potential of cellOgm'membrane

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'membrane'potential,
* McsEngl.membrane-potential,
* McsEngl.membrane-voltage,

description::
"Membrane potential (also transmembrane potential or membrane voltage) is the difference in electric potential between the interior and the exterior of a biological cell. For the exterior of the cell, typical values of membrane potential, normally given in units of millivolts and denoted as mV, range from –40 mV to –80 mV.
All animal cells are surrounded by a membrane composed of a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. The membrane serves as both an insulator and a diffusion barrier to the movement of ions. Transmembrane proteins, also known as ion transporter or ion pump proteins, actively push ions across the membrane and establish concentration gradients across the membrane, and ion channels allow ions to move across the membrane down those concentration gradients. Ion pumps and ion channels are electrically equivalent to a set of batteries and resistors inserted in the membrane, and therefore create a voltage between the two sides of the membrane.
Almost all plasma membranes have an electrical potential across them, with the inside usually negative with respect to the outside.[1] The membrane potential has two basic functions. First, it allows a cell to function as a battery, providing power to operate a variety of "molecular devices" embedded in the membrane. Second, in electrically excitable cells such as neurons and muscle cells, it is used for transmitting signals between different parts of a cell. Signals are generated by opening or closing of ion channels at one point in the membrane, producing a local change in the membrane potential. This change in the electric field can be quickly affected by either adjacent or more distant ion channels in the membrane. Those ion channels can then open or close as a result of the potential change, reproducing the signal.
In non-excitable cells, and in excitable cells in their baseline states, the membrane potential is held at a relatively stable value, called the resting potential. For neurons, typical values of the resting potential range from –70 to –80 millivolts; that is, the interior of a cell has a negative baseline voltage of a bit less than one-tenth of a volt. The opening and closing of ion channels can induce a departure from the resting potential. This is called a depolarization if the interior voltage becomes less negative (say from –70 mV to –60 mV), or a hyperpolarization if the interior voltage becomes more negative (say from –70 mV to –80 mV). In excitable cells, a sufficiently large depolarization can evoke an action potential, in which the membrane potential changes rapidly and significantly for a short time (on the order of 1 to 100 milliseconds), often reversing its polarity. Action potentials are generated by the activation of certain voltage-gated ion channels.
In neurons, the factors that influence the membrane potential are diverse. They include numerous types of ion channels, some of which are chemically gated and some of which are voltage-gated. Because voltage-gated ion channels are controlled by the membrane potential, while the membrane potential itself is influenced by these same ion channels, feedback loops that allow for complex temporal dynamics arise, including oscillations and regenerative events such as action potentials."
[{2020-04-30} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_potential]

nucleotide of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att026-nucleotide,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'nucleotide-026,
* McsEngl.nucleotide-of-cellOgm-026,

description::
·

gene-product of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att023-gene-product,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'gene-product,
* McsEngl.gene-product-of-cellOgm,

description::
"A gene product is the biochemical material, either RNA or protein, resulting from expression of a gene. A measurement of the amount of gene product is sometimes used to infer how active a gene is. Abnormal amounts of gene product can be correlated with disease-causing alleles, such as the overactivity of oncogenes which can cause cancer.[1][2] A gene is defined as "a hereditary unit of DNA that is required to produce a functional product".[3] Regulatory elements include:
* Promoter region
* TATA box
* Polyadenylation sequences
* Enhancers
These elements work in combination with the open reading frame to create a functional product. This product may be transcribed and be functional as RNA or is translated from mRNA to a protein to be functional in the cell."
[{2020-03-26} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_product]

DNA of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att024-Dna,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'Dna-024,
* McsEngl.Dna-of-cellOgm-024,

description::
"DNA is optimised for encoding information
DNA is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of instructions (the genome) that are required to assemble, maintain, and reproduce every living organism.[12]
DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to functionally encode genetic information.[1]:5
DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double-stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2'-hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and repair the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure."
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromolecule#DNA_is_optimised_for_encoding_information]

RNA of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att025-Rna,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'Rna-025,
* McsEngl.Rna-cellOgm-025,

description::
"RNA is multifunctional
RNA is multifunctional, its primary function is to encode proteins, according to the instructions within a cell’s DNA.[1]:5 They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in eukaryotes.
RNA encodes genetic information that can be translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single-stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well suited for the long-term storage of genetic information as is DNA.
In addition, RNA is a single-stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three-dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically-active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs >20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (ribozymes) being generally less-effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions."
[{2020-03-26} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromolecule#RNA_is_multifunctional]

junction of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att038-junction,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'gap-junction,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'junction,
* McsEngl.intercellular-bridge,

description::
"Gap junctions are a specialized intercellular connection between a multitude of animal cell-types.[1][2][3] They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through a regulated gate between cells.[4][5]
One gap junction channel is composed of two connexons (or hemichannels), which connect across the intercellular space.[4][5][6] Gap junctions are analogous to the plasmodesmata that join plant cells.[7]
Gap junctions occur in virtually all tissues of the body, with the exception of adult fully developed skeletal muscle and mobile cell types such as sperm or erythrocytes. Gap junctions, however, are not found in simpler organisms such as sponges and slime molds.
A gap junction may also be called a nexus or macula communicans. While an ephapse has some similarities to a gap junction, by modern definition the two are different."
[{2020-05-08} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gap_junction]
"Cell junctions (or intercellular bridges[1]) are a class of cellular structures consisting of multiprotein complexes that provide contact or adhesion between neighboring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix in animals. They also maintain the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control paracellular transport. Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. Combined with cell adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix, cell junctions help hold animal cells together.
Cell junctions are also especially important in enabling communication between neighboring cells via specialized protein complexes called communicating (gap) junctions. Cell junctions are also important in reducing stress placed upon cells.
In plants, similar communication channels are known as plasmodesmata, and in fungi they are called septal pores.[2]"
[{2020-04-30} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_junction]

cell-biology of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att005-cell-biology,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'cell-biology-005,
* McsEngl.cell-biology,
* McsEngl.sciCell,
* McsEngl.science.cell-biology,
* McsEngl.cellular-biology,
* McsEngl.cytology,

description::
"Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, also known as the basic unit of life.[1] Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and can be divided into many sub-topics which may include the study of cell metabolism, cell communication, cell cycle, and cell composition. The study of cells is performed using several techniques such as cell culture, various types of microscopy, and cell fractionation. These have allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to how cells function, ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for research in biomedical fields such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics, molecular genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, medical microbiology, immunology, and cytochemistry."
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology]

cell-theory of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att004-cell-theory,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'cell-theory-004,
* McsEngl.cell-theory,
* McsEngl.theory.cell,

description::
"Cells were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. In 1665, Robert Hooke termed the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at a piece of cork and observing a cell-like structure,[2] however, the cells were dead and gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of algae. All of this preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are the functional and structural unit of organisms. This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue, respectively.[3] 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.[3] Although widely accepted, there have been many studies that question the validity of the cell theory. Viruses, for example, lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves.[4] Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not and whether they are in agreement with the cell theory."
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology#History]

mechanobiology of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellogm'att018-me,

description::
"Mechanobiology describes the relationship between a cell and its environment; how a cell can detect, measure and respond to the rigidity of its substrate and how these processes apply to larger biological systems.
* How are forces transduced in a cellular environment?
* How is energy transferred across the cellular system?
* Is mechanosensing an active or passive process?
* What types of forces do cells encounter?
* How does the cytoskeleton transmit mechanical forces?
* How do focal adhesions facilitate mechanosensing?
* How are cellular processes compartmentalized?
* How is DNA, RNA, proetin and lipid synethsis controlled in time and space?
* How does a cell ensure proteins are produced and moved to the correct subcellular regions?"
[https://www.mechanobio.info/what-is-mechanobiology/]

adhetion of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att037-adhetion,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'adhetion-att037,

description::
"Cell adhesion is the process by which cells interact and attach to neighbouring cells through specialised molecules of the cell surface. This process can occur either through direct contact between cell surfaces or indirect interaction, where cells attach to surrounding extracellular matrix, a gel-like structure containing molecules released by cells into spaces between them.[1] Cells adhesion occurs from the interactions between cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs),[2] transmembrane proteins located on the cell surface. Cell adhesion links cells in different ways and can be involved in signal transduction for cells to detect and respond to changes in the surroundings.[1][3] Other cellular processes regulated by cell adhesion include cell migration and tissue development in multicellular organisms.[4] Alterations in cell adhesion can disrupt important cellular processes and lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer[5][6] and arthritis.[7] Cell adhesion is also essential for infectious organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, to cause diseases.[8][9]"
[{2020-04-30} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion]

migration of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att036-migration,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'migration-att036,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'motility,

description::
"Cell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations. Cells often migrate in response to specific external signals, including chemical signals and mechanical signals.[1] Errors during this process have serious consequences, including intellectual disability, vascular disease, tumor formation and metastasis. An understanding of the mechanism by which cells migrate may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for controlling, for example, invasive tumour cells.
Due to the highly viscous environment (low Reynolds number), cells need to continuously produce forces in order to move. Cells achieve active movement by very different mechanisms. Many less complex prokaryotic organisms (and sperm cells) use flagella or cilia to propel themselves. Eukaryotic cell migration typically is far more complex and can consist of combinations of different migration mechanisms. It generally involves drastic changes in cell shape which are driven by the cytoskeleton. Two very distinct migration scenarios are crawling motion (most commonly studied) and blebbing motility.[2] A paradigmatic example of crawling motion is the case of fish epidermal keratocytes, which have been extensively used in research and teaching.[3]"
[{2020-04-30} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_migration]

cell-to-cell-interaction of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att035-cell-to-cell-interaction,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'cell-to-cell-interaction-att035,
* McsEngl.cell-to-cell-interaction,

description::
"Cell–cell interaction refers to the direct interactions between cell surfaces that play a crucial role in the development and function of multicellular organisms. These interactions allow cells to communicate with each other in response to changes in their microenvironment. This ability to send and receive signals is essential for the survival of the cell. Interactions between cells can be stable such as those made through cell junctions. These junctions are involved in the communication and organization of cells within a particular tissue. Others are transient or temporary such as those between cells of the immune system or the interactions involved in tissue inflammation. These types of intercellular interactions are distinguished from other types such as those between cells and the extracellular matrix. The loss of communication between cells can result in uncontrollable cell growth and cancer."
[{2020-04-30} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_interaction]

DNA-repair of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att010-DNA-repair,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'DNA-repair-010,

description::
"In general, cells of all organisms contain enzyme systems that scan their DNA for damages and carry out repair processes when damages are detected.[23] Diverse repair processes have evolved in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintaining cellular DNA in an undamaged state in order to avoid cell death or errors of replication due to damages that could lead to mutation. E. coli bacteria are a well-studied example of a cellular organism with diverse well-defined DNA repair processes. These include: (1) nucleotide excision repair, (2) DNA mismatch repair, (3) non-homologous end joining of double-strand breaks, (4) recombinational repair and (5) light-dependent repair (photoreactivation)."
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#DNA_repair]

metabolism of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att009-metabolism,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'metabolism-009,

description::
"Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP),[4] a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways."
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#Growth_and_metabolism]

protein-synthesis of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att007-protein-synthesis,

description::
"Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule."
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#Protein_synthesis]

motility of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att006-motility,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'motility-006,

description::
"Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia.
In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.[24] The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.[25][26]"
[{2020-03-24} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#Motility]

endocytosis of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att019-endocytosis,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'endocytosis,
* McsEngl.endocytosis,

description::
"Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. Endocytosis includes pinocytosis (cell drinking) and phagocytosis (cell eating). It is a form of active transport."
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis]

exocytosis of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att020-exocytosis,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'exocytosis-att020,
* McsEngl.exocytosis,

description::
"Exocytosis (/ˌɛksoʊsaɪˈtoʊsɪs/[1][2]) is a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules (e.g., neurotransmitters and proteins) out of the cell (exo- + cytosis) by secreting them through an energy-dependent process. Exocytosis and its counterpart, endocytosis, which is basically the reverse process,are used by all cells because most chemical substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic portion of the cell membrane by passive means. Exocytosis is in process a large amount of molecules are released thus making it a form of bulk transport.
In exocytosis, membrane-bound secretory vesicles are carried to the cell membrane, and their contents (i.e., water-soluble molecules) are secreted into the extracellular environment. This secretion is possible because the vesicle transiently fuses with the plasma membrane. In the context of neurotransmission, neurotransmitters are typically released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis; however, neurotransmitters can also be released via reverse transport through membrane transport proteins.
Exocytosis is also a mechanism by which cells are able to insert membrane proteins (such as ion channels and cell surface receptors), lipids, and other components into the cell membrane. Vesicles containing these membrane components fully fuse with and become part of the outer cell membrane."
[{2020-03-24} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocytosis]

signaling of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'signaling,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att040-signaling!⇒cellOgm'signaling,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'communication!⇒cellOgm'signaling,
* McsEngl.signaling-of-cellOgm!⇒cellOgm'signaling,

description::
"In biology, cell signaling (cell signalling in British English) is part of any communication process that governs basic activities of cells and coordinates multiple-cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity, as well as normal tissue homeostasis. Errors in signaling interactions and cellular information processing may cause diseases such as cancer, autoimmunity, and diabetes.[1][2][3] By understanding cell signaling, clinicians may treat diseases more effectively and, theoretically, researchers may develop artificial tissues.[4]
Systems biology studies the underlying structure of cell-signaling networks and how changes in these networks may affect the transmission and flow of information (signal transduction). Such networks are complex systems in their organization and may exhibit a number of emergent properties, including bistability and ultrasensitivity. Analysis of cell-signaling networks requires a combination of experimental and theoretical approaches, including the development and analysis of simulations and modeling.[5][6] Long-range allostery is often a significant component of cell-signaling events.[7]
All cells receive and respond to signals from their surroundings. This is accomplished by a variety of signal molecules that are secreted or expressed on the surface of one cell and bind to a receptor expressed by the other cells, thereby integrating and coordinating the function of the many individual cells that make up organisms. Each cell is programmed to respond to specific extracellular signal molecules. Extracellular signaling usually entails the following steps:
1. Synthesis and release of the signaling molecule by the signaling cell;
2. Transport of the signal to the target cell;
3. Binding of the signal by a specific receptor leading to its activation;
4. Initiation of signal-transduction pathways.[8]"
[{2020-05-06} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signaling]

life-cycle of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att033-life-cycle,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'life-cycle-att033,

description::
·

reproduction of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att008-division,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'reproduction-008,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'division-008,

description::
"Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome,[4] always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.
In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II.[22] Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.[4]"
[{2020-04-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#Replication]

death of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'att027-death,
* McsEngl.cellOgm'death,

description::
"Cell death is the event of a biological cell ceasing to carry out its functions. This may be the result of the natural process of old cells dying and being replaced by new ones, or may result from such factors as disease, localized injury, or the death of the organism of which the cells are part. Apoptosis or Type I cell-death, and autophagy or Type II cell-death are both forms of programmed cell death, while necrosis is a non-physiological process that occurs as a result of infection or injury.[1]"
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_death]

WHOLE-PART-TREE of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'whole-part-tree,

whole-tree-of-cellOgm::
*
* ... Sympan.

part-tree-of-cellOgm::
* ,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of cellOgm

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm'generic-specific-tree,

generic-tree-of-cellOgm::
* mtrlObject,
* ... entity.

specific-tree-of-cellOgm::
* human-cell,
===
* eukaryotic-cell,
* prokaryotic-cell,
===
* unicellular-organism,
* multinucleate-cell,

cellOgm.prokaryotic-002

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.002-prokaryotic,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.prokaryotic-002,
* McsEngl.prokaryotic-cellOgm-002,
* McsEngl.ogm.002-prokaryote,
* McsEngl.ogm.prokaryote-002,
* McsEngl.prokaryote-ogm-002,

description::
"There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a cell nucleus or other membrane bound organelle.[8] Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life.[9] The study of eukaryotic cells is typically the main focus of cytologists, whereas prokaryotic cells are the focus of microbiologists."
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology#Cell_classification_and_composition]
===
"A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle.[1] The word prokaryote comes from the Greek πρό (pro, 'before') and κάρυον (karyon, 'nut' or 'kernel').[2][3] Prokaryotes are divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria. Species with nuclei and organelles are placed in the third domain, Eukaryota.[4] Prokaryotes are asexual, reproducing without fusion of gametes. The first living organisms are thought to have been prokaryotes. The term prokaryote however is now used informally to refer to bacteria and archaea as in the late 1970s Carl Woese determined that bacteria and archaea were less closely related than previously thought.[5]
In the prokaryotes, all the intracellular water-soluble components (proteins, DNA and metabolites) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell membrane, rather than in separate cellular compartments. Bacteria, however, do possess protein-based bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to act as primitive organelles enclosed in protein shells.[6][7] Some prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, may form large colonies. Others, such as myxobacteria, have multicellular stages in their life cycles.[8]
Molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of biological species.[9] Eukaryotes are organisms, including humans, whose cells have a well defined membrane-bound nucleus (containing chromosomal DNA) and organelles. The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization. Distinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens; these are common in some extreme environments.[1]"
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote]

cellOgm.eukaryotic-003

name::
* McsEngl.cellEukaryotic,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.003-eukaryotic,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.eukaryotic-003,
* McsEngl.eukaryotic-cellOgm-003,

description::
"Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus,[4] an organelle that houses the cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)". Other differences include:
* The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
* The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.[4] Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
* Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Each cilium may thus be "viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."[15]
* Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants.[16] Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.[17]"
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)#Eukaryotic_cells]

cellOgm.animal-004

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.004-animal,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.animal-004,
* McsEngl.cellAnimal,
* McsEngl.cellAnml,
* McsEngl.animal-cellOgm-004,

description::

===
Components of a typical animal cell:
01. Nucleolus,
02. Nucleus,
03. Ribosome (little dots),
04. Vesicle,
05. Rough endoplasmic reticulum,
06. Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body"),
07. Cytoskeleton,
08. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
09. Mitochondrion,
10. Vacuole,
11. Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the, cytoplasm),
12. Lysosome,
13. Centrosome,
14. Cell membrane,
[{2020-03-12} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus]

cellOgm.plant-005

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.005-plant,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.plant-005,
* McsEngl.cellPlant,
* McsEngl.ogmPlant'att014-cell,
* McsEngl.ogmPlant'cell-att014,
* McsEngl.plant-cellOgm-005,

description::

[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Plant_cell_structure-en.svg]
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells present in green plants, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Their distinctive features include primary cell walls containing cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, the presence of plastids with the capability to perform photosynthesis and store starch, a large vacuole that regulates turgor pressure, the absence of flagella or centrioles, except in the gametes, and a unique method of cell division involving the formation of a cell plate or phragmoplast that separates the new daughter cells.
[{2020-03-13} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_cell]

cellOgm.unicellular-organism-006

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.006-unicellular-organism!⇒ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.unicellular-organism-006!⇒ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.ogm.003-cellOne!⇒ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.ogm.cellOne-003!⇒ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.single-celled-organism!⇒ogmCellOne,
* McsEngl.unicellular-organism!⇒ogmCellOne,

description::
"A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of a single cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of multiple cells. Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but the group includes the protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8–4 billion years ago.[1][2]
Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.
Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage. Gametes, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms.[3] Additionally, multicellularity appears to have evolved independently many times in the history of life.
Some organisms are partially unicellular, like Dictyostelium discoideum. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be multinucleate, like Caulerpa, Plasmodium, and Myxogastria."
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicellular_organism]

cellOgm.archeaon-007

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.007-archeon!⇒ogmArcheon,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.archeon-007!⇒ogmArcheon,
* McsEngl.ogmArcheon, /arkíon/,
* McsEngl.ogm.004-archeon!⇒ogmArcheon,
* McsEngl.ogm.archeon-004!⇒ogmArcheon,
* McsEngl.archeon-ogm-004!⇒ogmArcheon,

description::
"Archaea (/ɑːrˈkiːə/ or /ɑːrˈkeɪə/ ar-KEE-ə or ar-KAY-ə) (singular archaeon) constitute a domain of single-celled organisms. These microorganisms lack cell nuclei and are therefore prokaryotes. Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), but this classification is outmoded. They have been renamed to clarify that archaea are not only not bacteria, but are more closely related to eukaryotes (life whose cells can have a nucleus, including humans) than to real bacteria.[6]
Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains, Bacteria and Eukaryota. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla. Classification is difficult because most have not been isolated in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples from their environment.
Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.[7] Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the enzymes involved in transcription and translation. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes,[8] including archaeols. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas. Salt-tolerant archaea (the Haloarchaea) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon, but unlike plants and cyanobacteria, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission, fragmentation, or budding; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea forms endospores.
The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms. Improved detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every habitat, including soil, oceans, and marshlands. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet.
Archaea are a major part of Earth's life. They are part of the microbiota of all organisms. In the human microbiota, they are important in the gut, mouth, and on the skin.[9] They may play roles in the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.
No clear examples of archaeal pathogens or parasites are known. Instead they are often mutualists or commensals, such as the methanogens (methane-producing strains) that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract in humans and ruminants, where their vast numbers aid digestion. Methanogens are also used in biogas production and sewage treatment, and biotechnology exploits enzymes from extremophile archaea that can endure high temperatures and organic solvents."
[{2020-03-13} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea]

cellOgm.bacterium-008

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.008-bacterium!⇒ogmBacterium,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.bacterium-008!⇒ogmBacterium,
* McsEngl.ogmBacterium,
* McsEngl.ogm.005-bacterium!⇒ogmBacterium,
* McsEngl.ogm.bacterium-005!⇒ogmBacterium,
* McsEngl.bacterium-ogm-005!⇒ogmBacterium,

description::
"Bacteria (/bækˈtɪəriə/ (About this soundlisten); common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste,[4] and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory.[5] The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.
Virtually all animal life on earth is dependent on bacteria for their survival as only bacteria and some archea possess the genes and enzymes necessary to synthesize vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, and provide it through the food chain. Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body. It is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin.[6][7][8][9]
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth,[10] forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals.[11] Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies; bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process.[12] In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, extremophile bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide and methane, to energy.
In humans and most animals the largest number of bacteria exist in the gut, and a large number on the skin.[13] The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial, particularly in the gut flora. However, several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, and bubonic plague. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections. Tuberculosis alone kills about 2 million people per year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa.[14] Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. In industry, bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills, the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation, the recovery of gold, palladium, copper and other metals in the mining sector,[15] as well as in biotechnology, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals.[16]
Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes ("fission fungi"), bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea.[1]"
[{2020-03-13} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria]

cellOgm.neuron-009

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.009-neuron!⇒cellNeuronOgm,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.neuron-009!⇒cellNeuronOgm,
* McsEngl.cellNeuronOgm,
* McsEngl.neuronOgm!⇒cellNeuronOgm,
* McsEngl.neuron-cellOgm!⇒cellNeuronOgm,

description::
"A neuron, neurone (old British spelling) or nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell[1] that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. It is the main component of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoa. Plants and fungi do not have nerve cells.
Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal cord or brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from muscle contractions to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. A group of connected neurons is called a neural circuit.
A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and a single axon. The soma is usually compact. The axon and dendrites are filaments that extrude from it. Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock, and travels for as far as 1 meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon's branches are axon terminals, where the neuron can transmit a signal across the synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the cell is undifferentiated.
Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.
The signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an all-or-nothing electrochemical pulse called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon, and activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.
In most cases, neurons are generated by neural stem cells during brain development and childhood. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain. However, strong evidence supports generation of substantial numbers of new neurons in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb.[2][3]"

cellOgm.stem-010

name::
* McsEngl.cellOgm.010-stem,
* McsEngl.cellOgm.stem-010,
* McsEngl.stem-cellOgm-010,

description::
"In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and divide indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type of cell in a cell lineage.[1] They are found in both embryonic and adult organisms, but they have slightly different properties in each. They are usually distinguished from progenitor cells, which cannot divide indefinitely, and precursor or blast cells, which are usually committed to differentiating into one cell type.
In mammals, the roughly 50–150 cells that make up the inner cell mass during the blastocyst stage of embryonic development, around days 5–14, have stem-cell capability. In vivo, they eventually differentiate into all of the body's cell types (i.e., they are pluripotent). This process starts with the differentiation into the three germ layers – the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm – at the gastrulation stage. However, when they are isolated and cultured in vitro, they can be kept in the stem-cell stage and are known as embryonic stem cells (ESCs).
Adult stem cells are found in a few select locations in the body, known as niches, such as those in the bone marrow or gonads. They exist to replenish rapidly lost cell types and are multipotent or unipotent, meaning they only differentiate into a few cell types or one cell type. In mammals, they include, among others, hematopoietic stem cells, which replenish blood and immune cells, basal cells, which maintain the skin epithelium, and mesenchymal stem cells, which maintain bone, cartilage, muscle and fat cells. Adult stem cells constitute a small minority of cells; they are vastly outnumbered by the progenitor cells and terminally differentiated cells that they differentiate into.[1]
Research into stem cells grew out of findings by Canadian biologists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till at the University of Toronto in the 1960s.[2][3] As of 2016, the only established medical therapy using stem cells is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation,[4] first performed in 1958 by French oncologist Georges Mathé. Since 1998, it has been possible to culture and differentiate human embryonic stem cells (in stem-cell lines). The process of isolating these cells has been controversial, because it typically results in the destruction of the embryo. Sources for isolating ESCs have been restricted in some European countries and Canada, but others such as the UK and China have promoted the research.[5] Somatic cell nuclear transfer is a cloning method that can be used to create a cloned embryo for the use of its embryonic stem cells in stem cell therapy.[6] In 2006, a Japanese team led by Shinya Yamanaka discovered a method to convert mature body cells back into stem cells. These were termed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).[7]"
[{2020-05-01} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell]

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