law.securities of sfrFin

description::
· law on securities.

name::
* McsEngl.lawEconomy.012-security,
* McsEngl.lawEconomy.security,
* McsEngl.security-lawEconomy,

sfrFin.eurostat

description::
"Financial assets are economic assets, comprising all financial claims, equity and the gold bullion component of monetary gold. These assets are stores of value representing a benefit or series of benefits accruing to the economic owner through holding or using the assets over a period of time. They are a means of carrying forward value from one accounting period to another. By contrast, financial liabilities are established when debtors are obliged to provide a payment or a series of payments to creditors.
The classification of financial assets and liabilities corresponds to the classification of financial transactions. Financial assets and liabilities as negotiable financial instruments are valued at market value; these values should exclude commissions, fees and taxes. Financial instruments that are non-negotiable are valued at nominal value. These assets/liabilities include:
* Monetary gold and special drawing rights (SDRs): the former is gold bullion held by financial authorities (or others subject to effective control by such authorities) as a reserve asset against which no outstanding financial liability exists; the latter is an international reserve asset created by the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
* Currency and deposits: the former is composed of banknotes and coins issued by monetary authorities; the latter are exchangeable for currency on demand and may be used directly for making payments by cheque, giro, direct debit, and so on.
* Debt securities: negotiable financial instruments (legal ownership of which may be transferred) that must be designed for potential trading on an organised exchange or in the over-the-counter market.
* Loans: financial assets created when creditors lend funds to debtors, either directly or through brokers, which are either evidenced by non-negotiable documents or not evidenced by documents.
* Equity and investment fund shares or units: composed of financial assets that represent property rights on corporations or quasi-corporations (such assets generally entitle the holders to a share of profit, and to a share of net assets in the event of liquidation).
* Insurance, pension and standardised guarantee schemes: composed of financial assets of policy holders or beneficiaries and financial liabilities of insurers, pension funds, or issuers of standardised guarantees.
* Financial derivatives and employee stock options: financial assets linked to a financial asset, a non-financial asset or an index, through which specific financial risks can be traded in financial markets in their own right (for example, options, forwards and credit derivatives, or agreements for the purchase of an employer’s stock at a stated price).
* Other accounts receivable/payable: financial assets that are created as a counterpart of a financial or a non-financial transaction in cases where there is a timing difference between this transaction and the corresponding payment (for example, the direct extension of credit by suppliers, advances for work that is in progress or has yet to be undertaken, or prepayment for goods/services that have yet to be delivered)."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Financial_assets_and_liabilities]

name::
* McsEngl.sfrFin.eurostat,

finService.specific

description::
* accounting,
* intermedation,
* lending money,
* payment-service,
* safekeeping of money,
* stock brokerage,
* tax preparation,

name::
* McsEngl.finService.specific,

finInstrument.specific

description::
* derivative-finInstrument,
* derivativeNo-finInstrument,

name::
* McsEngl.finInstrument.specific,

finDerivative.SPECIFIC

description::
* forwards,
* futures,
* options,
* swaps,

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.specific,

finDerivative.forward

description::
"In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specified future time at a price agreed on at the time of conclusion of the contract, making it a type of derivative instrument.[1][2] The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_contract]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.forward!⇒finForward,
* McsEngl.finForward,
* McsEngl.forward!⇒finForward,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.013-forward!⇒finForward,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.forward!⇒finForward,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.yuǎnqīhéyuē-远期合约-(遠期合約)!=finForward,
* McsZhon.远期合约-(遠期合約)-yuǎnqīhéyuē!=finForward,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.προθεσμιακό-συμβόλαιο!το!=finForward,

finDerivative.future

description::
"In finance, a futures contract (sometimes called futures) is a standardized legal agreement to buy or sell something at a predetermined price at a specified time in the future, between parties not known to each other. The asset transacted is usually a commodity or financial instrument. The predetermined price the parties agree to buy and sell the asset for is known as the forward price. The specified time in the future—which is when delivery and payment occur—is known as the delivery date. Because it is a function of an underlying asset, a futures contract is a derivative product."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures_contract]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.future!⇒finFuture,
* McsEngl.finFuture,
* McsEngl.future!⇒finFuture,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.014-future!⇒finFuture,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.future!⇒finFuture,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.qīhuòhéyuē-期货合约-(期貨合約)!=finFuture,
* McsZhon.期货合约-(期貨合約)-qīhuòhéyuē!=finFuture,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.συμβόλαιο-μελλοντικής-εκπλήρωσης!το!=finFuture,

finDerivative.option

description::
"In finance, an option is a contract which conveys to its owner, the holder, the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified strike price on or before a specified date, depending on the style of the option. Options are typically acquired by purchase, as a form of compensation, or as part of a complex financial transaction. Thus, they are also a form of asset and have a valuation that may depend on a complex relationship between underlying asset value, time until expiration, market volatility, and other factors. Options may be traded between private parties in over-the-counter (OTC) transactions, or they may be exchange-traded in live, orderly markets in the form of standardized contracts."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Option_(finance)]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.option!⇒finOption,
* McsEngl.finOption,
* McsEngl.option!⇒finOption,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.015-option!⇒finOption,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.option!⇒finOption,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.qīquán-期权-(期權)!=finOption,
* McsZhon.期权-(期權)-qīquán!=finOption,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.δικαίωμα-προαίρεσης!το!=finOption,

finDerivative.swap

description::
"A swap, in finance, is an agreement between two counterparties to exchange financial instruments or cashflows or payments for a certain time. The instruments can be almost anything but most swaps involve cash based on a notional principal amount."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swap_(finance)]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.swap!⇒finSwap,
* McsEngl.finSwap,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.016-swap!⇒finSwap,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.swap!⇒finSwap,
* McsEngl.swap!⇒finSwap,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.diàoqī-掉期!=finSwap,
* McsZhon.掉期-diàoqī!=finSwap,

finDerivative.structured-note

description::
"A structured note is an over the counter derivative with hybrid security features which combine payoffs from multiple ordinary securities, typically a stock or bond plus a derivative. When the product depends on a credit payoff, it is called a credit-linked note. Because no such security exists outside of the sponsor creating this hybrid, the creditworthiness of this structured note depends on the strength of the sponsor."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_note]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivative.structured-note!⇒finStructured-note,
* McsEngl.finStructured-note,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.020-structured-note!⇒finStructured-note,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.structured-note!⇒finStructured-note,
* McsEngl.structured-note!⇒finStructured-note,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.δομημένο-ομόλογο!το!=finStructured-note,

finDerivativeNo.SPECIFIC

description::
* equity-finDerivativeNo,
* debt-finDerivativeNo,

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.specific,

finDerivativeNo.debt-based

description::
"Alternatively, financial instruments can be categorized by "asset class" depending on whether they are equity based (reflecting ownership of the issuing entity) or debt based (reflecting a loan the investor has made to the issuing entity). If it is debt, it can be further categorised into short term (less than one year) or long term."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_instrument]

name::
* McsEngl.debt-based-derivativeNo,
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.debt,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.005-debt-based,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.debt-based,

finDerivativeNo.equity-based

description::
"Alternatively, financial instruments can be categorized by "asset class" depending on whether they are equity based (reflecting ownership of the issuing entity) or debt based (reflecting a loan the investor has made to the issuing entity). If it is debt, it can be further categorised into short term (less than one year) or long term."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_instrument]

name::
* McsEngl.equity-based-derivativeNo,
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.equity,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.006-equity-based,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.equity-based,

finDerivativeNo.stock

description::
"In finance, stock (also capital stock) consists of all of the shares into which ownership of a corporation or company is divided.[1] (Especially in American English, the word "stocks" is also used to refer to shares.)[1][2] A single share of the stock means fractional ownership of the corporation in proportion to the total number of shares. This typically entitles the shareholder (stockholder) to that fraction of the company's earnings, proceeds from liquidation of assets (after discharge of all senior claims such as secured and unsecured debt),[3] or voting power, often dividing these up in proportion to the amount of money each stockholder has invested. Not all stock is necessarily equal, as certain classes of stock may be issued for example without voting rights, with enhanced voting rights, or with a certain priority to receive profits or liquidation proceeds before or after other classes of shareholders."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.stock!⇒finStock,
* McsEngl.finStock,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.010-stock!⇒finStock,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.stock!⇒finStock,
* McsEngl.stock!⇒finStock,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.gǔpiào-股票!=finStock,
* McsZhon.股票-gǔpiào!=finStock,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.μετοχικό-κεφάλαιο!το!=finStock,

finDerivativeNo.bond

description::
"In finance, a bond is an instrument of indebtedness of the bond issuer to the holders. The most common types of bonds include municipal bonds and corporate bonds. Bonds can be in mutual funds or can be in private investing where a person would give a loan to a company or the government."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_(finance)]

name::
* McsEngl.bond!⇒finBond,
* McsEngl.finBond,
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.bond!⇒finBond,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.011-bond!⇒finBond,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.bond!⇒finBond,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.zhàiquàn-债券-(債券)!=finBond,
* McsZhon.债券-(債券)-zhàiquàn!=finBond,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.ομόλογο!το!=finBond,

finDerivativeNo.mortgage

description::
"A mortgage loan or simply mortgage (/ˈmɔːrɡɪdʒ/) is a loan used either by purchasers of real property to raise funds to buy real estate, or by existing property owners to raise funds for any purpose while putting a lien on the property being mortgaged. The loan is "secured" on the borrower's property through a process known as mortgage origination. This means that a legal mechanism is put into place which allows the lender to take possession and sell the secured property ("foreclosure" or "repossession") to pay off the loan in the event the borrower defaults on the loan or otherwise fails to abide by its terms. The word mortgage is derived from a Law French term used in Britain in the Middle Ages meaning "death pledge" and refers to the pledge ending (dying) when either the obligation is fulfilled or the property is taken through foreclosure.[1] A mortgage can also be described as "a borrower giving consideration in the form of a collateral for a benefit (loan)"."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortgage_loan]

name::
* McsEngl.finDerivativeNo.mortgage!⇒finMortgage,
* McsEngl.finMortgage,
* McsEngl.mortgage!⇒finMortgage,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.012-mortgage!⇒finMortgage,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.mortgage!⇒finMortgage,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.fángdìchǎndǐyā-房地产抵押!=finMortgage,
* McsZhon.房地产抵押-fángdìchǎndǐyā!=finMortgage,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.υποθήκη!η!=finMortgage,

01_medium-of-exchange of money

description::
"In economics, a medium of exchange is any item that is widely acceptable in exchange for goods and services.[1] In modern economies, the most commonly used medium of exchange is currency."
[{2021-07-28 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_of_exchange]

name::
* McsEngl.money'01_medium-of-exchange,
* McsEngl.money'medium-of-exchange,

02_store-of-value of money

description::
"A store of value is any commodity or asset that would normally retain purchasing power into the future and is the function of the asset that can be saved, retrieved and exchanged at a later time, and be predictably useful when retrieved.[citation needed]
The most common store of value in modern times has been money, currency, or a commodity like a precious metal or financial capital."
[{2021-07-28 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_of_value]

name::
* McsEngl.money'02_store-of-value,
* McsEngl.money'store-of-value,

03_unit-of-account of money

description::
"Unit of measure and unit of account are sometimes treated as synonyms in financial accounting and economics. Unit of measure in financial accounting refers to the monetary unit to be used; that is, whether it should be nominal units of money as opposed to units that are adjusted for changes in purchasing power over time."
[{2021-07-28 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_account]

name::
* McsEngl.money'03_unit-of-account,
* McsEngl.money'unit-of-account,

legal-tender of money

description::
"Legal tender is a form of money that courts of law are required to recognize as satisfactory payment for any monetary debt.[1] Each jurisdiction determines what is legal tender, but essentially it is anything which when offered ("tendered") in payment of a debt extinguishes the debt. There is no obligation on the creditor to accept the tendered payment, but the act of tendering the payment in legal tender discharges the debt."
[{2021-07-28 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_tender]

name::
* McsEngl.money'legal-tender,

scarcity of money

description::
· its supply in circulation must be limited.

name::
* McsEngl.money'scarcity,

divisibility of money

description::
· divisible to small units.

name::
* McsEngl.money'divisibility,

durability of money

description::
· able to withstand repeated use.

name::
* McsEngl.money'durability,

portability of money

description::
· easily carried and transported.

name::
* McsEngl.money'portability,

fungibility of money

description::
· mutual interchangeability.

name::
* McsEngl.money'fungibility,

cognizability of money

description::
· its value must be easily identified.

name::
* McsEngl.money'congnizability,

independence of money

description::
"Historically, gold and silver were used as money because they had many properties necessary for money: uniformity, divisibility, portability, durability, and scarcity.
Any commodity with these properties can be used as money.
I am going to propose that money needs another property: independence. If money is not independent from anybody’s control over its issuance then the people are not in control of their economy.
If the people are not in control, then is it a democracy?"
[{2021-01-17} https://moreequalanimals.com/assets/MoreEqualAnimals-1.15.2021.pdf-p98]

name::
* McsEngl.money'independence,

monetary-policy of money

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.Socpolicy.monetary,
* McsEngl.monetary-policy,
* McsEngl.money'monetary-policy,

addressWpg::
* {2022-02-10} David Siegel. 21st Century Monetary Policy: Automating the money supply for a better world, https://shortfall.blog/21st-century-monetary-policy-be61774ff11b,

info-resource of money

description::
* {2021-08-02} https://www.yanisvaroufakis.eu/2021/08/02/what-is-money/,
* https://wtfhappenedin1971.com/,

name::
* McsEngl.money'Infrsc,

spending of money

description::
"(v) spend, expend, drop (pay out) "spend money""
[{2021-08-31 retrieved} http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=spend]

* spender,
* money,
* cause,

name::
* McsEngl.money'spending!⇒actSpending,
* McsEngl.spending-acting,
* McsEngl.to-spend!~verbEnglC:spend-spends-spent-spending-spent!=actSpending,
* McsEngl.actSpending,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.花费-huāfèi!=actSpending,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.ξοδεύω!-ω-ομαι!~verbElln!=actSpending,σς

money.SPECIFIC

description::
* Evu,
* DeCurrency,
===
* claim-money,
* claimNo-money,
===
* international-money,
* national-money,
* local-money,
===
* Dmoney,
* commodity-money,
* digital-money,
* fiat-money,
* representative-money,

name::
* McsEngl.money.specific,

money.unit

description::
· a-unit-of-measurement of exchange-value.

name::
* McsEngl.CURRENCY!⇒Evu,
* McsEngl.Evu,
* McsEngl.Evu!=exchange-value-unit,
* McsEngl.currency//society!⇒Evu,
* McsEngl.exchange-value-unit!⇒Evu,
* McsEngl.money.unit!⇒Evu,
* McsEngl.society'currency!⇒Evu,
* McsEngl.society/currency!⇒Evu,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.huòbì-货币!=Evu,
* McsZhon.货币-huòbì!=Evu,
* McsZhon.kuài..máo-块..毛!=Evu,
* McsZhon.块..毛-kuài..máo!=Evu,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.νόμισμα!το!=Evu,

syntax::
=== kuài..máo-块..毛!=Evu:
· stxZhon: 两 块 五 毛 :: liǎng kuài wǔ máo != two kuai five mao (2.5)
· stxZhon: 两 块 二 :: liǎng kuài èr != two kuai two mao (2.2)
· stxZhon: 三 块 八 毛 六 :: sān kuài bā máo liù != three kuai eight mao six fen (3.86)

===
· stxZhon: 这 件 衣服 多少 钱？ :: _stxSbj:[Zhè jiàn yīfu] _stxSbjc:[duōshao qián]? != [this clothing] [how much money]?
* McsEngl.syntax.Evu,

money.claim

description::
· Claim-backed-money (fiat-backed-money): The issuer-of-money gets an interest-free loan from a non-claim-asset holder. The asset-holder gets a contract, information (paper or digital) revealing his claim. This claim he can exchange with other non-claim-commodities OR he can exchange with the issuer with the backed-commodity (usually gold).
· Claim-non-backed-money (fiat-non-backed-money): since 1971, economies use claim-assets but non-backed with another commodity which continue to have the medium-of-exchange and unit-of-account attributes but have an uncertain storage-of-value attribute which depends on the credibility of the issuer.

name::
* McsEngl.claim-money,
* McsEngl.fiat-money,
* McsEngl.intrinsicNo-value-money,
* McsEngl.representative-money,
* McsEngl.money.claim,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.παραστατικό-χρήμα!το!=fiat-maney,

money.claimNo

description::
· Non-claim-money: non-claim-assets that have the above 3 attributes (medium of exchange, storage of value, unit of account), the most common is the precious metals.

name::
* McsEngl.commodity-money,
* McsEngl.money.claimNo,
* McsEngl.non-claim-money,

money.labor

description::
">labor money overview:
The term "labor money" refers to a concept within economics and social theory related to compensating workers with a form of currency that directly represents their labor input. This idea has roots in various economic theories and has been explored in different contexts throughout history. Here’s an overview that touches upon its key aspects:
### Historical Context
- **Early Proposals**: The idea of labor money dates back to the early socialist and utopian thinkers of the 19th century, such as Robert Owen. They proposed systems where workers would be paid with notes or tokens that represented the amount of labor they contributed, which could then be exchanged for goods and services based on the amount of labor required to produce them.
- **Marxist Critique**: Karl Marx critiqued the concept of labor money in his works, arguing that it failed to address the underlying inequalities of capitalist systems and the complexities of labor value.
### Theoretical Foundations
- **Labor Theory of Value**: At the heart of the labor money concept is the labor theory of value, which suggests that the value of a good or service is determined by the amount of labor required to produce it. Labor money seeks to make this value directly exchangeable.
- **Time Banks and Modern Implementations**: In contemporary settings, the concept of labor money has been partially realized through time banks and alternative currency systems, where individuals trade hours of work for services, bypassing traditional money.
### Advantages and Challenges
- **Advantages**: Proponents argue that labor money could create fairer compensation for work, reduce inequality, and foster community cooperation. It's seen as a way to directly value and reward labor, potentially transforming societal valuations of different types of work.
- **Challenges**: Critics point out several challenges, including the difficulty in accurately measuring the value of diverse types of labor, potential for exploitation, and integration with broader, money-based economies. There's also the issue of how to account for jobs that are necessary but undesirable, and how to ensure a fair exchange rate for labor across different sectors.
### Modern Relevance
- **Alternative Economic Models**: Interest in labor money and similar concepts has seen a resurgence with the growing interest in alternative economic models, including local currencies, cooperative businesses, and the solidarity economy movement.
- **Technology and Implementation**: Advances in technology, especially blockchain and decentralized finance (DeFi), offer new possibilities for implementing labor-based currencies or value exchange systems, potentially addressing some of the traditional challenges.
Labor money represents an intriguing alternative to conventional monetary systems, aiming to more directly connect work with economic value. However, its practical implementation faces significant hurdles, both in terms of economics and societal acceptance. As economic and social paradigms continue to evolve, the concepts underlying labor money may yet find new forms of expression and implementation."
[{2024-02-22 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/3bdd4408-74a1-4f9a-8ee4-cb4623e6df06]

">labor money overview:
Labor money refers to the compensation that workers receive for their labor. This compensation can take many forms, including wages, salaries, commissions, bonuses, and benefits.
The amount of labor money that a worker receives is determined by a number of factors, including the worker's education, experience, skills, and the demand for their labor in the marketplace. The worker's bargaining power, as well as the laws and regulations of the country or region in which they work, also play a role.
Labor money is an important part of the economy. It allows workers to purchase the goods and services they need and want, and it helps to stimulate economic growth. However, there is a growing concern that labor money is not being distributed fairly. In many countries, the gap between the rich and the poor is widening, and workers are not seeing their wages keep pace with the cost of living.
There are a number of ways to address this issue. One solution is to raise the minimum wage. This would ensure that all workers earn a living wage that allows them to meet their basic needs. Another solution is to strengthen unions. Unions can help workers to bargain for better wages and benefits. Finally, governments can also play a role by investing in education and training programs that help workers to develop the skills they need to get good jobs.
Here are some additional points to consider:
* The concept of labor money is complex and there are many different theories about how it is determined.
* Labor money is a key factor in social inequality.
* There is a growing debate about how to ensure that labor money is distributed fairly."
[{2024-02-22 retrieved} https://gemini.google.com/app/87a9dd1e89bc9843]

name::
* McsEngl.labor-money,
* McsEngl.money.labor,

descriptionLong::
"We advocate using labour time as the basic unit of account because we think that society is about people, and for the moment at least, how people spend their lives remains more important than any one natural resource.
[{2024-02-22 retrieved} https://users.wfu.edu/cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf, p45]

law of finInvestment

description::
"Investment law is a specialized area of law that governs the regulation of investments, particularly those made by foreign investors in different countries. This field of law involves the rules, regulations, treaties, and legal principles that apply to investments and can include both national and international aspects. Here's an overview of the key components of investment law:
### 1. **International Investment Agreements (IIAs)**
- **Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs):** These are agreements between two countries that establish the terms and conditions under which investments can be made by individuals and companies from one country in the other.
- **Multilateral Treaties:** Agreements involving multiple countries, such as the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) or the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which provide a broader framework for investment protection.
- **Free Trade Agreements (FTAs):** Often include investment chapters that govern the protection and treatment of foreign investments.
### 2. **Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS)**
- A mechanism that allows investors to bring claims against a foreign government if they believe their investments have been unfairly treated or expropriated. Disputes are typically resolved through arbitration under institutions like the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) or under ad hoc arbitration rules like UNCITRAL.
### 3. **Expropriation and Nationalization**
- Laws that govern the conditions under which a state can expropriate or nationalize private property, usually requiring that such actions be for a public purpose, non-discriminatory, and accompanied by adequate compensation.
### 4. **Fair and Equitable Treatment (FET)**
- A standard of treatment that requires host states to treat foreign investors fairly and equitably. This standard is often interpreted to include the protection of investors' legitimate expectations, protection against arbitrary or discriminatory measures, and the obligation of transparency.
### 5. **Full Protection and Security (FPS)**
- This principle requires host states to provide a secure environment for investments, including protection from physical harm and legal protection.
### 6. **National Treatment and Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) Treatment**
- **National Treatment:** Foreign investors should be treated no less favorably than domestic investors in like circumstances.
- **MFN Treatment:** Ensures that a foreign investor receives treatment no less favorable than that accorded to investors from any third country.
### 7. **Environmental and Social Considerations**
- Increasingly, investment law incorporates standards related to environmental protection, labor rights, and corporate social responsibility. These considerations can sometimes lead to tensions between investment protection and public policy objectives.
### 8. **Domestic Investment Laws**
- Each country has its own set of laws and regulations governing the entry, operation, and exit of foreign investments. These can include rules on sectoral restrictions, investment screening, corporate governance, taxation, and repatriation of profits.
### 9. **Regional Economic Integration**
- In regions with economic integration agreements, such as the European Union, investment law can be influenced by regional rules that harmonize or override national laws.
### 10. **Recent Trends**
- **Sustainable Investment:** There is a growing emphasis on promoting investments that are environmentally sustainable and socially responsible.
- **Reform of ISDS:** There are ongoing discussions about reforming the ISDS mechanism to address concerns about its fairness, transparency, and consistency.
Investment law is a complex and evolving field that requires a careful balance between protecting investor rights and preserving the regulatory sovereignty of states. Understanding the intricate network of treaties, national laws, and international norms is crucial for navigating this legal landscape."
[{2024-08-19 retrieved} https://chatgpt.com/c/b7785a3b-50fc-441f-ac0b-8a7e9ee1b93a]

name::
* McsEngl.finInvestment'law!⇒lawInvestment,
* McsEngl.investment-law!⇒lawInvestment,
* McsEngl.lawInvestment,

finInvestment.SPECIFIC

description::
">investment vehicles types:
There are many different types of investment vehicles available to investors, each with its own unique characteristics and risk profile. Here are some of the most common types of investment vehicles:
**Direct investments**
Direct investments involve buying individual securities, such as stocks, bonds, and real estate. This gives investors more control over their investments but also exposes them to more risk.
* **Stocks:** Stocks represent ownership in a company. When you buy a stock, you become a shareholder and are entitled to a share of the company's profits. Stocks can be volatile, but they also offer the potential for high returns.
* **Bonds:** Bonds are loans that are issued by governments or corporations. When you buy a bond, you are essentially lending money to the issuer. Bonds are generally less volatile than stocks, but they also offer lower returns.
* **Real estate:** Real estate can be a great way to diversify your portfolio and generate income. However, it can also be illiquid and subject to market fluctuations.
**Pooled investments**
Pooled investments pool money from multiple investors and invest it in a diversified portfolio of securities. This can help to reduce risk by spreading your investment across multiple assets.
* **Mutual funds:** Mutual funds are professionally managed portfolios of securities that are bought and sold once a day after the market closes. Mutual funds can be passively managed (tracking an index) or actively managed (trying to outperform the market).
* **Exchange-traded funds (ETFs):** ETFs are baskets of securities that trade on an exchange, just like stocks. ETFs can be passively managed or actively managed. ETFs are typically more tax-efficient than mutual funds.
* **Real estate investment trusts (REITs):** REITs are companies that own and operate income-producing real estate. REITs offer investors a way to invest in real estate without having to buy and manage properties themselves.
**Other investment vehicles**
There are a number of other investment vehicles available, including:
* **Annuities:** Annuities are insurance contracts that provide regular income payments in retirement.
* **Commodities:** Commodities are physical goods, such as gold, silver, oil, and wheat. Commodities can be volatile, but they can also offer protection against inflation.
* **Cryptocurrencies:** Cryptocurrencies are digital or virtual tokens that use cryptography for security. Cryptocurrencies are highly volatile and speculative.
**Choosing the right investment vehicle**
The best investment vehicle for you will depend on your individual circumstances, such as your investment goals, risk tolerance, and time horizon. It is important to do your research and understand the risks and potential rewards of each type of investment before you make a decision."
[{2024-01-11 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/f0166223825cbd2f]

name::
* McsEngl.finInvestment.specific,

finInvestment.foreign

description::
"Foreign investment refers to the flow of capital from one country to another, where individuals or entities invest in assets or businesses located in a foreign country. This can take many forms, each with its own characteristics and implications.

**Main Types of Foreign Investment**
* **Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)**: This involves a long-term investment where the investor establishes a significant presence and control in a foreign enterprise. It often involves establishing new businesses, acquiring existing ones, or forming joint ventures. Examples include a multinational corporation opening a manufacturing plant in another country or acquiring a controlling stake in a local company.
* **Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI)**: This involves investing in financial assets like stocks, bonds, or mutual funds in a foreign country. Unlike FDI, FPI doesn't provide direct control over the enterprise. It's often motivated by the potential for returns rather than strategic management.

**Benefits of Foreign Investment**
Foreign investment can bring various benefits to both the investing and recipient countries:
* **Economic Growth**: It can boost economic growth by injecting capital, creating jobs, and increasing productivity.
* **Technology Transfer**: Foreign investors often bring new technologies and management practices, enhancing the competitiveness of local industries.
* **Infrastructure Development**: Large-scale investments can contribute to the development of infrastructure, such as roads, ports, and telecommunication networks.
* **Market Access**: Foreign investment can provide access to new markets for both the investor and the recipient country.

**Potential Challenges**
While foreign investment offers numerous benefits, it's important to consider potential challenges:
* **Economic Dependence**: Excessive reliance on foreign investment can make a country vulnerable to external economic shocks.
* **Loss of Control**: There's a risk of losing control over strategic industries or resources to foreign entities.
* **Environmental Impact**: Some foreign investments, particularly in resource extraction or manufacturing, can have negative environmental consequences.
* **Social Disruption**: Rapid influx of foreign investment can lead to social disruptions, such as displacement of communities or widening income inequality.

**Conclusion**
Foreign investment plays a crucial role in the global economy, facilitating capital flows and fostering economic integration. When managed effectively, it can contribute to economic growth, technological advancement, and improved living standards in both investing and recipient countries. However, it's essential to strike a balance between attracting foreign investment and safeguarding national interests, ensuring that the benefits are shared equitably and the potential risks are mitigated. "
[{2024-08-19 retrieved} https://gemini.google.com/app/5aaba7d5a4027304]

name::
* McsEngl.finInvestmentForeign!=foreign-investment,
* McsEngl.foreign-investment!⇒finInvestmentForeign,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.026-foreign-investment!⇒finInvestmentForeign,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.foreign-investment!⇒finInvestmentForeign,

finΙnvestment.mutual-fund

description::
"A mutual fund is a professionally managed investment fund that pools money from many investors to purchase securities. The term is typically used in the United States, Canada, and India, while similar structures across the globe include the SICAV in Europe ('investment company with variable capital') and open-ended investment company (OEIC) in the UK.
Mutual funds are often classified by their principal investments: investmentmoney market funds, bond or fixed income funds, stock or equity funds, or hybrid funds.[1] Funds may also be categorized as index funds, which are passively managed funds that track the performance of an index, such as a stock market index or bond market index, or actively managed funds, which seek to outperform stock market indices but generally charge higher fees. Primary structures of mutual funds are open-end funds, closed-end funds, unit investment trusts."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_fund]

name::
* McsEngl.finInvestment-fund.mutual-fund!⇒finMutual-fund,
* McsEngl.finMutual-fund,
* McsEngl.mutual-fund!⇒finMutual-fund,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.022-mutual-fund!⇒finMutual-fund,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.mutual-fund!⇒finMutual-fund,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.gòngtóngjījīn-共同基金!=finMutual-fund,
* McsZhon.共同基金-gòngtóngjījīn!=finMutual-fund,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.αμοιβαίο-κεφάλαιο!το!=finMutual-fund,

finΙnvestment.hedge-fund

description::
"A hedge fund is a pooled investment fund that trades in relatively liquid assets and is able to make extensive use of more complex trading, portfolio-construction and risk management techniques in an attempt to improve performance, such as short selling, leverage, and derivatives.[1] Financial regulators generally restrict hedge fund marketing to institutional investors, high net worth individuals and others who are considered sufficiently sophisticated."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_fund]

name::
* McsEngl.finHedge-fund,
* McsEngl.finInvestment-fund.hedge-fund!⇒finHedge-fund,
* McsEngl.hedge-fund!⇒finHedge-fund,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.023-hedge-fund!⇒finHedge-fund,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.hedge-fund!⇒finHedge-fund,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.αντισταθμιστικό-κεφάλαιο!το!=finHedge-fund,

finΙnvestment.exchange-traded-fund

description::
"An exchange-traded fund (ETF) is a type of investment fund and exchange-traded product, i.e. they are traded on stock exchanges.[1][2][3] ETFs are similar in many ways to mutual funds, except that ETFs are bought and sold from other owners throughout the day on stock exchanges while mutual funds are bought and sold from the issuer based on their price at day's end.[4] An ETF holds assets such as assetstocks, bonds, currencies, futures contracts, and/or commodities such as gold bars, and generally operates with an arbitrage mechanism designed to keep it trading close to its net asset value,[5] although deviations can occasionally occur. Most ETFs are index funds: that is, they hold the same securities in the same proportions as a certain stock market index or bond market index. The most popular ETFs in the U.S. replicate the S&P 500 Index, the total market index, the NASDAQ-100 index, the price of gold, the "growth" stocks in the Russell 1000 Index, or the index of the largest technology companies.[6] With the exception of non-transparent actively managed ETFs, in most cases, the list of stocks that each ETF owns, as well as their weightings, is posted daily on the website of the issuer. The largest ETFs have annual fees of 0.03% of the amount invested, or even lower, although specialty ETFs can have annual fees well in excess of 1% of the amount invested. These fees are paid to the ETF issuer out of dividends received from the underlying holdings or from selling assets."
[{2021-12-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange-traded_fund]

name::
* McsEngl.ETF!=exchange-traded-fund!⇒finETF,
* McsEngl.finETF,
* McsEngl.finInvestment-fund.exchange-traded-fund!⇒finETF,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.024-exchange-traded-fund!⇒finETF,
* McsEngl.sfrFin.exchange-traded-fund!⇒finETF,