unsolved-problem of sciLago

description::
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_linguistics,

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'unsolved-problem,

grammar (link) of sciLago

semantics of sciLago

description::
"Semantics (from Ancient Greek σημαντικός (sēmantikós) 'significant')[a][1] is the study of reference, meaning, or truth. The term can be used to refer to subfields of several distinct disciplines, including philosophy, linguistics and computer science."
[{2023-09-25 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'att001-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'semantics,
* McsEngl.semantics//sciLago,

formal-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of formal-semantics:
Formal semantics is a branch of linguistics and philosophy that seeks to provide a precise and mathematical description of the meaning of language. It aims to create formal models that capture the inherent structure and rules governing the interpretation of natural language expressions. Here is an overview of formal semantics:

1. Compositionality: At the core of formal semantics is the principle of compositionality, which asserts that the meaning of a complex expression can be determined from the meanings of its parts and the way they are combined. This means that the meaning of a sentence is built up from the meanings of its individual words and their syntactic structure.

2. Formal Languages: Formal semantics often uses formal languages and mathematical notation to represent linguistic structures and their meanings. Predicate logic and lambda calculus are two common formal systems employed for this purpose. These formal languages allow for precise representation and manipulation of meaning.

3. Truth Conditions: Formal semantics is concerned with specifying the truth conditions of sentences. A truth condition describes the circumstances under which a sentence is considered true or false. This approach aims to link the semantics of language to the world of facts.

4. Semantics vs. Pragmatics: While formal semantics deals with the core meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics addresses how language is used in context to convey additional, implied meaning. Formal semantics primarily focuses on the literal meaning of sentences.

5. Types of Meaning: Formal semantics distinguishes between different types of meaning. Some key distinctions include:
- Truth-conditional meaning: The meaning that can be evaluated for truth or falsity.
- Compositional meaning: How words and phrases combine to form sentence meanings.
- Lexical meaning: The inherent meaning of individual words or phrases.
- Contextual meaning: How meaning can depend on the context in which a sentence is used.

6. Semantic Ambiguity: Formal semantics provides a way to handle semantic ambiguity, where a single word or phrase can have multiple interpretations or meanings. For example, the word "bank" can mean a financial institution or the side of a river.

7. Formal Analysis: The analysis of natural language expressions in formal semantics involves breaking down sentences into their constituent parts, assigning meaning to each part, and specifying how they combine to form the meaning of the whole sentence.

8. Model Theory: Model theory is a fundamental tool in formal semantics. It involves constructing models or interpretations that capture the semantics of sentences. These models often use set theory or other mathematical structures to represent the relationships between words and their meanings.

9. Formalization of Rules: Formal semantics also involves developing rules and algorithms for interpreting and generating sentences in a language. This may include rules for negation, quantification, tense, and other linguistic phenomena.

10. Cross-Linguistic Study: Formal semantics provides a framework for comparing and contrasting the meaning of expressions across different languages, aiding in the analysis of linguistic universals and language-specific variations.

In summary, formal semantics is a field of study that aims to provide a precise, mathematical, and systematic account of the meaning of language. It offers a structured framework for understanding how sentences are constructed and how their meanings are derived through compositional processes. This approach is essential for both linguistic analysis and natural language processing applications, such as machine translation and natural language understanding."
[{2023-10-14 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/e8c2e8fa-fd4a-4726-bd0e-3f39ac871600]

name::
* McsEngl.formal-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.035-formal-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.formal-semantics,

cognitive-semantics of sciLago

description::
× whole: cognitive-linguistics,

"overview of cognitive-semantics:
Cognitive semantics is a theoretical approach within the field of linguistics that views language as a reflection of human cognition and conceptual structures. It places a strong emphasis on the relationship between language and thought, suggesting that language is shaped by how humans conceptualize the world. Here's an overview of cognitive semantics:

1. Conceptualization and Meaning:
- Cognitive semantics posits that linguistic meaning is not just a product of formal structures (as in formal semantics) but is deeply rooted in human cognition.
- It asserts that meaning is fundamentally conceptual, and language is a vehicle for expressing those concepts.

2. Image Schemas:
- Image schemas are basic, recurring patterns of sensory-motor experiences that shape our understanding of the world. Cognitive semantics posits that these image schemas underlie abstract and concrete meanings in language.
- For example, the "container schema" helps us understand concepts related to containment, such as 'in,' 'out,' 'inside,' and 'outside.'

3. Metaphor and Metonymy:
- Cognitive semantics highlights the pervasive role of metaphor and metonymy in language. Metaphors are mappings between conceptual domains, and metonymy involves the use of one concept to represent another related concept.
- For example, the metaphor "time is money" conceptualizes time as a valuable resource to be spent and saved.

4. Prototype Theory:
- Cognitive semantics draws on prototype theory to explain how we categorize and understand concepts. Prototype theory suggests that categories are not defined by strict boundaries but by prototypical examples.
- For instance, when we think of the category "bird," we might first think of a prototypical bird like a sparrow, and other creatures are categorized as birds to varying degrees.

5. Conceptual Blending:
- Cognitive semantics uses the concept of conceptual blending to explain how we create new meanings and understand complex situations. This involves blending different conceptual frames or mental spaces to form a coherent interpretation.
- Conceptual blending is at work when we understand humor, irony, or create novel metaphors.

6. Embodied Cognition:
- This approach emphasizes the role of the body and sensory experiences in shaping concepts and language. It argues that our physical experiences influence the way we think and use language.
- For example, the concept of "up" is associated with positive emotions in many languages, reflecting our bodily experiences of looking up when we're happy.

7. Polysemy:
- Cognitive semantics accounts for polysemy, the phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings. It suggests that these meanings are related by underlying conceptual structures.
- For instance, the word "hand" has multiple meanings, but all are related to the concept of grasping or manipulating objects.

8. Embodied and Experiential Grounding:
- Cognitive semantics emphasizes grounding language in real-world experiences and sensory perceptions, making it more accessible and meaningful to speakers.
- For example, when we say "I see what you mean," we connect the act of understanding to the visual experience of seeing.

Cognitive semantics has had a significant impact on linguistics, cognitive science, and the study of meaning in language. It provides a rich framework for understanding how language and thought are intertwined and how conceptual structures underlie linguistic expressions."
[{2023-10-18 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/3d01ae73-72e1-4925-a53a-fe9cbfcaf020]

name::
* McsEngl.cognitive-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.037-cognitive-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.cognitive-semantics,

computational-semantics of sciLago

description::
"computational semantics:
Computational semantics is a field of study at the intersection of linguistics and computer science. It focuses on developing computational models and algorithms to extract meaning from natural language text or speech. The primary goal of computational semantics is to enable computers to understand and generate human language in a way that is both meaningful and useful.

Key aspects of computational semantics include:
1. **Semantic Representation:** This involves representing the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a form that can be processed by computers. Common representations include semantic networks, predicate-argument structures, and formal logic.

2. **Semantic Parsing:** Semantic parsing is the process of automatically extracting structured semantic representations from natural language text. This is particularly important for tasks like question answering and information retrieval.

3. **Word Sense Disambiguation:** Many words have multiple meanings (polysemy), and word sense disambiguation aims to determine the correct sense of a word in a given context.

4. **Anaphora Resolution:** Anaphora resolution deals with resolving references in text. For example, determining what a pronoun like "he" or "it" refers to.

5. **Textual Entailment and Inference:** This involves determining whether one statement logically follows from another. For example, given the statement "John owns a cat" and "John has a pet," determining whether it can be inferred that the pet is a cat.

6. **Natural Language Understanding:** This encompasses the broader goal of enabling computers to understand and interpret natural language, taking into account the context and semantics. This is important for applications like chatbots, virtual assistants, and information retrieval systems.

7. **Semantic Web:** In the context of the Semantic Web, computational semantics is used to annotate web content with machine-readable semantics, enabling more sophisticated searches and automated reasoning.

8. **Ontologies:** Ontologies are formal representations of knowledge that define concepts and their relationships. They are used in computational semantics to provide a structured foundation for understanding and reasoning about the world.

9. **Machine Learning and NLP:** Many computational semantics tasks involve the use of machine learning techniques, including deep learning models, to learn and extract semantic information from text.

Overall, computational semantics plays a crucial role in various natural language processing (NLP) applications, such as machine translation, sentiment analysis, information retrieval, and chatbots, by enabling computers to understand and generate human language in a way that goes beyond mere syntactic analysis."
[{2023-10-20 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/0af0bd57-e782-489f-b9bc-9c0c7fe8cd01]

name::
* McsEngl.computational-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att004-computational-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'computational-semantics,

frame-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of frame-semantics:
**Frame semantics** is a theory of lexical meaning that describes the meaning of words in terms of frames, which are conceptual structures that represent the basic types of situations that we experience. Frames are typically made up of a set of **frame elements**, which are the participants and roles in the situation. For example, the frame for the verb **give** might have the following frame elements:
* Giver
* Recipient
* Theme (the thing that is given)

A sentence like "John gave Mary the book" would be described as an instance of the **give** frame, with John as the Giver, Mary as the Recipient, and the book as the Theme.

Frame semantics is based on the idea that our understanding of the meaning of words is closely tied to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations. When we hear or read a word, we automatically activate the frame associated with that word, which helps us to understand the meaning of the word in the context of the sentence.

Frame semantics has a number of advantages over other theories of lexical meaning. First, it provides a more comprehensive account of the meaning of words, taking into account both the literal and figurative senses of words. Second, it allows for the fact that the meaning of a word can vary depending on the context in which it is used. Third, it provides a way to relate the meaning of words to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations.

Frame semantics has been used in a variety of applications, including natural language processing, machine translation, and corpus linguistics. It has also been used to develop new methods for teaching vocabulary and reading comprehension.

**Here is an example of how frame semantics can be used to analyze the meaning of a sentence:**
> The cat sat on the mat.

This sentence can be analyzed as an instance of the **sitting** frame, which has the following frame elements:
* Sitter
* Surface

The Sitter in this sentence is the cat, and the Surface is the mat.

We can also use frame semantics to understand the relationship between different words in a sentence. For example, the word "on" in the sentence "The cat sat on the mat" indicates that the cat is in physical contact with the mat. This is because the **sitting** frame typically includes the **in contact** relation between the Sitter and the Surface.

Frame semantics is a powerful tool for understanding the meaning of words and sentences. It is based on the idea that our understanding of language is closely tied to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/7b6b4e099b8acdc9]

name::
* McsEngl.frame-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att003-frame-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'frame-semantics,

descriptionLong::
"overview of frame-semantics:
Frame semantics is a linguistic theory and framework developed by Charles J. Fillmore, primarily in the 1970s and 1980s. It provides an alternative approach to understanding word meaning and sentence structure, emphasizing the role of cognitive frames and conceptual structures in shaping the meaning of language. Here's an overview of frame semantics:

1. **Conceptual Frames**: Frame semantics posits that our understanding of words and sentences is shaped by mental structures called "frames." Frames are cognitive structures that represent stereotypical situations, scenarios, or activities. These frames serve as mental templates that help us make sense of the world.

2. **Frame Elements**: Within a frame, there are various components or frame elements. These elements are roles played by participants or entities in a given situation. For example, in the frame of a "restaurant," frame elements might include "customer," "waiter," "menu," and "food."

3. **Frame-to-Frame Relations**: Frame semantics acknowledges that frames are not isolated entities but are interconnected. They can be related to each other in various ways. For instance, the "restaurant" frame might be related to the "eating" frame, as they share common elements like "food" and "customer."

4. **Semantic Roles**: Frame semantics assigns specific semantic roles to frame elements. These roles include "Agent," "Experiencer," "Theme," "Goal," and others, which indicate the function of a participant in a frame. The same word can take on different roles in different frames.

5. **Metaphor and Metonymy**: Frame semantics highlights the role of metaphor and metonymy in shaping word meanings. Words often take on meanings based on conceptual mappings from one frame to another. For example, the word "argument" in the context of a debate is derived from the "war" frame, where debates are metaphorically viewed as battles.

6. **Frame Evocation**: When we encounter a word or phrase, it often evokes a frame in our minds. For example, the word "doctor" evokes a medical frame, including elements like "hospital," "patient," and "stethoscope."

7. **Invariance Principle**: The Invariance Principle in frame semantics suggests that there is a core meaning associated with a word that remains relatively stable across different frames. This principle helps explain how words maintain a sense of identity while taking on different roles in various frames.

8. **Applications**: Frame semantics has been applied to various aspects of linguistics and language analysis, including the study of polysemy (multiple word meanings), lexical semantics, syntax, and semantics of verbs. It has also had implications in computational linguistics, natural language processing, and machine learning.

9. **FrameNet**: Frame semantics led to the creation of FrameNet, a large-scale computational lexical database that annotates words and phrases with their associated frames and frame elements. FrameNet has been influential in natural language processing, especially in semantic role labeling and information extraction tasks.

In summary, frame semantics provides a cognitive approach to understanding how word meanings and sentence structures are shaped by our mental representations of the world. It emphasizes the role of frames and frame elements in interpreting language and has practical applications in both linguistics and computational linguistics."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d8cc4302-fde7-4175-b902-01a8fba7d9ca]

"Frame semantics is a theory of linguistic meaning developed by Charles J. Fillmore[1] that extends his earlier case grammar. It relates linguistic semantics to encyclopedic knowledge. The basic idea is that one cannot understand the meaning of a single word without access to all the essential knowledge that relates to that word. For example, one would not be able to understand the word "sell" without knowing anything about the situation of commercial transfer, which also involves, among other things, a seller, a buyer, goods, money, the relation between the money and the goods, the relations between the seller and the goods and the money, the relation between the buyer and the goods and the money and so on. Thus, a word activates, or evokes, a frame of semantic knowledge relating to the specific concept to which it refers (or highlights, in frame semantic terminology).

The idea of the encyclopedic organisation of knowledge itself is old and was discussed by Age of Enlightenment philosophers such as Denis Diderot[2] and Giambattista Vico.[3] Fillmore and other evolutionary and cognitive linguists like John Haiman and Adele Goldberg, however, make an argument against generative grammar and truth-conditional semantics. As is elementary for Lakoffian–Langackerian Cognitive Linguistics, it is claimed that knowledge of language is no different from other types of knowledge; therefore there is no grammar in the traditional sense, and language is not an independent cognitive function.[4] Instead, the spreading and survival of linguistic units is directly comparable to that of other types of units of cultural evolution, like in memetics and other cultural replicator theories.[5][6][7]"
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_semantics_(linguistics)]

lexical-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of lexical-semantics:
Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the study of word meanings and how words convey meaning within a language. It involves examining the relationship between words, their meanings, and the structure of a language. Here's an overview of key concepts and aspects of lexical semantics:

1. **Word Meaning**: Lexical semantics is primarily concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words. It explores how words convey information, and how they interact with other words to form coherent sentences.

2. **Lexical Relations**: Lexical semantics investigates the various types of relationships that exist between words. Common lexical relations include synonymy (words with similar meanings), antonymy (words with opposite meanings), hyponymy (subordinate categories), and hypernymy (superordinate categories).

3. **Polysemy and Homonymy**: Words can have multiple meanings, which can be related (polysemy) or unrelated (homonymy). Lexical semantics studies these phenomena and how context helps disambiguate meanings.

4. **Sense and Reference**: The distinction between the sense (conceptual meaning) and reference (real-world entity) of a word is a central concept in lexical semantics. This distinction is essential for understanding how language represents the world.

5. **Semantic Roles**: Lexical semantics examines the roles that words play in relation to each other in a sentence. For example, in a transitive sentence like "John ate pizza," "John" is the agent, and "pizza" is the patient.

6. **Semantic Features**: Words can be analyzed in terms of semantic features or attributes. For example, the word "cat" can be described with features like [+animate], [+mammal], and [+domestic].

7. **Thematic Roles**: Thematic roles are the roles that nouns play within a verb's predicate structure. Common thematic roles include agent, theme, experiencer, and instrument.

8. **Lexical Semantics Theories**: Lexical semantics is informed by various theoretical approaches, including structural semantics, cognitive semantics, and frame semantics. These theories provide different frameworks for analyzing word meanings.

9. **Pragmatics**: Lexical semantics is closely related to pragmatics, as it deals with how words are used in context to convey meaning. Pragmatics helps explain how conversational implicatures, presuppositions, and speech acts influence word meaning.

10. **Cross-Linguistic Variation**: Lexical semantics also examines how word meanings vary across different languages. This includes investigating how concepts are expressed, what words are available to convey certain meanings, and how languages categorize the world differently.

11. **Computational Lexical Semantics**: Advances in natural language processing (NLP) and computational linguistics have led to the development of computational models for lexical semantics. Word embeddings, semantic networks, and ontologies are used to represent and process word meanings in large text corpora.

12. **Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics**: Lexical semantics is informed by research in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, which study how words are processed in the human mind and the neural basis of word meaning.

Overall, lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding how language conveys meaning, and it has implications for various fields, including linguistics, cognitive science, natural language processing, and language teaching. It helps uncover the intricate relationships between words, meanings, and the structure of language."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d8cc4302-fde7-4175-b902-01a8fba7d9ca]

name::
* McsEngl.lexical-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att002-lexical-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'lexical-semantics,

semasiology of sciLago

description::
"Semasiology (from Greek: σημασία, semasia, "signification") is a discipline of linguistics concerned with the question "what does the word X mean?". It studies the meaning of words regardless how they are pronounced.[1] It is the opposite of onomasiology, a branch of lexicology that starts with a concept or object and asks for its name, i.e., "how do you express X?" whereas semasiology starts with a word and asks for its meanings.
The exact meaning of semasiology is somewhat obscure. It is often used as a synonym of semantics (the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and longer forms of expression).[2] However, semasiology is also sometimes considered part of lexical semantics, a narrow subfield of lexicology (the study of words) and semantics.
The term was first used in German by Christian Karl Reisig in 1825 in his work, [Lectures on Latin Linguistics] (German: Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft), and was used in English by 1847. Semantics replaced it in its original meaning, beginning in 1893."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semasiology]

name::
* McsEngl.semasiology//sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago/semasiology,

science-of-context of sciLago

description::
· the-science of context.
"The study of context in linguistics is called pragmatics. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of how context affects the meaning of language. It is a complex and challenging field of study, but it is essential for understanding how language is used in real-world communication."
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.pragmatics//sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago/pragmatics,
* McsEngl.science-of-context//sciLago,

lexicon of sciName

description::
"lexicon vs vocabulary vs dictionary vs glossary
Certainly, let's clarify the differences between these terms:
* Lexicon: A lexicon is a comprehensive collection of words and phrases within a language, along with their meanings, pronunciations, grammatical information, and sometimes cultural or historical context. It represents the entire vocabulary of a language and provides a deeper understanding of how words are used and related to each other.
* Vocabulary: Vocabulary refers to the specific set of words that an individual or a group of people knows and uses in their communication. It's a subset of the larger lexicon. A person's vocabulary might include words they commonly use and understand, while the lexicon encompasses all words existing in the language.
* Dictionary: A dictionary is a reference book or digital resource that compiles words from a language's lexicon along with their definitions, pronunciations, parts of speech, and sometimes example sentences or phrases. Dictionaries are used to look up the meanings and usages of words that are unfamiliar or unclear.
* Glossary: A glossary is a specialized type of list that provides explanations or definitions for terms, phrases, or words used within a specific context, field, or subject area. Glossaries are often found in textbooks, technical manuals, or academic papers to clarify terminology for readers who might not be familiar with the specialized jargon of the subject.
In summary, while all these terms are related to language and words, they have distinct meanings:
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.lexicon//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/lexicon,

vocabulary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.vocabulary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/vocabulary,

terminology of sciName

description::
"terminology vs vocabulary
"Terminology" and "vocabulary" are related concepts in the realm of language and communication, but they have distinct meanings:
* Vocabulary: Vocabulary refers to the set of words that an individual, community, or group of people knows and uses in their communication. It encompasses the words one is familiar with and can employ in speech or writing. Vocabulary can be broad or limited, depending on a person's language proficiency, interests, and exposure. It's a more general term that describes the range of words a person uses across various contexts.
* Terminology: Terminology, on the other hand, is a specialized subset of vocabulary that is specific to a particular field, subject, or domain. It consists of technical terms, jargon, and specialized language used within a certain profession, industry, discipline, or area of study. Terminology is characterized by its precision and often has well-defined meanings within its context. It's used to convey nuanced concepts and ideas accurately and efficiently among experts within that domain.
In summary, vocabulary is the broader collection of words that a person knows and uses, while terminology refers to the specialized language and terms used within a particular field or domain."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.terminology//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/terminology,

dictionary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.dictionary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/dictionary,

glossary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.glossary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/glossary,

jargon of sciName

description::
"Jargon is the specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity.[1] Jargon is normally employed in a particular communicative context and may not be well understood outside that context. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, vernacular or academic field), but any ingroup can have jargon. The main trait that distinguishes jargon from the rest of a language is special vocabulary—including some words specific to it and often different senses or meanings of words, that outgroups would tend to take in another sense—therefore misunderstanding that communication attempt. Jargon is sometimes understood as a form of technical slang and then distinguished from the official terminology used in a particular field of activity.[2]
The terms jargon, slang, and argot are not consistently differentiated in the literature; different authors interpret these concepts in varying ways. According to one definition, jargon differs from slang in being secretive in nature;[3] according to another understanding, it is specifically associated with professional and technical circles.[4] Some sources, however, treat these terms as synonymous.[5][6] In Russian linguistics, jargon is classified as an expressive form of language, while secret languages are referred to as argots.[7] The use of jargon became more popular around the sixteenth century attracting persons from different career paths. This led to there being printed copies available on the various forms of jargon.[8]"
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon]

name::
* McsEngl.jargon//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/jargon,

ISO/TC-37 of sciName

description::
"ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards and other documents concerning methodology and principles for terminology and language resources.
Title: Terminology and other language and content resources
Scope: Standardization of principles, methods and applications relating to terminology and other language and content resources in the contexts of multilingual communication and cultural diversity
ISO/TC 37 is a so-called "horizontal committee", providing guidelines for all other technical committees that develop standards on how to manage their terminological problems. However, the standards developed by ISO/TC 37 are not restricted to ISO. Collaboration with industry is sought to ensure that the requirements and needs from all possible users of standards concerning terminology, language and structured content are duly and timely addressed.
Involvement in standards development is open to all stakeholders and requests can be made to the TC through any liaison or member organization (see the list of current members and liaisons of ISO/TC 37:[1])
ISO/TC 37 standards are therefore fundamental and should form the basis for many localization, translation, and other industry applications."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/TC_37]

name::
* McsEngl.ISO/TC-37//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/ISO/TC-37,

onomasiology of sciName

description::
"Onomasiology (from Greek: ὀνομάζω onomāzο 'to name', which in turn is from ὄνομα onoma 'name') is a branch of linguistics concerned with the question "how do you express X?" It is in fact most commonly understood as a branch of lexicology, the study of words (although some apply the term also to grammar and conversation).
Onomasiology, as a part of lexicology, starts from a concept which is taken to be prior[1] (i.e. an idea, an object, a quality, an activity etc.) and asks for its names. The opposite approach is known as semasiology: here one starts with a word and asks what it means, or what concepts the word refers to. Thus, an onomasiological question is, e.g., "what are the names for long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried?" (answers: french fries in the US, chips in the UK, etc.), while a semasiological question is, e.g., "what is the meaning of the term chips?" (answers: 'long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried' in the UK, 'slim slices of potatoes deep fried or baked until crisp' in the US).
Onomasiology can be carried out synchronically or diachronically, i.e. historically."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomasiology]

name::
* McsEngl.onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciName/onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.034-onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.onomasiology,

lexicology of sciName

description::
· the-science of words.

name::
* McsEngl.lexicology//sciName!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.lexicography!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciLago.033-lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciLago.lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciName/lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciWord,
* McsEngl.word'science!⇒sciWord,

descriptionLong::
"Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that analyzes the lexicon of a specific language. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language that can stand on its own, and is made up of small components called morphemes and even smaller elements known as phonemes, or distinguishing sounds. Lexicology examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage, and definition.[1]
Lexicology also considers the relationships that exist between words. In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is composed of lexemes, which are abstract units of meaning that correspond to a set of related forms of a word. Lexicology looks at how words can be broken down as well as identifies common patterns they follow.[2]
Lexicology is associated with lexicography, which is the practice of compiling dictionaries.[3]"
[{2022-01-11 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicology]
===

nomenclature of sciName

description::
"Nomenclature (UK: /nəˈmɛŋkləˌtʃər/, US: /ˈnoʊmənˌkleɪtʃər/)[1][2] is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences.[3] The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms used in scientific and any other disciplines.[4]
Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language.
Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and descriptive linguistics.
The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems.[citation needed] Probably the best known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of organisms."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.nomenclature,
* McsEngl.sciName/nomenclature,
"The word nomenclature is derived from the Latin nomen ('name'), and calare ('to call'). The Latin term nomenclatura refers to a list of names, as does the word nomenclator, which can also indicate a provider or announcer of names."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature]

terminology-science of sciName

description::
· the-science of terms.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'terminology-science!⇒sciTerm,
* McsEngl.sciTerm,
* McsEngl.sciTerm!=science.human-mind-lang'term,
* McsEngl.terminology-science!⇒sciTerm,

descriptionLong::
"Terminology is a group of specialized words and respective meanings in a particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use;[1] the latter meaning is also known as terminology science. A term is a word, compound word, or multi-word expressions that in specific contexts is given specific meanings—these may deviate from the meanings the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language.[2] Terminology is a discipline that studies, among other things, the development of such terms and their interrelationships within a specialized domain. Terminology differs from lexicography, as it involves the study of concepts, conceptual systems and their labels (terms), whereas lexicography studies words and their meanings.
Terminology is a discipline that systematically studies the "labelling or designating of concepts" particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity. It does this through the research and analysis of terms in context for the purpose of documenting and promoting consistent usage. Terminology can be limited to one or more languages (for example, "multilingual terminology" and "bilingual terminology"), or may have an interdisciplinarity focus on the use of terms in different fields."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology#Science]

onomatology of sciName

description::
"Onomastics or onomatology is the study of the etymology, history, and use of proper names.[1] An orthonym is the proper name of the object in question, the object of onomastic study.
Onomastics can be helpful in data mining, with applications such as named-entity recognition, or recognition of the origin of names.[2][3] It has also been used in historical research to identify ethnic minorities within wider populations.[4][5]"
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomastics]
"The study of proper names is known as onomastics, which has a wide-ranging scope that encompasses all names, languages, and geographical regions, as well as cultural areas.[5]
The distinction between onomastics and nomenclature is not readily clear: onomastics is an unfamiliar discipline to most people, and the use of nomenclature in an academic sense is also not commonly known. Although the two fields integrate, nomenclature concerns itself more with the rules and conventions that are used for the formation of names."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature#Onomastics_and_nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.onomatology//sciName,
* McsEngl.onomastics//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName'onomatology,

anthroponomastics of sciName

description::
· names for humans.

name::
* McsEngl.anthroponomastics//sciName,
* McsEngl.anthroponymy,
* McsEngl.sciName/anthroponomastics,

toponomastics of sciName

description::
· names for places.

name::
* McsEngl.sciName/toponomastics,
* McsEngl.toponomastics/sciName,
* McsEngl.toponymy,

etymology of sciName

description::
"Etymology (/ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/)[1] is the study of the history of the form of words[2] and, by extension, the origin and evolution of their semantic meaning across time.[3] It is a subfield of historical linguistics, and draws upon comparative semantics, morphology, semiotics, and phonetics.
For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts, and texts about the language, to gather knowledge about how words were used during earlier periods, how they developed in meaning and form, or when and how they entered the language. Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about forms that are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots in European languages, for example, can be traced all the way back to the origin of the Indo-European language family.
Even though etymological research originated from the philological tradition, much current etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian."
[{2022-08-22 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology]

name::
* McsEngl.etymology//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/etymology,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.ετυμολογία!=etymology//sciName,

phonemics of sciLago

description::
· phonemics is the-science that studies the-phonemes.

name::
* McsEngl.lagoHmnm'phonemics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.028-phonemics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonemics,
* McsEngl.phonemics,
* McsEngl.phonemology,
* McsEngl.phonology,
* McsEngl.science.phonemics,
* McsEngl.science.phonology,

phonetics of sciLago

description::
· phonetics is the-science that studies the-phones.

name::
* McsEngl.lagoHmnm'phonetics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.029-phonetics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonetics,
* McsEngl.phonetics,
* McsEngl.science.phonetics,

phonotactics of sciLago

description::
"Phonotactics (from Ancient Greek phōnḗ "voice, sound" and taktikós "having to do with arranging")[1] is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters and vowel sequences by means of phonotactic constraints.
Phonotactic constraints are highly language-specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ do not occur. Similarly, the clusters /kn/ and /ɡn/ are not permitted at the beginning of a word in Modern English but are in German and Dutch (in which the latter appears as /ɣn/) and were permitted in Old and Middle English.[2] In contrast, in some Slavic languages /l/ and /r/ are used alongside vowels as syllable nuclei.
Syllables have the following internal segmental structure:
* Onset (optional)
* Rhyme (obligatory, comprises nucleus and coda):
** Nucleus (obligatory)
** Coda (optional)
Both onset and coda may be empty, forming a vowel-only syllable, or alternatively, the nucleus can be occupied by a syllabic consonant. Phonotactics is known to affect second language vocabulary acquisition.[3]"
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics]

name::
* McsEngl.phonotactics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.030-phonotactics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonotactics,

dialectology

description::
"Dialectology (from Greek διάλεκτος, dialektos, "talk, dialect"; and -λογία, -logia) is the scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics. It studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. Dialectology deals with such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation.
Dialectologists are ultimately concerned with grammatical, lexical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas. Thus they usually deal not only with populations that have lived in certain areas for generations, but also with migrant groups that bring their languages to new areas (see language contact).
Commonly studied concepts in dialectology include the problem of mutual intelligibility in defining languages and dialects; situations of diglossia, where two dialects are used for different functions; dialect continua including a number of dialects of varying intelligibility; and pluricentrism, where a single language has two or more standard varieties.
Hans Kurath and William Labov are among the most prominent researchers in this field."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectology]

name::
* McsEngl.dialectology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.026-dialectology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.dialectology,

evolutionary-psychology-of-language

description::
"Evolutionary psychology of language is the study of the evolutionary history of language as a psychological faculty within the discipline of evolutionary psychology. It makes the assumption that language is the result of a Darwinian adaptation.
There are many competing theories of how language might have evolved, if indeed it is an evolutionary adaptation. They stem from the belief that language development could result from an adaptation, an exaptation, or a by-product. Genetics also influence the study of the evolution of language. It has been speculated that the FOXP2 gene may be what gives humans the ability to develop grammar and syntax.
Language evolution theories
In the debate surrounding the evolutionary psychology of language, three sides emerge: those who believe in language as an adaptation, those who believe it is a by-product of another adaptation, and those who believe it is an exaptation."

name::
* McsEngl.evolutionary-psychology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.024-evolutionary-psychology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.evolutionary-psychology-of-language,

historical-linguistics

description::
× parent: philology,

"Historical linguistics, also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time.[1] Principal concerns of historical linguistics include:[2]
* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages
* to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and to determine their relatedness, grouping them into language families (comparative linguistics)
* to develop general theories about how and why language changes
* to describe the history of speech communities
* to study the history of words, i.e. etymology
Historical linguistics is founded on the Uniformitarian Principle, which is defined by linguist Donald Ringe as:[3]
Unless we can demonstrate significant changes in the conditions of language acquisition and use between some time in the unobservable past and the present, we must assume that the same types and distributions of structures, variation, changes, etc. existed at that time in the past as in the present."
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.diachronic-linguistics,
* McsEngl.historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.004-historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical,

comparative-linguistics

description::
"Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness.
Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying out language classification have been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerised hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of development."
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.comparative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.016-comparative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.comparative-linguistics,

contact-linguistics

description::
"Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact with and influence each other. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Language contact can occur at language borders,[1] between adstratum languages, or as the result of migration, with an intrusive language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum.
Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing and relexification. The common products include pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed languages. In many other cases, contact between speakers occurs but the lasting effects on the language are less visible; they may, however, include loan words, calques or other types of borrowed material.
Multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history, and today most people in the world are multilingual.[2]
Methods from sociolinguistics[3] (the study of language use in society), from corpus linguistics and from formal linguistics are used in the study of language contact."
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact]

name::
* McsEngl.contact-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.017-contact-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.contact-linguistics,

linguistic-typology

description::
"Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages.[1] Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.[2]
Linguistic typology is contrasted with genealogical linguistics on the grounds that typology groups languages or their grammatical features based on formal similarities rather than historic descendence.[3] The issue of genealogical relation is however relevant to typology because modern data sets aim to be representative and unbiased. Samples are collected evenly from different language families, emphasizing the importance of lesser-known languages in gaining insight into human language.[4]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology]

name::
* McsEngl.language-typology,
* McsEngl.linguistic-typology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.015-linguistic-typology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.linguistic-typology,

anthropological-linguistics

description::
"Anthropological linguistics is the subfield of linguistics and anthropology which deals with the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures.[1] While many linguists believe that a true field of anthropological linguistics is nonexistent, preferring the term linguistic anthropology to cover this subfield, many others regard the two as interchangeable.[1]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.anthropological-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.020-anthropological-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.anthropological-linguistics,

ecolinguistics

description::
"Ecolinguistics, or ecological linguistics, emerged in the 1990s as a new paradigm of linguistic research, widening sociolinguistics to take into account not only the social context in which language is embedded, but also the wider ecological context, including other species and the physical environment.
Michael Halliday's 1990 speech New ways of Meaning: the challenge to applied linguistics[1] is often credited as a work which provided the stimulus for linguists to consider the ecological context and consequences of language. Among other things, the challenge that Halliday put forward was to make linguistics relevant to overarching contemporary issues, particularly the widespread destruction of ecosystems. The main example Halliday gave was that of "economic growth", describing how "countless texts repeated daily all around the world contain a simple message: growth is good. Many is better than few, more is better than less, big is better than small, grow is better than shrink", which leads to environmentally destructive consequences."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.ecolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.023-ecolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.ecolinguistics,

ethnolinguistics

description::
"Ethnolinguistics overview
Ethnolinguistics is an interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between language and culture. It draws on methods and theories from both linguistics and anthropology to explore how language is shaped by and reflects the cultural values, beliefs, and practices of the people who speak it.
Ethnolinguists are interested in a wide range of topics, including:
* How language is used to communicate cultural knowledge and values
* How language categories reflect cultural ways of thinking about the world
* How language use varies in different social and cultural contexts
* How language change is influenced by cultural factors
* The role of language in identity formation and social cohesion
Ethnolinguistic research is often conducted in multilingual and multicultural settings, where researchers explore the ways in which different language groups interact and negotiate their identities. Ethnolinguists also study the impact of globalization and social change on language and culture.
Here are some examples of ethnolinguistic research:
* A researcher might study how the language used in religious ceremonies reflects the cultural beliefs and values of a particular religious group.
* Another researcher might study how the language used in advertising varies in different cultures, and how these differences reflect cultural values and attitudes.
* Still another researcher might study how the language used in schools is influenced by the cultural backgrounds of the students and teachers.
Ethnolinguistic research can help us to better understand the complex relationship between language and culture. It can also help us to develop more effective strategies for language education and intercultural communication.
Importance of ethnolinguistics
Ethnolinguistics is an important field because it helps us to understand the relationship between language and culture. This understanding is essential for effective language education, intercultural communication, and the promotion of linguistic diversity.
Ethnolinguistic research can help us to:
* Develop better teaching methods for students who are learning a new language, taking into account their cultural backgrounds and linguistic needs.
* Promote understanding and respect between different cultures by helping people to learn about the ways in which language is used to communicate cultural knowledge and values.
* Support the preservation of linguistic diversity by documenting and understanding the languages and cultures of minority groups.
In today's increasingly interconnected world, ethnolinguistics is more important than ever. By understanding the relationship between language and culture, we can build more inclusive and equitable societies."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/d7f564d8e82a8191]

name::
* McsEngl.cultural-linguistics,
* McsEngl.ethnolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.022-ethnolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.ethnolinguistics,

linguistic-anthropology

description::
"Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages and has grown over the past century to encompass most aspects of language structure and use.[1]
Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology]

name::
* McsEngl.linguistic-anthropology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.018-linguistic-anthropology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.linguistic-anthropology,

sociolinguistics

description::
"Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used. It can overlap with the sociology of language, which focuses on the effect of language on society. Sociolinguistics overlaps considerably with pragmatics and is closely related to linguistic anthropology.
Sociolinguistics' historical interrelation with anthropology[1] can be observed in studies of how language varieties differ between groups separated by social variables (e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc.) and/or geographical barriers (a mountain range, a desert, a river, etc.). Such studies also examine how such differences in usage and differences in beliefs about usage produce and reflect social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.
Sociolinguistics can be studied in various ways such as interviews with speakers of a language, matched-guise tests, and other observations or studies related to dialects and speaking."
[{2023-09-01 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sociolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.009-sociolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.sociolinguistics,

sciLago.sociology-of-language

description::
"Sociology of language is the study of the relations between language and society.[1] It is closely related to the field of sociolinguistics,[2] which focuses on the effect of society on language. One of its longest and most prolific practitioners was Joshua Fishman, who was founding editor of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, in addition to other major contributions. The sociology of language studies society in relation to language, whereas sociolinguistics studies language in relation to society. For the former, society is the object of study, whereas, for the latter, language is the object of study. In other words, sociolinguistics studies language and how it varies based on the user's sociological background, such as gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic class.[3] On the other hand, sociology of language (also known as macrosociolinguistics) studies society and how it is impacted by language.[4] As Trent University professor of global politics Andreas Pickel states, "religion and other symbolic systems strongly shaping social practices and shaping political orientations are examples of the social significance such languages can have."[5] The basic idea is that language reflects, among several other things, attitudes that speakers want to exchange or that just get reflected through language use. These attitudes of the speakers are the sociologist's information.
Sociology of language seeks to understand the way that social dynamics are affected by individual and group language use. According to National Taiwan University of Science and Technology Chair of Language Center[6] Su-Chiao Chen, language is considered to be a social value within this field, which researches social groups for phenomena like multilingualism and lingual conflict.[7] It has to do with who is 'authorized' to use what language, with whom and under what conditions. It has to do with how an individual or group identity is established by the language that they have available for them to use. It seeks to understand individual expression, which the investment in the linguistic tools that one has access to in order to bring oneself to other people."
[{2023-09-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_language]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.021-sociology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.sociology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sociology-of-language,

wrkrSciLang.SPECIFIC

description::
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists,
===
* {1942..xxxx} Yule.George, Uk,
* {1935..2016} Petrounias.Evagelos, Greece,
* {1928..xxxx} Chomsky, Usa,
* {1925..2018} Halliday.Michael, Uk,
* {1909..1992} Harris.Zellig, Usa,
* {1896..1982} Jakobson,
* {1887..1949} Bloomfield.Leonard, Usa,
* {1884..1939} Sapir,
* {1883..1959} Triantafyllidis.Manolis.A., Greece,
* {1879..1941} Whorf,
* {1857..1913} Saussure.Ferdinand de,
* {1843..1941} Hatzidakis.Georgios.Nicolaou, Greece,
* {1771..1823} Vilaras.Ioannis, Greece,
* {Bce0170..Bce0090} Dionysius-Thrax, Greece,
* {Bce0520..Bce0460} Pāṇini, India,

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.specific,

wrkrSciLang.1935.Petrounias.Evagelos

description::
· {1935..2016}
Πετρούνιας, Ευάγγελος Β.
Ο Ευάγγελος Πετρούνιας έχει σπουδάσει φιλολογία στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Αθήνας, κλασική φιλολογία και γλωσσολογία στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Tubingen, γλωσσολογία και γλωσσοδιδαχτική στα Πανεπιστήμια της Lille, του Los Angeles, και του Saltzburg. Έχει διδακτορικό δίπλωμα στην κλασική φιλολογία από το Πανεπιστήμιο Tubingen, και μεταπτυχιακό δίπλωμα γλωσσοδιδαχτικής από το Πανεπιστήμιο του Los Angeles. Έχει διδάξει σα λέκτορας, επίκουρος καθηγητής, και ειδικός επιστήμονας αρχαία, βυζαντινή, και νεοελληνική γλώσσα και φιλολογία, γλωσσολογία, και γλωσσοδιδαχτική στα Πανεπιστήμια της Tubingen, του Los Angeles, και της Θεσσαλονίκης. Έχει επίσης διατελέσει τακτικός συνεργάτης του Ινστιτούτου Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών ("Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη") του Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης. Είναι καθηγητής ελληνικής και αντιπαραθετικής γλωσσολογίας στο τμήμα ιταλικής γλώσσας και φιλολογίας του Αριστοτελείου Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης. Έχει δημοσιεύσει στη σειρά "Hypomnemata" το βιβλίο Funktion und Thematik der Bilder bei Aischylos. Gottingen 1976. Έχει συντάξει τις ετυμολογίες του Λεξικού της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής του Ιδρύματος Τριανταφυλλίδη, Θεσσαλονίκη 1998.
[http://www.biblionet.gr/author/12053/Ευάγγελος_Β._Πετρούνιας]

name::
* McsEngl.human.1935.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.1935.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Petrounias.Evagelos.1935,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος.1935,

addressWpg::
* https://edromos.gr/evagelos-petrounias/,

wrkrSciLang.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax

description::
"Dionysius Thrax (Greek: Διονύσιος ὁ Θρᾷξ Dionύsios ho Thrβix, 170–90 BC) was a Greek[1] grammarian and a pupil of Aristarchus of Samothrace. He was long considered to be the author of the earliest grammatical text on the Greek language, one that was used as a standard manual for perhaps some 1,500 years,[2] and which was until recently regarded as the groundwork of the entire Western grammatical tradition.[a]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_Thrax]

name::
* McsEngl.human.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Dionysios-Thrax.Bce0170,

product::
* https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html,

international-conference-of-linguists of sciLago

description::
"The International Congress of Linguists (ICL) takes place every five years, under the governance of the Permanent International Committee of Linguists (PICL) / Comitι International Permanent des Linguistes (CIPL). The 19th ICL was held in Geneva, Switzerland in 2013.[1] The 20th ICL was held in Cape Town, South Africa from 2–6 July 2018 and will be on the topic of "The Diversity of Language".[2] The next (21st) ICL was originally planned to take place in Kazan (Tatarstan), Russia) from 25 June to 2 July 2023.[3] However, due to the Russian invasion in Ukraine, the venue was changed and the congress moved by one year. It is now planned to take place in Poznań at the Adam Mickiewicz University, 8-14 September 2024.[4]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Congress_of_Linguists]

{2018}: 20th ICL, Cape-town, "The Diversity of Language",
{2013}: 19th ICL, Geneva, about the language-cognition interface,
{1967}: 10th ICL, Bucharest,
{1936}: 4th ICL, Copenhagen,
{1933}: 3rd ICL, Rome,
{1931}: 2nd ICL, Geneva,
{1928}: 1st ICL, The Hague,

name::
* McsEngl.ICL!=international-conference-of-linguists,
* McsEngl.sciLago'international-conference-of-linguists,

corpus-data of sciLago

description::
"corpus-data vs discourse:
Corpus data is a collection of text or speech that is used for linguistic analysis. It is typically collected from a variety of sources, such as books, newspapers, magazines, websites, and conversations. Corpus data can be used to study a wide range of linguistic phenomena, such as grammar, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse.

Discourse is the study of language use in context. It is concerned with how speakers and writers use language to achieve their communicative goals. Discourse analysts often use corpus data to study discourse, but they also use other data sources, such as interviews, field notes, and ethnographic data.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between corpus data and discourse:
| Feature | Corpus data | Discourse |
| Definition | A collection of text or speech that is used for linguistic analysis. | The study of language use in context. |
| Focus | Language in general. | Language in use. |
| Data sources | Text and speech from a variety of sources. | Text and speech, as well as other data sources such as interviews, field notes, and ethnographic data. |
| Methods | Quantitative and qualitative methods. | Qualitative methods. |

Corpus data and discourse are complementary approaches to the study of language. Corpus data provides us with a large and representative sample of language use, while discourse analysis helps us to understand how language is used in specific contexts.

Here are some examples of how corpus data and discourse can be used:
* **Corpus data:** A corpus linguist might use corpus data to study the frequency of certain words or phrases, or to identify patterns in language use. For example, a corpus linguist might be interested in studying the way that the word "climate change" is used in different types of text, such as news articles, scientific papers, and social media posts.
* **Discourse:** A discourse analyst might use corpus data to study how language is used in a particular social setting, such as a courtroom or a workplace. For example, a discourse analyst might be interested in studying the way that lawyers use language to persuade juries, or the way that doctors use language to interact with patients.

Corpus data and discourse are both important tools for understanding language. By using corpus data and discourse together, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language works and how it is used in the real world."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/855fcd1d996edda0]

name::
* McsEngl.corpus-data,
* McsEngl.sciLago'corpus-data,

discourse of sciLago

description::
"what is discourse?
Discourse refers to a broader and more complex unit of language than individual words or sentences. It encompasses spoken or written communication that is larger in scope, typically involving multiple sentences or turns in a conversation. Discourse involves the way language is structured, organized, and used to convey meaning beyond the level of individual words or phrases. Here are some key aspects of discourse:

1. **Connectedness**: Discourse is characterized by its connectedness. It involves a sequence of statements or turns that are related to each other and form a coherent whole. Discourse can be a conversation, a written text, a speech, or any extended piece of communication.

2. **Coherence**: A well-structured discourse maintains coherence, which means that the ideas and information presented are logically and meaningfully connected. Cohesion, the use of linguistic devices like pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional phrases, helps create this coherence.

3. **Context**: Discourse is influenced by its context, including the social, cultural, and situational factors that affect the communication. The interpretation of discourse often depends on understanding the context in which it was produced.

4. **Pragmatics**: Discourse is shaped by pragmatics, which involves the study of how language is used in context to convey meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words. Pragmatics examines issues such as implicature, presupposition, and speech acts (e.g., requests, promises, and apologies).

5. **Genres**: Different types of discourse can be categorized into genres, such as narratives, dialogues, academic papers, news reports, or legal documents. Each genre has its own conventions and structure.

6. **Discourse Analysis**: Discourse analysis is a field of study that examines discourse to understand its structure, organization, and the functions it serves. Discourse analysts may explore how power dynamics, ideologies, and social structures are reflected in language use.

7. **Register and Style**: Discourse can vary in terms of register (formal, informal, technical, etc.) and style (e.g., poetic, colloquial, academic), depending on the purpose and audience of the communication.

8. **Narrative and Argumentation**: Different types of discourse can serve various functions, such as storytelling, persuasion, explanation, or information-sharing. The structure and features of discourse may vary based on these functions.

9. **Multimodal Discourse**: In the modern digital age, discourse can involve various modes of communication, including not only text but also images, videos, and other multimedia elements. The analysis of such multimodal discourse is an evolving field of study.

Discourse is a fundamental concept in linguistics, as it allows for the study of language in real-life communication contexts. It helps researchers and linguists understand how language is used to convey meaning, express social identities, and influence thought and action."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/6d0325e8-2fbe-4b15-8e9c-2aa63fe7de4e]

name::
* McsEngl.discourse-sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago'discourse,

sciLago.forensic-linguistics

description::
"Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods, and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of applied linguistics.
There are principally three areas of application for linguists working in forensic contexts:[1]
* understanding language of the written law,
* understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes, and
* the provision of linguistic evidence.
The discipline of forensic linguistics is not homogeneous; it involves a range of experts and researchers in different areas of the field."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.forensic-linguistics,
* McsEngl.language-and-law,
* McsEngl.legal-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.025-legal-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.legal-linguistics,

area-of-study of sciLagoCognitive

description::
Areas of study
Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study:
* Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics
* Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas.
* Cognitive phonology.
Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include:
* Construction grammar and cognitive grammar.
* Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending.
* Image schemas and force dynamics.
* Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity.
* Construal and Subjectivity.
* Gesture and sign language.
* Linguistic relativism.
* Cognitive neuroscience.
Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes:
* Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition.
* Psycholinguistics research.
* Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images.
Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seek to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole. A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it is a relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines.
Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too. Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics. The best summary of the discipline as it is currently stands is Peter Stockwell's Cognitive Poetics.[2]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'area-of-study,

scientist of sciLagoCognitive

description::
Ronald W. Langacker (born December 27, 1942) is an American linguist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego. He is best known as one of the founders of the cognitive linguistics movement and the creator of Cognitive Grammar.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Langacker]

George P. Lakoff (pronounced [ˈleɪkɒf], born May 24, 1941) is a professor of cognitive linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1972.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff]

Ray Jackendoff (born January 23, 1945) is an influential contemporary linguist who has always straddled the boundary between generative linguistics and cognitive linguistics, committed as he is both to the existence of an innate Universal Grammar (an important thesis of generative linguistics) and to giving an account of language that meshes well with the current understanding of the human mind and cognition (the main purpose of cognitive linguistics).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Jackendoff]

Eve Sweetser is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, and an important figure in the field of cognitive linguistics. Some of her more accessible work focuses on gesture, but her other research interests include historical linguistics, semantics, metaphor and iconicity, subjectivity and viewpoint, and the Celtic language family.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Sweetser]

Leonard Talmy is a professor of linguistics and philosophy at the University at Buffalo in New York. He is most famous for his pioneering work in cognitive linguistics, more specifically, in the relationship between semantic and formal linguistic structures and the connections between semantic typologies and universals. He also specializes in the study of Yiddish and Native American linguistics.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Talmy]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'scientist,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLangCognitive,

evoluting of sciLagoCognitive

description::
"evolution of cognitive-linguistics:
Cognitive linguistics is a modern approach to the study of language that emerged in the latter half of the 20th century. It represents a departure from traditional structuralist and generative linguistic theories by focusing on the relationship between language, cognition, and the human mind. Here's an overview of the evolution of cognitive linguistics:

1. Background in Structuralism and Generative Linguistics:
- Structuralism, a dominant linguistic paradigm in the early 20th century, analyzed language as a system of formal relationships.
- Noam Chomsky's generative linguistics, which became prominent in the mid-20th century, emphasized a formal, rule-based approach to language.

2. Cognitive Revolution:
- In the 1950s and 1960s, the cognitive revolution in psychology influenced a shift in linguistic research. It stressed the importance of understanding the mind's inner workings and how humans process information.

3. Emergence of Cognitive Linguistics:
- Cognitive linguistics began to take shape in the late 20th century, with linguists like George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, and Leonard Talmy being pioneers in the field.
- The work of George Lakoff, particularly his book "Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things" (1987), was influential in establishing the cognitive linguistic framework.

4. Key Concepts and Principles:
- Embodiment: Cognitive linguists emphasize that language is grounded in human experience and the body. Our bodily experiences shape the way we conceptualize and talk about the world.
- Conceptual Metaphor: Cognitive linguists introduced the concept of metaphor as a fundamental mechanism for understanding abstract concepts through concrete, experiential domains.
- Conceptual Blending: The theory of conceptual blending explains how people create new meanings by merging and manipulating mental spaces and concepts.

5. Construction Grammar:
- Cognitive linguistics has also given rise to construction grammar, which focuses on the mental representations and processing of linguistic constructions, rather than abstract rules and structures.

6. Usage-Based Approaches:
- Cognitive linguistics emphasizes the role of usage and frequency in language acquisition and usage. It argues that language is learned and used through exposure to real-world examples.

7. Critiques and Expansions:
- Cognitive linguistics has faced criticism, particularly from proponents of generative grammar, but it continues to evolve and adapt to address these concerns.
- Various subfields within cognitive linguistics, such as cognitive semantics and cognitive sociolinguistics, have developed over time.

8. Interdisciplinary Nature:
- Cognitive linguistics is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from psychology, neuroscience, anthropology, and other fields to understand the relationship between language and cognition.

9. Contemporary Research:
- Current research in cognitive linguistics includes investigating issues related to language and thought, cultural variations in conceptualization, and the neural basis of language.

Overall, cognitive linguistics has significantly expanded our understanding of language as a reflection of human cognition and the ways in which language is intimately tied to human experience and perception. It continues to be a vibrant and evolving field of study."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d101c7ac-091b-4106-a413-9a8aa5d323c5]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-sciLagoCognitive,
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'evoluting,

area-of-study of sciLagoComputational

description::
"The core areas of computational linguistics include:
* Machine translation (MT): This is the task of automatically translating text from one language to another.
* Natural language understanding (NLU): This is the task of understanding the meaning of natural language text or speech.
* Natural language generation (NLG): This is the task of generating natural language text or speech.
* Speech recognition (SR): This is the task of converting spoken language into text.
* Text analysis: This is the task of extracting information from text, such as the topic of a document or the sentiment of a piece of writing.
* Question answering (QA): This is the task of answering questions posed in natural language.
* Information retrieval (IR): This is the task of finding relevant documents or information from a large corpus of text.
* Computer-assisted language learning (CALL): This is the use of computers to teach and learn languages."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/ computational linguistics overview]
===
Computational linguistics can be divided into major areas depending upon the medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual; and upon the task being performed, whether analyzing language (parsing) or creating language (generation).

Speech recognition and speech synthesis deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers. Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together. Machine translation remains the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages.

Some of the areas of research that are studied by computational linguistics include:
* Computer aided corpus linguistics
* Design of parsers or chunkers for natural languages
* Design of taggers like POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers)
* Definition of specialized logics like resource logics for NLP
* Research in the relation between formal and natural languages in general
* Machine translation, e.g. by a translating computer
* Computational complexity of natural language, largely modeled on automata theory, with the application of context-sensitive grammar and linearly-bounded Turing machines.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'area-of-study,

info-resource of sciLagoComputational

description::
* journal: Computational Linguistics,

"Here are some of the resources you can use to learn more about computational linguistics:
* The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL): https://aclweb.org/
* The Computational Linguistics entry on Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics
* The Introduction to Computational Linguistics textbook by Jurafsky and Martin : https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/
* The Natural Language Processing with Python textbook by Manning, Raghavan, and Schόtze : https://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/
* The Stanford Natural Language Processing Group : https://nlp.stanford.edu/"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'Infrsc,

PARENT-CHILD-TREE of sciLagoComputational

parent-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* techAi,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'parent-tree,

child-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* ,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'child-tree,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of sciLagoComputational

generic-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* ,
* ... entity,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'generic-tree,

specific-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
"computational linguistics subfields
Computational linguistics is a diverse and multidisciplinary field that focuses on the intersection of linguistics and computer science. It involves developing algorithms, models, and technologies to enable computers to understand, generate, and process human language. Here are some of the key subfields within computational linguistics:
* Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP is the most prominent subfield of computational linguistics. It deals with the interaction between computers and human language. NLP involves tasks like machine translation, sentiment analysis, text summarization, named entity recognition, and part-of-speech tagging.
* Speech Processing: This subfield focuses on speech recognition (converting spoken language into text) and speech synthesis (generating human-like speech from text). Applications include voice assistants, speech-to-text systems, and text-to-speech systems.
* Text Mining and Information Retrieval: Text mining involves extracting meaningful information from large text corpora, while information retrieval focuses on retrieving relevant documents from a collection based on user queries. These subfields are essential for search engines, document categorization, and data analysis.
* Machine Translation: Machine translation aims to automatically translate text or speech from one language to another. This subfield has seen significant advancements with the advent of neural machine translation models.
* Syntax and Grammar Parsing: Parsing involves analyzing the grammatical structure of sentences to understand their syntax. This is crucial for tasks like language generation and understanding.
* Semantic Analysis: This subfield focuses on understanding the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It's important for tasks such as sentiment analysis, question answering, and natural language understanding.
* Discourse Analysis: Discourse analysis deals with how sentences are organized into coherent conversations or texts. It helps in understanding the relationships between sentences and the overall flow of information.
* Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining: These subfields involve determining the emotional tone or sentiment expressed in a piece of text. They have applications in social media monitoring, customer reviews, and brand perception analysis.
* Computational Psycholinguistics: This subfield explores the cognitive processes involved in language production and comprehension, using computational models to simulate how humans process language.
* Linguistic Resources and Corpora: Creating and maintaining linguistic resources, such as annotated text corpora and lexical databases, is crucial for training and evaluating computational linguistics models.
* Dialogue Systems: Also known as conversational agents or chatbots, these systems engage in natural language conversations with users. They find applications in customer support, virtual assistants, and interactive systems.
* Computational Phonetics: This subfield deals with the acoustic and perceptual aspects of speech, often focusing on aspects like speech recognition and speech synthesis.
* Morphology and Lexicon Processing: Morphology involves studying the structure of words, and lexicon processing deals with building and managing dictionaries and word databases.
* Cross-Lingual and Multilingual NLP: These subfields address challenges in processing and understanding languages beyond English, as well as developing models that can work with multiple languages.
These subfields often overlap and interact, leading to innovative approaches and technologies that enable computers to work with human language effectively."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]
===
"computational linguistics subfields
Computational linguistics is a broad field that encompasses many different subfields. Some of the most common subfields include:
* Machine translation is the task of automatically translating text from one language to another.
* Natural language processing (NLP) is a broader field that encompasses all tasks related to the interaction between computers and human language. This includes tasks such as text parsing, text summarization, and question answering.
* Speech recognition is the task of automatically recognizing spoken words.
* Speech synthesis is the task of automatically generating spoken words.
* Corpus linguistics is the study of large collections of text, or corpora. This can be used to study the statistical properties of language, or to develop new NLP algorithms.
* Parsing is the task of determining the grammatical structure of a sentence.
* Tagging is the task of assigning labels to words or phrases, such as their part of speech or their syntactic role.
* Semantics is the study of meaning in language. This can be used to develop NLP algorithms that can understand the meaning of text.
* Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. This can be used to develop NLP algorithms that can understand the meaning of text in a particular context.
These are just a few of the many subfields of computational linguistics. The field is constantly evolving, and new subfields are being developed all the time.
Here are some additional concepts in computational linguistics:
* Tokenization is the process of breaking a text into individual words or tokens.
* Stemming is the process of reducing inflected words to their stem.
* Lemmatization is the process of grouping together different inflected forms of a word under a single lemma.
* Named entity recognition is the task of identifying named entities in text, such as people, places, and organizations.
* Coreference resolution is the task of determining which words or phrases refer to the same entity.
* Question answering is the task of automatically answering questions posed in natural language.
Computational linguistics is a rapidly growing field with many exciting applications. As computers become more powerful and algorithms become more sophisticated, we can expect to see even more advances in this field in the years to come."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational.specific-tree,

relation-to-prescription of descriptive-linguistics

description::
"Linguistic description is often contrasted with linguistic prescription,[8] which is found especially in education and in publishing.[9][10]
As English-linguist Larry Andrews describes it, descriptive grammar is the linguistic approach which studies what a language is like, as opposed to prescriptive, which declares what a language should be like.[11]: 25  In other words, descriptive grammarians focus analysis on how all kinds of people in all sorts of environments, usually in more casual, everyday settings, communicate, whereas prescriptive grammarians focus on the grammatical rules and structures predetermined by linguistic registers and figures of power. An example that Andrews uses in his book is fewer than vs less than.[11]: 26  A descriptive grammarian would state that both statements are equally valid, as long as the meaning behind the statement can be understood. A prescriptive grammarian would analyze the rules and conventions behind both statements to determine which statement is correct or otherwise preferable. Andrews also believes that, although most linguists would be descriptive grammarians, most public school teachers tend to be prescriptive.[11]: 26 "
[{2023-09-22 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description#Descriptive_versus_prescriptive_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.desciptive-linguistics-relation-to-prescriptive,
* McsEngl.prescriptive-linguistics-relation-to-desciptive,

evoluting of generative-linguistics

description::
"evolution of generative-linguistics:
Generative linguistics is a theory of linguistics that aims to explain the structure of language and the way language is generated in the mind. It has evolved over several decades, with significant contributions from various linguists and researchers. Here is an overview of the evolution of generative linguistics:

1. Structuralism (Early 20th Century):
- Generative linguistics can be seen as a reaction to structuralism, which dominated linguistics in the early 20th century. Structuralists focused on analyzing the surface structure of languages and identifying patterns without delving into the underlying mental processes involved in language production and comprehension.

2. Transformational Grammar (1950s):
- Noam Chomsky's work in the 1950s marked the beginning of generative linguistics. He introduced transformational grammar, which aimed to describe the implicit knowledge that speakers of a language have about the underlying structure of sentences. Chomsky's book "Syntactic Structures" (1957) was a seminal work in this regard.

3. Chomskyan Revolution (1960s-1970s):
- Chomsky's ideas went through several phases of development, leading to the establishment of several generative theories such as Chomskyan transformational grammar, government and binding theory, and the minimalist program. These theories proposed formal rules and principles for generating sentences in natural languages and focused on deep structures and transformations that convert them into surface structures.

4. Universal Grammar:
- Chomsky introduced the concept of Universal Grammar (UG), which posits that there is a universal underlying structure shared by all human languages. UG is a part of the biological endowment of human beings and accounts for the similarities in the grammatical structure of languages around the world.

5. Generative Semantics (1960s-1970s):
- Generative semantics was a linguistic movement that emerged in response to transformational grammar. It proposed that meaning should be incorporated into the syntax of a sentence, leading to an emphasis on deep structures and their relationship to meaning. This approach was influential for a time but eventually fell out of favor.

6. Government and Binding Theory (1980s):
- Chomsky's government and binding theory incorporated more detailed principles for understanding the relationship between syntax and semantics. It introduced notions like government, binding, and the modular organization of language.

7. The Minimalist Program (1990s-Present):
- Chomsky's minimalist program is a more recent development in generative linguistics, which seeks to identify the simplest and most efficient principles of language generation. It aims to explain language with the fewest possible rules and components.

8. Current Developments (21st Century):
- Generative linguistics continues to evolve with ongoing debates and refinements. Researchers have explored various aspects of syntax, morphology, phonology, and semantics within the generative framework, and the field remains a dynamic and influential area of linguistic research.

It's important to note that generative linguistics is just one of many approaches to studying language, and it has faced criticism and challenges from other linguistic theories, such as cognitive linguistics and usage-based approaches. Nonetheless, generative linguistics has had a profound impact on the field of linguistics and has contributed significantly to our understanding of language structure and human cognition."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/737011d9-d137-46b4-a0e8-720ff44edb12]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-generative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.generative-linguistics'evoluting,