overview of force
description::
· force is an-acting with direction.
name::
* McsEngl.McsNtr000012.last.html//dirNtr//dirMcs!⇒force,
* McsEngl.dirMcs/dirNtr/McsNtr000012.last.html!⇒force,
* McsEngl.force,
* McsEngl.acting.force!⇒force,
* McsEngl.force'(McsNtr000012)!⇒force,
* McsEngl.force'(acting.force)!⇒force,
01_argument of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'01_argument,
* McsEngl.force'argument,
description::
· a-force as acting has arguments (the-related entities).
02_valence of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'02_valence,
* McsEngl.force'valence,
description::
· valence-of-force is the-number of its arguments.
03_syntax of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'03_syntax,
* McsEngl.force'syntax,
description::
· every language has its own syntax to express a-force (doing).
04_risk of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'04_risk,
* McsEngl.force'risk,
description::
·
06_resource of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'06_resource,
* McsEngl.force'Infrsc,
addressWpg::
*
07_EVOLUTING of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'07_evoluting,
* McsEngl.force'evoluting,
{time.2019-12-29}::
=== McsHitp-creation:
· creation of current concept.
WHOLE-PART-TREE of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'whole-part-tree,
whole-chain::
*
...
* Sympan,
part::
*
GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of force
name::
* McsEngl.force'generic-specific-tree,
generic-tree-of-::
* acting, functing,
* doing, relation, body,
* entity,
force.SPECIFIC
name::
* McsEngl.force.specific,
specific::
* contact-force,
* contactNo-force,
===
* attractive-force,
* repulsive-force,
===
* fundamental-force,
force.contact-006
description::
"A contact force is any force that requires contact to occur.[1] Contact forces are ubiquitous and are responsible for most visible interactions between macroscopic collections of matter. Moving a couch across a floor, pushing a car up a hill, kicking a ball or pushing a desk across a room are some of the everyday examples where contact forces are at work. In the first case the force is continuously applied by the person on the car, while in the second case the force is delivered in a short impulse. Contact forces are often decomposed into orthogonal components, one perpendicular to the surface(s) in contact called the normal force, and one parallel to the surface(s) in contact, called the friction force.[1]
In the Standard Model of modern physics, the four fundamental forces of nature are known to be non-contact forces. The strong and weak interaction primarily deal with forces within atoms, while gravitational effects are only obvious on an ultra-macroscopic scale. Molecular and quantum physics show that the electromagnetic force is the fundamental interaction responsible for contact forces. The interaction between macroscopic objects can be roughly described as resulting from the electromagnetic interactions between protons and electrons of the atomic constituents of these objects. Everyday objects do not actually touch; rather, contact forces are the result of the interactions of the electrons at or near the surfaces of the objects.[1]"
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.006-contact,
* McsEngl.force.contact-006,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.δύναμη-επαφής!force.contact,
force.contactNo-007
description::
"A non-contact force is a force which acts on an object without coming physically in contact with it.[1] The most familiar example of a non-contact force is gravity, which confers weight.[1] In contrast a contact force is a force applied to a body by another body that is in contact with it.[1]
All four known fundamental interactions are non-contact forces:[2]
* Gravity, the force of attraction that exists among all bodies that have mass. The force exerted on each body by the other through weight is proportional to the mass of the first body times the mass of the second body divided by the square of the distance between them,
* Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields. Examples of this force include: electricity, magnetism, radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, X-rays and gamma rays. Electromagnetism mediates all chemical, biological, electrical and electronic processes,
* Strong nuclear force: Unlike gravity and electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force is a short distance force that takes place between fundamental particles within a nucleus. It is charge independent and acts equally between a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. The strong nuclear force is the strongest force in nature; however, its range is small (acting only over distances of the order of 10−15 m). The strong nuclear force mediates both nuclear fission and fusion reactions,
* Weak nuclear force: The weak nuclear force mediates the β decay of a neutron, in which the neutron decays into a proton and in the process emits a β particle and an uncharged particle called a neutrino. As a result of mediating the β decay process, the weak nuclear force plays a key role in supernovas. Both the strong and weak forces form an important part of quantum mechanics."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.007-contactNo,
* McsEngl.force.contactNo007,
* McsEngl.non-contact-force,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.δύναμη-ανέπαφη!force.contactNo,
force.attractive-008
name::
* McsEngl.force.008-attractive,
* McsEngl.force.attractive-008,
* McsEngl.attractive-force-008,
description::
· a-force that decreases the-distance between objects.
force.repulsive-009
name::
* McsEngl.force.009-repulsive,
* McsEngl.force.repulsive-009,
* McsEngl.repulsive-force-009,
description::
· a-force that increases the-distance between objects.
force.fundamental-010
description::
"In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but the hypotheses remain speculative.[1][2][3]
Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a field. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of spacetime, described by Einstein's general theory of relativity. The other three are discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are mediated by elementary particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics.[4]
Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the gluon, and is responsible for quarks binding together to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. As a residual effect, it creates the nuclear force that binds the latter particles to form atomic nuclei. The weak interaction is carried by particles called W and Z bosons, and also acts on the nucleus of atoms, mediating radioactive decay. The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and magnetic fields, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital electrons and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as chemical bonding and electromagnetic waves, including visible light, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over large distances (on the scale of planets and galaxies), gravity tends to be the dominant force.
Many theoretical physicists believe these fundamental forces to be related and to become unified into a single force at very high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck scale, but particle accelerators cannot produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this.[5] Devising a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces in a single theory is perhaps the greatest goal of today's theoretical physicists. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the electroweak theory of Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics.[6][7][8] Progress is currently being made in uniting the electroweak and strong fields within what is called a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). A bigger challenge is to find a way to quantize the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of quantum gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE)."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction]
name::
* McsEngl.force.fundamental,
* McsEngl.fundamental-force,
* McsEngl.fundamental-interaction,
force.fundamental.gravity-001
description::
"Gravity, the force of attraction that exists among all bodies that have mass. The force exerted on each body by the other through weight is proportional to the mass of the first body times the mass of the second body divided by the square of the distance between them."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.001-gravity!⇒forceGravity,
* McsEngl.force.gravity-001!⇒forceGravity,
* McsEngl.force.fundamental.gravity!⇒forceGravity,
* McsEngl.gravity,
force.fundamental.electromagnetic-002
description::
"Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields. Examples of this force include: electricity, magnetism, radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, X-rays and gamma rays. Electromagnetism mediates all chemical, biological, electrical and electronic processes."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.002-electromagnetic!⇒forceElectromagnetic,
* McsEngl.forceElectromagnetic,
* McsEngl.force.electromagnetic-002!⇒forceElectromagnetic,
* McsEngl.force.fundamental.electromagnetic!⇒forceElectromagnetic,
* McsEngl.electromagnetic-force!⇒forceElectromagnetic,
force.electrostatic-005
name::
* McsEngl.force.005-electrostatic!⇒forceElectrostatic,
* McsEngl.forceElectrostatic,
* McsEngl.force.electrostatic-005!⇒forceElectrostatic,
description::
"Electrostatic force is the force between static (not moving relative to each other) electric charges. Electromagnetic forces are any interactions due to photon exchange and INCLUDES electrostatic forces.
Explanation:
The Electrostatic Force between two objects is given by Coulomb's Law
F=q1q2/πε0r^2
where q1 and q2 are the charges on the two objects, respectively, and r is the distance between them. This force can either be attractive or repulsive depending on whether the charges are opposite or same.
The Electromagnetic Forces are a set of forces, including Electrostatic Forces, and the forces caused by charges moving near each other. Moving charges cause magnetic fields and experience force from each other as a result.
Check out this link[https://pediaa.com/difference-between-electrostatic-and-electromagnetic-force/] for more PEDIAA."
[https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-differences-of-electrostatic-and-electromagnetic-force]
force.fundamental.nuclear.strong-003
description::
"Strong nuclear force: Unlike gravity and electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force is a short distance force that takes place between fundamental particles within a nucleus. It is charge independent and acts equally between a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. The strong nuclear force is the strongest force in nature; however, its range is small (acting only over distances of the order of 10−15 m). The strong nuclear force mediates both nuclear fission and fusion reactions."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.003-nuclear.strong!⇒forceNuclearSrtorng,
* forceNuclearSrtorng,
* McsEngl.force.nuclear.strong-003!⇒forceNuclearSrtorng,
* McsEngl.force.fundamental.nuclear.strong,
* McsEngl.strong-nuclear-force,
force.fundamental.nuclear.weak-004
description::
"Weak nuclear force: The weak nuclear force mediates the β decay of a neutron, in which the neutron decays into a proton and in the process emits a β particle and an uncharged particle called a neutrino. As a result of mediating the β decay process, the weak nuclear force plays a key role in supernovas. Both the strong and weak forces form an important part of quantum mechanics."
[{2019-12-29} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force]
name::
* McsEngl.force.004-nuclear.weak!⇒forceNuclearWeak,
* McsEngl.forceNuclearWeak,
* McsEngl.force.nuclear.weak-004!⇒forceNuclearWeak,
* McsEngl.force.fundamental.nuclear.weak,
* McsEngl.weak-nuclear-force,
force.chemical-bond-011
description::
· chemical-bond is an-attractive-force between atoms and molecules.
===
"A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. An electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them, and the nuclei will be attracted toward electrons in this position. This attraction constitutes the chemical bond. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they must occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei in a bond relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves.
In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases—indeed most of the physical environment around us—are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter.
All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory, which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and molecular orbital theory which includes linear combination of atomic orbitals and ligand field theory. Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances."
[{2020-04-02} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond]
name::
* McsEngl.force.011-chemical-bond!⇒Chmbond,
* McsEngl.force.chemical-bond-011!⇒Chmbond,
* McsEngl.Chmbond,
* McsEngl.chemical-bond!⇒Chmbond,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.χημικός-δεσμός!=Chmbond,
creating Chmbond
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond'att001-creating,
* McsEngl.Chmbond'creating-att001,
description::
·
splitting Chmbond
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond'att002-splitting,
* McsEngl.Chmbond'splitting-att002,
* McsEngl.bond-cleavage,
* McsEngl.bond-scission,
* McsEngl.bond-splitting,
description::
"Bond cleavage, or scission, is the splitting of chemical bonds. This can be generally referred to as dissociation when a molecule is cleaved into two or more fragments.[1]
In general, there are two classifications for bond cleavage: homolytic and heterolytic, depending on the nature of the process. The triplet and singlet excitation energies of a sigma bond can be used to determine if a bond will follow the homolytic or heterolytic pathway.[2] A metal−metal sigma bond is an exception because the bond's excitation energy is extremely high, thus cannot be used for observation purposes.[2]
In some cases, bond cleavage requires catalysts. Due to the high bond-dissociation energy of C−H bond, around 100 kcal/mol (420 kJ/mol), a large amount of energy is required to cleave the hydrogen atom from the carbon and bond a different atom to the carbon.[3]"
[{2020-04-06} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_cleavage]
GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of Chmbond
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond'generic-specific-tree,
GENERIC-TREE of Chmbond
generic-of-Chmbond::
*
attribute-tree-of-Chmbond::
* ,
att-tree-inherited-from::
· :
* ,
att-tree-own-of-Chmbond::
* ,
SPECIFIC-TREE of Chmbond
specific-of-Chmbond::
* intermolecular-bond,
* intramolecular-bond,
===
Chmbond.intermolecular-001
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.001-intermolecular,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.intermolecular-001,
* McsEngl.intermolecular-Chmbond-001,
* McsEngl.intermolecular-bond-001,
* McsEngl.intermolecular-force-001,
* McsEngl.mtrlSysMols'03_intermolecular-bond,
* McsEngl.mtrlSysMols'att003-intermolecular-bond,
* McsEngl.mtrlSysMols'intermolecular-bond-att003,
description::
"Intermolecular forces (IMF) are the forces which mediate interaction between molecules, including forces of attraction or repulsion which act between molecules and other types of neighboring particles, e.g. atoms or ions. Intermolecular forces are weak relative to intramolecular forces – the forces which hold a molecule together. For example, the covalent bond, involving sharing electron pairs between atoms, is much stronger than the forces present between neighboring molecules. Both sets of forces are essential parts of force fields frequently used in molecular mechanics.
The investigation of intermolecular forces starts from macroscopic observations which indicate the existence and action of forces at a molecular level. These observations include non-ideal-gas thermodynamic behavior reflected by virial coefficients, vapor pressure, viscosity, superficial tension, and absorption data.
The first reference to the nature of microscopic forces is found in Alexis Clairaut's work Theorie de la Figure de la Terre.[1] Other scientists who have contributed to the investigation of microscopic forces include: Laplace, Gauss, Maxwell and Boltzmann.
* Attractive intermolecular forces are categorized into the following types:
* Hydrogen bonding
* Ionic bonding
* Ion–induced dipole forces
* Ion–dipole forces
* van der Waals forces – Keesom force, Debye force, and London dispersion force
Information on intermolecular forces is obtained by macroscopic measurements of properties like viscosity, pressure, volume, temperature (PVT) data. The link to microscopic aspects is given by virial coefficients and Lennard-Jones potentials."
[{2020-04-05} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force]
Chmbond.intramolecular-002
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.002-intramolecular,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.intramolecular-002,
* McsEngl.intramolecular-Chmbond-002,
* McsEngl.intramolecular-force-002,
* McsEngl.mtrlMolecule'02_chemical-bond,
* McsEngl.mtrlMolecule'att002_chemical-bond,
* McsEngl.chemical-bond-of-mtrlMolecule,
description::
"An intramolecular force is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules.[1] The subtle difference in the name comes from the Latin roots of English with inter meaning between or among and intra meaning inside.[2] Chemical bonds are considered to be intramolecular forces, for example. These forces are often stronger than intermolecular forces, which are present between atoms or molecules that are not bonded."
[{2020-04-07} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramolecular_force]
Chmbond.covalent-003
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.003-covalent,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.covalent-003,
* McsEngl.covalent-bond-003,
description::
Chmbond.hydrogen-004
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.004-hydrogen,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.hydrogen-004,
* McsEngl.hydrogen-bond-004,
description::
"A hydrogen bond (often informally abbreviated H-bond) is a partial intermolecular bonding interaction between a lone pair on an electron rich donor atom, particularly the second-row elements nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F), and the antibonding orbital of a bond between hydrogen (H) and a more electronegative atom or group.[4] Such an interacting system is generally denoted Dn–H···Ac, where the solid line denotes a polar covalent bond, and the dotted or dashed line indicates the hydrogen bond. The use of three centered dots for the hydrogen bond is specifically recommended by the IUPAC.[5] While hydrogen bonding has both covalent and electrostatic contributions, and the degrees to which they contribute are currently debated, the present evidence strongly implies that the primary contribution is covalent.[6]
Hydrogen bonds can be intermolecular (occurring between separate molecules) or intramolecular (occurring among parts of the same molecule).[7][8][9][10] Depending on the nature of the donor and acceptor atoms which constitute the bond, their geometry, and environment, the energy of a hydrogen bond can vary between 1 and 40 kcal/mol.[11] This makes them somewhat stronger than a van der Waals interaction, and weaker than fully covalent or ionic bonds. This type of bond can occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins.
The hydrogen bond is responsible for many of the anomalous physical and chemical properties of compounds of N, O, and F. In particular, intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C) compared to the other group 16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen bonds.[12] Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays an important role in the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural.
Weaker hydrogen bonds[13] are known for hydrogen atoms bound to elements such as sulfur (S) or chlorine (Cl); even carbon (C) can serve as a donor, particularly when the carbon or one of its neighbors is electronegative (e.g., in chloroform, aldehydes and terminal acetylenes).[14][15] Gradually, it was recognized that there are many examples of weaker hydrogen bonding involving donor Dn other than N, O, or F and/or acceptor Ac with electronegativity approaching that of hydrogen (rather than being much more electronegative). Though these "non-traditional" hydrogen bonding interactions are often quite weak (~1 kcal/mol), they are also ubiquitous and are increasingly recognized as important control elements in receptor-ligand interactions in medicinal chemistry or intra-/intermolecular interactions in materials sciences. The definition of hydrogen bonding has gradually broadened over time to include these weaker attractive interactions. In 2011, an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence-based definition of hydrogen bonding, which was published in the IUPAC journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. This definition specifies:
The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen atom from a molecule or a molecular fragment X–H in which X is more electronegative than H, and an atom or a group of atoms in the same or a different molecule, in which there is evidence of bond formation.[16]
As part of a more detailed list of criteria, the IUPAC publication acknowledges that the attractive interaction can arise from some combination of electrostatics (multipole-multipole and multipole-induced multipole interactions), covalency (charge transfer by orbital overlap), and dispersion (London forces), and states that the relative importance of each will vary depending on the system. However, a footnote to the criterion recommends the exclusion of interactions in which dispersion is the primary contributor, specifically giving Ar---CH4 and CH4---CH4 as examples of such interactions to be excluded from the definition.[5]
Nevertheless, most introductory textbooks still restrict the definition of hydrogen bond to the "classical" type of hydrogen bond characterized in the opening paragraph"
[{2020-04-05} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond]
Chmbond.ionic-005
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.005-ionic,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.ionic-005,
* McsEngl.ionic-bond-005,
description::
"Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. It is one of the main types of bonding along with Covalent bonding and Metallic bonding. Ions are atoms (or groups of atoms) with an electrostatic charge. Atoms that gain electrons make negatively charged ions (called anions). Atoms which lose electrons make positively charged ions (called cations). This transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH+4 or SO2−4. In simpler words, an ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order to obtain a full valence shell for both atoms.
It is important to recognize that clean ionic bonding — in which one atom or molecule completely transfers an electron to another — cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term "ionic bonding" is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent character – that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically not when solid. Ionic compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they consist of. The higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces and the higher the melting point. They also tend to be soluble in water; the stronger the cohesive forces, the lower the solubility.[1]"
[{2020-04-05} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_bonding]
Chmbond.metalic-006
name::
* McsEngl.Chmbond.006-metalic,
* McsEngl.Chmbond.metalic-006,
* McsEngl.metalic-bond-006,
description::
·
