements" laid the foundation for geometry, and Greek mathematicians made strides in areas like number theory and calculus.

2. **Medieval and Renaissance Era:**
- **Islamic Mathematics (8th century - 14th century):** Scholars in the Islamic world preserved and expanded upon Greek mathematical knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi, for example, played a key role in developing algebra.
- **European Renaissance (14th - 17th centuries):** The Renaissance saw a revival of interest in ancient mathematical ideas, and mathematicians like Leonardo Fibonacci and Johannes Kepler made significant contributions.

3. **The Age of Enlightenment:**
- **18th century:** The Enlightenment brought about advancements in formal sciences, with mathematicians like Euler and Lagrange contributing to fields such as calculus and number theory.

4. **19th Century and the Rise of Formal Logic:**
- **George Boole (1815-1864):** Boole's work laid the groundwork for modern symbolic logic with his algebraic approach to logic, which is essential in computer science.
- **Gottlob Frege (1848-1925):** Frege's work in mathematical logic, especially his "Begriffsschrift," significantly influenced the development of formal logic.

5. **20th Century and the Emergence of Computer Science:**
- **Alan Turing (1912-1954):** Turing's work on computability and the Turing machine had a profound impact on the foundations of computer science.
- **Development of Formal Languages:** The mid-20th century saw the formalization of programming languages, contributing to the growth of computer science as a formal science.

6. **Contemporary Era:**
- **Advancements in Formal Methods:** Formal methods, which use mathematical techniques for the specification, development, and verification of software and hardware systems, have become increasingly important.
- **Advances in Mathematical Logic:** Developments in set theory, model theory, and proof theory have continued to shape the landscape of formal sciences.

Throughout this evolution, formal sciences have become more specialized, with new branches and subfields continually emerging. The interplay between formal sciences and technological advancements, especially in the realm of computing, has been a defining feature of their evolution. Today, formal sciences continue to play a crucial role in various disciplines, providing the theoretical foundations for rigorous reasoning and analysis."
[{2023-11-13 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/b6d4aa71-0b88-497e-bdb0-7c004edbd1f6]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-sciFormal,
* McsEngl.sciFormal'evoluting,

sciFormal.SPECIFIC

description::
* computer-science,
* logic,
* mathematics,

name::
* McsEngl.sciFormal.specific,

science.applied-009

description::
"applied science overview
Applied science is a branch of science that focuses on the practical application of scientific knowledge to solve real-world problems and improve the quality of life. It bridges the gap between pure scientific research and practical, everyday applications. Here is an overview of applied science:
1. Purpose: Applied science aims to take the principles and theories developed through pure scientific research and use them to address specific challenges or achieve practical goals. It often involves turning theoretical knowledge into useful products, technologies, or processes.
2. Interdisciplinary: Applied science frequently draws on knowledge from multiple scientific disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, and computer science. It encourages collaboration between experts from various fields to tackle complex problems.
3. Problem-Solving: One of the primary goals of applied science is problem-solving. Scientists and researchers in applied science work to find solutions to practical issues, ranging from improving healthcare and agriculture to developing new materials and energy sources.
4. Innovation: Applied science drives innovation by taking scientific discoveries and turning them into tangible innovations. This can include creating new materials, inventing new technologies, or developing more efficient processes.
5. Examples: Some common examples of applied science include:
- Medicine: Developing new treatments, drugs, and medical devices based on biological and chemical research.
- Engineering: Designing and building structures, machines, and systems based on principles of physics and mathematics.
- Agriculture: Improving crop yields, developing new farming techniques, and creating pest-resistant crops through genetic research.
- Environmental Science: Finding solutions to environmental problems, such as pollution control, renewable energy development, and conservation efforts.
- Information Technology: Applying computer science principles to create software, hardware, and networks that drive modern technology.
- Materials Science: Developing new materials with unique properties for various applications, such as aerospace, electronics, and construction.
6. Ethical Considerations: Applied science often raises ethical questions, especially when it involves technologies that can have significant societal impacts. Ethical considerations are important in areas such as biotechnology, artificial intelligence, and environmental science.
7. Education and Careers: Many universities offer degree programs in applied science, such as applied physics, applied chemistry, and applied biology. Careers in applied science can be diverse, with opportunities in research and development, industry, healthcare, and government agencies.
In summary, applied science plays a crucial role in translating scientific knowledge into practical solutions and innovations that benefit society. It encompasses a wide range of disciplines and is essential for addressing the complex challenges of the modern world."
[{2023-10-05 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/9ece1b13-cddd-4d87-8e8b-d26e43318158]

name::
* McsEngl.applied-science,
* McsEngl.science.009-applied,
* McsEngl.science.applied,

science.open-002

description::
"Open science is the movement to make scientific research (including publications, data, physical samples, and software) and its dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring society, amateur or professional.[2] Open science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.[3] It encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open notebook science, and generally making it easier to publish and communicate scientific knowledge.
Open Science can be seen as a continuation of, rather than a revolution in, practices begun in the 17th century with the advent of the academic journal, when the societal demand for access to scientific knowledge reached a point at which it became necessary for groups of scientists to share resources[4] with each other so that they could collectively do their work.[5] In modern times there is debate about the extent to which scientific information should be shared.[6] The conflict that led to the Open Science movement is between the desire of scientists to have access to shared resources versus the desire of individual entities to profit when other entities partake of their resources.[7] Additionally, the status of open access and resources that are available for its promotion are likely to differ from one field of academic inquiry to another.[8]"
[{2020-07-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science]

name::
* McsEngl.open-science!⇒sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen,
* McsEngl.science.002-open!⇒sciOpen,
* McsEngl.science.open!⇒sciOpen,

descriptionLong::
"Open Science is a system change allowing for better science through open and collaborative ways of producing and sharing knowledge and data, as early as possible in the research process, and for communicating and sharing results. This new approach affects research institutions and science practices by bringing about new ways of funding, evaluating and rewarding researchers. Open Science increases the quality and impact of science by fostering reproducibility and interdisciplinarity. It makes science more efficient through better sharing of resources, more reliable through better verification and more responsive to society’s needs."
[{2020-07-02} https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/knowledge_publications_tools_and_data/documents/ec_rtd_factsheet-open-science_2019.pdf]
===
"Η Ανοικτή Επιστήμη είναι το νέο πρότυπο πρακτικών, μέσων και συνεργασίας για την παραγωγή και διάθεση επιστημονικού έργου και αποτελεσμάτων της έρευνας, με άμεσο επιστημονικό, οικονομικό και κοινωνικό αντίκτυπο. Η Ανοικτή Επιστήμη είναι κρίσιμη προτεραιότητα της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης (ΕΕ) για τη βιώσιμη ανάπτυξη, την καλύτερη παραγωγή και αξιοποίηση ερευνητικών αποτελεσμάτων, τη συνεργατικότητα, καθώς και τον εκδημοκρατισμό της γνώσης."
[{2020-07-02} https://oer.ellak.gr/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/06/OSP-v1.0-pub.pdf]

attribute of sciOpen

description::
"There are six commonly accepted pillars of open science: open data, open access, open methodology, open source, open peer review and open education."
[{2022-08-23 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2]

name::
* McsEngl.sciOpen'attribute,

open-data of sciOpen

description::
"Open data is the process of releasing both raw and processed data from your experiments, enabling others to analyse it without restriction. That data should be released is obvious; but which data? In my opinion, all raw data generated in the pursuit of your experiment should be released (especially the data you discarded), and at least enough to regenerate completely the analysis you yourself performed. As important as the data are the metadata; releasing raw data with poor metadata is just another way of obfuscating the scientific process.
We should consider the data to be the main publication, and the paper a secondary, less important part; the data will outlive the paper, as others re-analyse within the context of new scientific discoveries. Imagine if the human genome project had only released the ‘interesting parts’ of the genome? So many scientific discoveries would have been delayed.
Alongside the scientific argument is the moral argument; as Hannay alludes to, it is no longer acceptable for scientists to hold on to data until they have extracted every last possible publication from it. The data do not belong to the scientist, they belong to the funder (quite often the taxpayer). Datasets should be freely available to those who funded them. Scientists who hoard data, far from pushing back the boundaries of human knowledge, instead act as barriers to discovery.
Of course, we should always be careful to ensure appropriate consent is given, and that data cannot result in the harm of any given individual or group. However, it is ironic that many of us are careless about personal data every day, yet demand that scientific data are held up to a higher standard."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-data-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-data,

open-access of sciOpen

description::
"Open access is the model under which papers are available for anyone to read without having to pay, and that license allows secondary use such as text-mining. Others have spoken about this at great length, but some points are worth re-iterating: it is immoral to expect those who funded the research (taxpayers) to pay to access the results of that research; it is illogical that researchers (who work for the journals for free) have to pay; or that institutions who employ those authors have to pay. Nothing about the current closed-access publication model makes sense. Who should pay? The funder, of course; and when there is no funder, or there are no funds, then there are preprint servers (such as arXiv and bioRxiv) and institutional repositories.
I have no problem with publishers making money from the scientific process. However, I believe that in order to do so, they should add value. Many will say that they add value; and some do; but many more do not. Typesetting and PDF generation are not ‘adding value’. A good example of ‘adding value’ are the ‘living figures’ introduced by F1000Research [3], figures within papers that update in real-time as more data become available. Rather tellingly F1000Research is an open-access publisher."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-access-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-access,

repository of open-access

description::
"An open repository or open-access repository is a digital platform that holds research output and provides free, immediate and permanent access to research results for anyone to use, download and distribute. To facilitate open access such repositories must be interoperable according to the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH). Search engines harvest the content of open access repositories, constructing a database of worldwide, free of charge available research.[1][2][3]
Open-access repositories, such as an institutional repository or disciplinary repository, provide free access to research for users outside the institutional community and are one of the recommended ways to achieve the open access vision described in the Budapest Open Access Initiative definition of open access. This is sometimes referred to as the self-archiving or "green" route to open access."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-access_repository]

name::
* McsEngl.open-access-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository,

addressWpg::
* https://www.openrepositories.org/,

specific-tree-of-::
* arXiv,
* mdpi,
* zenodo,

open-repository.arXiv

description::
· https://arxiv.org/,
"arXiv (pronounced "archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi ⟨χ⟩)[1] is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, mathematical finance and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository before publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Some publishers also grant permission for authors to archive the peer-reviewed postprint. Begun on August 14, 1991, arXiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008,[2][3] and had hit a million by the end of 2014.[4][5] As of April 2021, the submission rate is about 16,000 articles per month.[6]"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv]

name::
* McsEngl.arXiv-open-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository.arXiv,

open-repository.bioRxiv

description::
· https://www.biorxiv.org/,
"bioRxiv (pronounced "bio-archive"[1][2]) is an open access preprint repository for the biological sciences co-founded by John Inglis and Richard Sever in November 2013.[3][4] It is hosted by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).[5] As preprints, papers hosted on bioRxiv are not peer-reviewed, but undergo basic screening and checked against plagiarism. Readers may offer comments on the preprint. It was inspired by and intends to complement the arXiv repository, which mostly focuses on mathematics, physics and connected disciplines, launched in 1991 by Paul Ginsparg (who also serves on the bioRxiv advisory board). It received support from both the CSHL and the Lourie Foundation.[6] Additional funding from the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative was confirmed in April 2017.[7][8]"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioRxiv]

name::
* McsEngl.bioRxiv-open-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository.bioRxiv,

open-repository.Figshare

description::
· https://figshare.com/,
"Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos.[1] It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data. Figshare is one of a number of portfolio businesses supported by Digital Science,[2] a subsidiary of Springer Nature.[3]"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figshare]

name::
* McsEngl.Figshare-open-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository.Figshare,

open-repository.Zenodo

description::
"Zenodo is a general-purpose open repository developed under the European OpenAIRE program and operated by CERN.[1][2][3] It allows researchers to deposit research papers, data sets, research software, reports, and any other research related digital artefacts. For each submission, a persistent digital object identifier (DOI) is minted, which makes the stored items easily citeable.[4]"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenodo]

name::
* McsEngl.open-repository.Zenodo,
* McsEngl.Zenodo-open-repository,

open-repository.Mdpi

description::
"A pioneer in scholarly, open access publishing, MDPI has supported academic communities since 1996. Based in Basel, Switzerland, MDPI has the mission to foster open scientific exchange in all forms, across all disciplines.
Our 408 diverse and open access journals, including 399 peer-reviewed journals and 9 conference journals, are supported by more than 115,000 academic experts who share our mission, values, and commitment to providing high-quality service for our authors. We serve scholars from around the world to ensure the latest research is freely available and all content is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
MDPI publishes over 98 journals that are ranked as high impact within their fields. To view the current impact factors for MDPI journals (according to the Journal Citation Reports), please visit our yearly announcement page here.
With additional offices in Beijing, Wuhan, Tianjin and Nanjing (China), Barcelona (Spain), Belgrade and Novi Sad (Serbia), Manchester (UK), Tokyo (Japan), Cluj and Bucharest (Romania), Toronto (Canada), Kraków (Poland), Singapore (Singapore) and Bangkok (Thailand), MDPI has published the research of more than 330,000 individual authors and our journals receive more than 25 million monthly webpage views."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://www.mdpi.com/about]

name::
* McsEngl.Mdpi-open-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository.Mdpi,

open-repository.Dryad

description::
· https://datadryad.org/stash,
"Dryad is an international open-access repository of research data, especially data underlying scientific and medical publications (mainly of evolutionary, genetic, and ecology biology). Dryad is a curated general-purpose repository that makes data discoverable, freely reusable, and citable. The scientific, educational, and charitable mission of Dryad is to provide the infrastructure for and promote the re-use of scholarly research data."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryad_(repository)]

name::
* McsEngl.Dryad-open-repository,
* McsEngl.open-repository.Dryad,

APC-BPC of open-access

description::
"Article Processing Charges (APCs)/Book processing charges (BPCs) are publication fees charged to authors - but often covered by their institution or funder - to make publications immediately open access, and should not be confused with other costs such as page charges or colour print fees. APCs can vary widely, however many Open Access journals do not charge these author fees. So you can avoid APCs and still make your work open access by publishing in such a journal, or by providing open access through self-archiving."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://www.openaire.eu/faqs#article-id-1156]

name::
* McsEngl.APC'Article-Processing-Charges,
* McsEngl.Article-Processing-Charges,
* McsEngl.BPC'Book-Processing-Charges,
* McsEngl.Book-Processing-Charges,

info-resource of open-access

description::
* open access journals & articles: https://doaj.org/,
* https://explore.openalex.org/,
* https://open-access.network/en/home,
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Open_Science,

name::
* McsEngl.open-access'Infrsc,

open-methodology of sciOpen

description::
"An open methodology is simply one which has been described in sufficient detail to allow other researchers to repeat the work and apply it elsewhere. Isn’t that simply ‘the methods section’? Of course, there are times when researchers may have access to unique resources - a cell line, or specific computer hardware - which means that others cannot repeat what they did. That doesn’t matter. One of the major reasons we publish is so that others can learn from what we have done, and revealing how you carried out an experiment is at the heart of any publication."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-methodology-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-methodology,

open-source of sciOpen

description::
"Open source generally refers to open and free access to the blueprint of a product; applied to software, it refers to the source code. There are hundreds of different open-source software licenses, and the arguments for and against are detailed and nuanced. However, I refer you to ‘Open methodology’ above; if you use software as part of the scientific method, then the source code should be available to read (preferably via a website such as GitHub or SourceForge), the software should compile and run and there should be a description of the core algorithms. The software you develop is part of the methods section, and it is the easiest part to share. One can distribute software throughout the world at the push of a button; the same cannot be said of a laboratory. Software should be (and in fact is) driving the open-science movement."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-source-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-source,

open-peer-review of sciOpen

description::
"I have written extensively about this [4, 5], as have others [6]. The point of open peer review isn’t removing anonymity, though that’s part of it. Open peer review is about transforming the peer review process; it is about making peer review a collaborative process between authors and reviewers; it is about constructive criticism, but with the goal of helping the authors to get published. More than all of that, it’s about doing the right thing. The British Medical Journal gathered convincing evidence that open review did no damage to the quality of peer reviews [7]; yet still they insisted that they introduced open peer review for ‘ethical reasons’, believing that removing anonymity would help bring an end to the worst abuses of peer review, and transform the entire process from one of judgement to one of open, scientific discourse [7]. When reading those words, doesn’t it make you wonder why peer review was ever anything else?"
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-peer-review-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-peer-review,

open-education of sciOpen

description::
"Open education refers to the open and free availability of educational resources. This does not mean that you cannot charge for education - no one can make the tutor work for free - but the resources that are used to educate can be made freely available. Why would you do that? So that others can use and improve them, and so that standards can be set and reached. In my own field, bioinformatics, this is being driven by movements such as GOBLET [8, 9] and Software/Data Carpentry [10]. More widely, massively open online courses (MOOCs) are increasingly popular. Open education brings science and education to everyone, regardless of social class, and that can only be a good thing."
[{2022-08-24 retrieved} https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2#citeas]

name::
* McsEngl.open-education-of-sciOpen,
* McsEngl.sciOpen'open-education,

descriptionLong::
"Open Education encompasses resources, tools and practices that are free of legal, financial and technical barriers and can be fully used, shared and adapted in the digital environment. Open Education maximizes the power of the Internet to make education more affordable, accessible and effective."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://sparcopen.org/open-education/]

evaluation of sciOpen

description::
"Η Ανοικτή Επιστήμη αποτελεί πυλώνα του Ευρωπαϊκού οικοσυστήματος Υπεύθυνης Έρευνας και Καινοτομίας [10], καθώς:
• επισπεύδει τις επιστημονικές ανακαλύψεις, μέσα από τη συνεργατικότητα, την επέκταση και επανάχρηση των αποτελεσμάτων της έρευνας
• επιτρέπει την επαλήθευση των ερευνητικών συμπερασμάτων, οδηγώντας στην εξάλειψη του ανορθολογισμού της έρευνας
• συμβάλλει στην καλύτερη και ταχύτερη εμπορική αξιοποίηση των αποτελεσμάτων της έρευνας και αυξάνει την καινοτομία
• συνεισφέρει στην κατάρτιση του ανθρώπινου δυναμικού με ανταγωνιστικές δεξιότητες στο χειρισμό, ανάλυση και αξιοποίηση δεδομένων
• ενισχύει την ακεραιότητα των ερευνητών και της παραγόμενης επιστημονικής γνώσης, συμβάλλοντας στην ερευνητική αριστεία και τη σύναψη αξιόπιστων συνεργασιών
• ενισχύει την εμπιστοσύνη των πολιτών στην επιστημονική γνώση
• ενισχύει την επιστημονικά τεκμηριωμένη χάραξη βιώσιμης πολιτικής σε διάφορους τομείς που άπτονται της λειτουργίας του κράτους και της ζωής του πολίτη (π.χ. υγεία, κλίμα, καινοτομία)
• προωθεί την εξωστρέφεια των ερευνητικών και χρηματοδοτικών οργανισμών "
[{2020-07-02} https://oer.ellak.gr/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/06/OSP-v1.0-pub.pdf]

name::
* McsEngl.sciOpen'evaluation,

info-resource of sciOpen

description::
* Watson, M. When will ‘open science’ become simply ‘science’?. Genome Biol 16, 101 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-015-0669-2,
* https://zenodo.org/, "Built and developed by researchers, to ensure that everyone can join in Open Science",
* https://www.openaire.eu/,
* https://ec.europa.eu/research/openscience/index.cfm?pg=open-science-cloud,
===
* https://oer.ellak.gr/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/06/OSP-v1.0-pub.pdf,

name::
* McsEngl.sciOpen'Infrsc,

science.citizen-003

description::
"Citizen science (CS; also known as community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science, volunteer monitoring, or online citizen science) is scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur (or nonprofessional) scientists.[1] Citizen science is sometimes described as "public participation in scientific research," participatory monitoring, and participatory action research whose outcomes are often advancements in scientific research, as well as an increase in the public's understanding of science.[2][3] Based on Alexa rankings[4] iNaturalist is currently the most popular citizen science website[5] followed by eBird[6] and then Zooniverse[7] in second and third place respectively.[needs update]"
[{2020-07-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science]

name::
* McsEngl.sciCitizen,
* McsEngl.science.003-citizen!⇒sciCitizen,
* McsEngl.science.citizen!⇒sciCitizen,
* McsEngl.citizen-science!⇒sciCitizen,

science.liberal-arts

description::
"The term "liberal arts" for an educational curriculum dates back to classical antiquity in the West, but has changed its meaning considerably, mostly expanding it. The seven subjects in the ancient and medieval meaning came to be divided into the trivium of rhetoric, grammar, and logic, and the quadrivium of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music.
The modern sense of the term usually covers all the natural sciences, formal sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_education]

name::
* McsEngl.liberal-arts,
* McsEngl.science.006-liberal-arts,
* McsEngl.science.liberal-arts,

science.trivium

description::
"trivium of rhetoric, grammar, and logic, and the quadrivium of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_education]

name::
* McsEngl.science.007-trivium,
* McsEngl.science.trivium,
* McsEngl.trivium,

science.quadrivium

description::
"trivium of rhetoric, grammar, and logic, and the quadrivium of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_education]

name::
* McsEngl.quadrivium,
* McsEngl.science.008-quadrivium,
* McsEngl.science.quadrivium,

science.philosophy-001 (link)

science.mathematics-005 (link)

science.engineering-010

description::
"is engineering science?
Engineering is a branch of applied science that deals with the design and construction of machines, structures, and systems. It applies scientific knowledge to solve practical problems and improve the quality of human life.

Engineering is a broad field that encompasses many different disciplines, including:
* Aerospace engineering
* Civil engineering
* Computer engineering
* Electrical engineering
* Mechanical engineering
* Biomedical engineering
* Chemical engineering
* Environmental engineering
* Materials science engineering
* Nuclear engineering
* Petroleum engineering
* Software engineering

All of these disciplines are based on scientific knowledge, but they also involve creativity, innovation, and problem-solving skills.

So, is engineering science? The answer is both yes and no.

Engineering is a science in the sense that it is based on a solid foundation of scientific knowledge. Engineers use scientific principles to design and build systems that work reliably and efficiently.

However, engineering is not just science. It is also an art. Engineers must use their creativity and imagination to design systems that meet the needs of users and society.

In short, engineering is an applied science. It uses scientific knowledge to solve real-world problems.

Here is an example to illustrate the difference between science and engineering:
* A scientist might study the properties of a new material to understand how it behaves under different conditions.
* An engineer might use that knowledge to design a new product or structure from the material.

The scientist is focused on understanding the material itself, while the engineer is focused on using the material to solve a problem.

Engineering is a vital field that plays a major role in our modern world. Engineers design and build the bridges, roads, buildings, and energy systems that we rely on every day. They also develop new medical technologies, computer systems, and communication networks.

Without engineers, our world would be a very different place.
Sources: www.clemson.edu/cecas/global-engagement/undergraduate-programs/global-exchange-programs.html"
[{2023-10-05 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/fa0d11ea09265476]

name::
* McsEngl.engineering,
* McsEngl.science.010-engineering,
* McsEngl.science.engineering,

meta-info

this webpage was-visited times since {2019-12-21}

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footer::
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