science.language
senso-concept-Mcs (sciLago)

McsHitp-creation:: {2023-08-28}

overview of sciLago

description::
· linguistics is the-science that studies the-human-mind-language.
· "In its broadest interpretation, the goal of linguistics is to discover how human languages are alike and how they differ, and to propose and test theories that explain the similarities and differences."
[{2023-06-05 retrieved} https://www.academia.edu/4975503/Joan_Bybee_eds_1994_The_Evolution_of_grammar]

name::
* McsEngl.McsEdu000010.last.html//dirEdu//dirMcs!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.dirEdu/McsEdu000010.last.html!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago!=McsEdu000010,
* McsEngl.sciLago!=science.human-mind-language, {2024-11-27}
* McsEngl.lagoHmnm'linguistics!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.langology!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.linguistics!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLagHmnm!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLang!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciMind.003-linguistics!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciMind.linguistics!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.science.language!⇒sciLago,
* McsEngl.science.linguistics!⇒sciLago,
====== langoChinese:
* McsZhon.yǔyánkēxué-语言科学!=sciLago,
* McsZhon.语言科学-yǔyánkēxué!=sciLago,
====== langoEsperanto:
* McsEspo.lingvistiko!=sciLago,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.γλωσσολογία!η!=sciLago,
* McsElln.επιστήμη-της-γλώσσας!η!=sciLago,

area-of-study of sciLago

description::
* human-mind-language,

"Questions in linguistics
* What is language?
* How did it/does it evolve?
* How does language serve as a medium of communication?
* How does language serve as a medium of thinking?
* What is common to all languages?
* How do languages differ?"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics#Questions_in_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'area-of-study,

unsolved-problem of sciLago

description::
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_linguistics,

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'unsolved-problem,

science-of-rlnEncoding of sciLago

description::
* grammar,
** morphology,
** syntax,

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/rlnEncoding,
* McsEngl.science-of-rlnEncoding//sciLago,

grammar (link) of sciLago

science-of-rlnDecoding of sciLago

description::
* grammar,
* semantics,
* pragmatics,

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/rlnDecoding,
* McsEngl.science-of-rlnDecoding//sciLago,

semantics of sciLago

description::
"Semantics (from Ancient Greek σημαντικός (sēmantikós) 'significant')[a][1] is the study of reference, meaning, or truth. The term can be used to refer to subfields of several distinct disciplines, including philosophy, linguistics and computer science."
[{2023-09-25 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'att001-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'semantics,
* McsEngl.semantics//sciLago,

relation-to-semasiology of semantics

description::
"semasiology vs semantics
Semasiology and semantics are two closely related fields of linguistics, both of which study the meaning of language. However, there is a subtle distinction between the two.
Semantics is the broader field, encompassing the study of all aspects of meaning, including:
* The meaning of individual words and phrases
* The meaning of sentences and larger units of discourse
* The relationship between meaning and other aspects of language, such as syntax and pragmatics
Semasiology, on the other hand, is more narrowly focused on the study of the meaning of words. It examines how words come to have their meanings, how their meanings change over time, and how they are related to each other in terms of meaning.
Another way to think about the difference between semasiology and semantics is that semasiology is concerned with the meaning of words "from the inside out", while semantics is concerned with the meaning of words "from the outside in". Semasiology looks at the internal structure of words and how their meaning is determined by their components. Semantics, on the other hand, looks at how the meaning of words is used in communication and how it is related to other aspects of language and the world around us.
Here are some examples of questions that semasiologists might ask:
* What is the meaning of the word "bank"?
* How did the word "bank" come to mean "a financial institution"?
* What is the relationship between the words "bank" and "riverbank"?
Here are some examples of questions that semanticists might ask:
* What is the meaning of the sentence "The bank is on the other side of the river"?
* How is the meaning of the word "bank" different in the sentences "I deposited my money in the bank" and "I sat on the bank of the river"?
* How does the meaning of the word "bank" change depending on the context in which it is used?
In practice, the distinction between semasiology and semantics is often blurred. Many linguists work in both areas, and there is a great deal of overlap between the two fields. However, understanding the difference between the two can be helpful for understanding the different ways in which meaning is studied in linguistics."
[{2023-09-25 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/fc0164614da08f0b]

name::
* McsEngl.semantics'relation-to-semasiology,
* McsEngl.semasiology'relation-to-semantics,

formal-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of formal-semantics:
Formal semantics is a branch of linguistics and philosophy that seeks to provide a precise and mathematical description of the meaning of language. It aims to create formal models that capture the inherent structure and rules governing the interpretation of natural language expressions. Here is an overview of formal semantics:

1. Compositionality: At the core of formal semantics is the principle of compositionality, which asserts that the meaning of a complex expression can be determined from the meanings of its parts and the way they are combined. This means that the meaning of a sentence is built up from the meanings of its individual words and their syntactic structure.

2. Formal Languages: Formal semantics often uses formal languages and mathematical notation to represent linguistic structures and their meanings. Predicate logic and lambda calculus are two common formal systems employed for this purpose. These formal languages allow for precise representation and manipulation of meaning.

3. Truth Conditions: Formal semantics is concerned with specifying the truth conditions of sentences. A truth condition describes the circumstances under which a sentence is considered true or false. This approach aims to link the semantics of language to the world of facts.

4. Semantics vs. Pragmatics: While formal semantics deals with the core meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics addresses how language is used in context to convey additional, implied meaning. Formal semantics primarily focuses on the literal meaning of sentences.

5. Types of Meaning: Formal semantics distinguishes between different types of meaning. Some key distinctions include:
- Truth-conditional meaning: The meaning that can be evaluated for truth or falsity.
- Compositional meaning: How words and phrases combine to form sentence meanings.
- Lexical meaning: The inherent meaning of individual words or phrases.
- Contextual meaning: How meaning can depend on the context in which a sentence is used.

6. Semantic Ambiguity: Formal semantics provides a way to handle semantic ambiguity, where a single word or phrase can have multiple interpretations or meanings. For example, the word "bank" can mean a financial institution or the side of a river.

7. Formal Analysis: The analysis of natural language expressions in formal semantics involves breaking down sentences into their constituent parts, assigning meaning to each part, and specifying how they combine to form the meaning of the whole sentence.

8. Model Theory: Model theory is a fundamental tool in formal semantics. It involves constructing models or interpretations that capture the semantics of sentences. These models often use set theory or other mathematical structures to represent the relationships between words and their meanings.

9. Formalization of Rules: Formal semantics also involves developing rules and algorithms for interpreting and generating sentences in a language. This may include rules for negation, quantification, tense, and other linguistic phenomena.

10. Cross-Linguistic Study: Formal semantics provides a framework for comparing and contrasting the meaning of expressions across different languages, aiding in the analysis of linguistic universals and language-specific variations.

In summary, formal semantics is a field of study that aims to provide a precise, mathematical, and systematic account of the meaning of language. It offers a structured framework for understanding how sentences are constructed and how their meanings are derived through compositional processes. This approach is essential for both linguistic analysis and natural language processing applications, such as machine translation and natural language understanding."
[{2023-10-14 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/e8c2e8fa-fd4a-4726-bd0e-3f39ac871600]

name::
* McsEngl.formal-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.035-formal-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.formal-semantics,

evoluting of formal-semantics

description::
"evolution of formal-semantics:
The evolution of formal semantics is a complex and ongoing process in the field of linguistics and philosophy. Formal semantics is the branch of linguistics that seeks to provide a mathematical and logical framework for understanding the meaning of natural language. Here is a brief overview of its evolution:

1. Pre-Formal Semantics (Ancient to 19th Century):
- Prior to the development of formal semantics, discussions of meaning in language were often philosophical and based on intuitions and interpretations.
- Ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle made foundational contributions to the understanding of meaning.
- In the 19th century, philosophers like Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Charles Sanders Peirce laid the groundwork for formal semantics by developing systems of logic and exploring issues related to reference, predication, and quantification.

2. Early Formal Semantics (20th Century):
- The early 20th century saw the development of formal logical systems that were applied to natural language.
- Alfred Tarski's work on truth and semantics, particularly his model-theoretic approach, was instrumental in the formalization of meaning.
- Richard Montague, a philosopher and logician, made significant contributions by introducing lambda calculus and using formal logic to describe the syntax and semantics of natural language.

3. Transformational Grammar and Generative Semantics (1950s-1960s):
- The development of generative grammar by Noam Chomsky and the parallel emergence of generative semantics aimed to provide a formal framework for the syntax and semantics of language.
- Chomsky's transformational grammar focused on the syntactic aspects, while generative semantics sought to provide a more direct link between syntax and semantics.

4. Compositional Semantics (1970s-Present):
- Compositional semantics, also known as truth-conditional semantics, has been a dominant approach. It emphasizes the composition of sentence meanings from the meanings of their parts.
- This approach relies on formal logic, predicate calculus, and lambda calculus to represent the meaning of sentences.
- Montague grammar, based on the work of Richard Montague, is a prime example of a compositional semantics framework.

5. Dynamic Semantics and Pragmatics (1980s-Present):
- Dynamic semantics and pragmatics go beyond compositional semantics to consider how meaning is influenced by context, speaker intentions, and conversational implicatures.
- Researchers like Irene Heim and Robert Stalnaker have made important contributions to dynamic semantics and the study of presuppositions and implicatures.

6. Cross-Linguistic and Cognitive Semantics (Late 20th Century-Present):
- The field has evolved to explore linguistic diversity and cognitive aspects of meaning, considering how different languages express meaning and how the human mind processes it.
- Cognitive semantics, as developed by George Lakoff and others, examines how cognitive structures and metaphors shape linguistic meaning.

7. Computational Semantics (Late 20th Century-Present):
- Computational linguistics has embraced formal semantics for applications in natural language processing and artificial intelligence. It has led to the development of formal representations like semantic role labeling and knowledge graphs.

Formal semantics continues to evolve with ongoing research into new mathematical tools, cross-linguistic variations, and the cognitive foundations of meaning. It remains a dynamic and critical component of linguistics and the study of language meaning."
[{2023-10-18 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/3d01ae73-72e1-4925-a53a-fe9cbfcaf020]

"evolution of formal-semantics:
Formal semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of natural language using formal logic. It emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, influenced by the work of logicians such as Alfred Tarski and Gottlob Frege, and philosophers of language such as J.L. Austin and P.F. Strawson.

One of the key early figures in the development of formal semantics was Richard Montague. Montague's work was inspired by the idea that the meaning of a sentence can be derived from the meanings of its individual parts and the way in which they are combined. He proposed a formal system for representing the meaning of sentences, which he called Intensional Logic.

Montague's work was highly influential, and it led to a flurry of research activity in formal semantics in the 1970s and 1980s. During this period, many new theories and models were developed, and formal semantics became a core area of linguistic research.

One of the most important developments in formal semantics during this period was the development of type-driven theories of meaning. Type-driven theories are based on the idea that the meanings of words and phrases are determined by their types. For example, the word "cat" is of type `e`, which means that it refers to an entity. The phrase "the cat sat on the mat" is of type `t`, which means that it is a truth-valued statement.

Type-driven theories have been very successful in accounting for a wide range of semantic phenomena, including the meaning of quantifiers, modals, and tense. They have also been used to develop computational models of meaning, which are used in natural language processing and machine translation.

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the intersection of formal semantics and other areas of linguistics, such as pragmatics and syntax. This has led to the development of new theories and models that account for the role of context and grammatical structure in meaning.

Here is a brief overview of some of the major developments in formal semantics over the past 50 years:
* **1960s:** Richard Montague develops Intensional Logic, a formal system for representing the meaning of sentences.
* **1970s:** Type-driven theories of meaning are developed.
* **1980s:** Formal semantics becomes a core area of linguistic research.
* **1990s:** There is a growing interest in the intersection of formal semantics and other areas of linguistics, such as pragmatics and syntax.
* **2000s-present:** New theories and models are developed that account for the role of context and grammatical structure in meaning.

Formal semantics is a dynamic and rapidly evolving field of research. It is a field that is at the forefront of our understanding of how language works, and it continues to make important contributions to our understanding of human cognition and communication."
[{2023-10-18 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/50f6cd0a50fd808a]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-formal-semantics,
* McsEngl.formal-semantics'evoluting,

cognitive-semantics of sciLago

description::
× whole: cognitive-linguistics,

"overview of cognitive-semantics:
Cognitive semantics is a theoretical approach within the field of linguistics that views language as a reflection of human cognition and conceptual structures. It places a strong emphasis on the relationship between language and thought, suggesting that language is shaped by how humans conceptualize the world. Here's an overview of cognitive semantics:

1. Conceptualization and Meaning:
- Cognitive semantics posits that linguistic meaning is not just a product of formal structures (as in formal semantics) but is deeply rooted in human cognition.
- It asserts that meaning is fundamentally conceptual, and language is a vehicle for expressing those concepts.

2. Image Schemas:
- Image schemas are basic, recurring patterns of sensory-motor experiences that shape our understanding of the world. Cognitive semantics posits that these image schemas underlie abstract and concrete meanings in language.
- For example, the "container schema" helps us understand concepts related to containment, such as 'in,' 'out,' 'inside,' and 'outside.'

3. Metaphor and Metonymy:
- Cognitive semantics highlights the pervasive role of metaphor and metonymy in language. Metaphors are mappings between conceptual domains, and metonymy involves the use of one concept to represent another related concept.
- For example, the metaphor "time is money" conceptualizes time as a valuable resource to be spent and saved.

4. Prototype Theory:
- Cognitive semantics draws on prototype theory to explain how we categorize and understand concepts. Prototype theory suggests that categories are not defined by strict boundaries but by prototypical examples.
- For instance, when we think of the category "bird," we might first think of a prototypical bird like a sparrow, and other creatures are categorized as birds to varying degrees.

5. Conceptual Blending:
- Cognitive semantics uses the concept of conceptual blending to explain how we create new meanings and understand complex situations. This involves blending different conceptual frames or mental spaces to form a coherent interpretation.
- Conceptual blending is at work when we understand humor, irony, or create novel metaphors.

6. Embodied Cognition:
- This approach emphasizes the role of the body and sensory experiences in shaping concepts and language. It argues that our physical experiences influence the way we think and use language.
- For example, the concept of "up" is associated with positive emotions in many languages, reflecting our bodily experiences of looking up when we're happy.

7. Polysemy:
- Cognitive semantics accounts for polysemy, the phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings. It suggests that these meanings are related by underlying conceptual structures.
- For instance, the word "hand" has multiple meanings, but all are related to the concept of grasping or manipulating objects.

8. Embodied and Experiential Grounding:
- Cognitive semantics emphasizes grounding language in real-world experiences and sensory perceptions, making it more accessible and meaningful to speakers.
- For example, when we say "I see what you mean," we connect the act of understanding to the visual experience of seeing.

Cognitive semantics has had a significant impact on linguistics, cognitive science, and the study of meaning in language. It provides a rich framework for understanding how language and thought are intertwined and how conceptual structures underlie linguistic expressions."
[{2023-10-18 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/3d01ae73-72e1-4925-a53a-fe9cbfcaf020]

name::
* McsEngl.cognitive-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.037-cognitive-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.cognitive-semantics,

computational-semantics of sciLago

description::
"computational semantics:
Computational semantics is a field of study at the intersection of linguistics and computer science. It focuses on developing computational models and algorithms to extract meaning from natural language text or speech. The primary goal of computational semantics is to enable computers to understand and generate human language in a way that is both meaningful and useful.

Key aspects of computational semantics include:
1. **Semantic Representation:** This involves representing the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a form that can be processed by computers. Common representations include semantic networks, predicate-argument structures, and formal logic.

2. **Semantic Parsing:** Semantic parsing is the process of automatically extracting structured semantic representations from natural language text. This is particularly important for tasks like question answering and information retrieval.

3. **Word Sense Disambiguation:** Many words have multiple meanings (polysemy), and word sense disambiguation aims to determine the correct sense of a word in a given context.

4. **Anaphora Resolution:** Anaphora resolution deals with resolving references in text. For example, determining what a pronoun like "he" or "it" refers to.

5. **Textual Entailment and Inference:** This involves determining whether one statement logically follows from another. For example, given the statement "John owns a cat" and "John has a pet," determining whether it can be inferred that the pet is a cat.

6. **Natural Language Understanding:** This encompasses the broader goal of enabling computers to understand and interpret natural language, taking into account the context and semantics. This is important for applications like chatbots, virtual assistants, and information retrieval systems.

7. **Semantic Web:** In the context of the Semantic Web, computational semantics is used to annotate web content with machine-readable semantics, enabling more sophisticated searches and automated reasoning.

8. **Ontologies:** Ontologies are formal representations of knowledge that define concepts and their relationships. They are used in computational semantics to provide a structured foundation for understanding and reasoning about the world.

9. **Machine Learning and NLP:** Many computational semantics tasks involve the use of machine learning techniques, including deep learning models, to learn and extract semantic information from text.

Overall, computational semantics plays a crucial role in various natural language processing (NLP) applications, such as machine translation, sentiment analysis, information retrieval, and chatbots, by enabling computers to understand and generate human language in a way that goes beyond mere syntactic analysis."
[{2023-10-20 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/0af0bd57-e782-489f-b9bc-9c0c7fe8cd01]

name::
* McsEngl.computational-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att004-computational-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'computational-semantics,

frame-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of frame-semantics:
**Frame semantics** is a theory of lexical meaning that describes the meaning of words in terms of frames, which are conceptual structures that represent the basic types of situations that we experience. Frames are typically made up of a set of **frame elements**, which are the participants and roles in the situation. For example, the frame for the verb **give** might have the following frame elements:
* Giver
* Recipient
* Theme (the thing that is given)

A sentence like "John gave Mary the book" would be described as an instance of the **give** frame, with John as the Giver, Mary as the Recipient, and the book as the Theme.

Frame semantics is based on the idea that our understanding of the meaning of words is closely tied to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations. When we hear or read a word, we automatically activate the frame associated with that word, which helps us to understand the meaning of the word in the context of the sentence.

Frame semantics has a number of advantages over other theories of lexical meaning. First, it provides a more comprehensive account of the meaning of words, taking into account both the literal and figurative senses of words. Second, it allows for the fact that the meaning of a word can vary depending on the context in which it is used. Third, it provides a way to relate the meaning of words to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations.

Frame semantics has been used in a variety of applications, including natural language processing, machine translation, and corpus linguistics. It has also been used to develop new methods for teaching vocabulary and reading comprehension.

**Here is an example of how frame semantics can be used to analyze the meaning of a sentence:**
> The cat sat on the mat.

This sentence can be analyzed as an instance of the **sitting** frame, which has the following frame elements:
* Sitter
* Surface

The Sitter in this sentence is the cat, and the Surface is the mat.

We can also use frame semantics to understand the relationship between different words in a sentence. For example, the word "on" in the sentence "The cat sat on the mat" indicates that the cat is in physical contact with the mat. This is because the **sitting** frame typically includes the **in contact** relation between the Sitter and the Surface.

Frame semantics is a powerful tool for understanding the meaning of words and sentences. It is based on the idea that our understanding of language is closely tied to our knowledge of the world and our experience of different situations."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/7b6b4e099b8acdc9]

name::
* McsEngl.frame-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att003-frame-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'frame-semantics,

descriptionLong::
"overview of frame-semantics:
Frame semantics is a linguistic theory and framework developed by Charles J. Fillmore, primarily in the 1970s and 1980s. It provides an alternative approach to understanding word meaning and sentence structure, emphasizing the role of cognitive frames and conceptual structures in shaping the meaning of language. Here's an overview of frame semantics:

1. **Conceptual Frames**: Frame semantics posits that our understanding of words and sentences is shaped by mental structures called "frames." Frames are cognitive structures that represent stereotypical situations, scenarios, or activities. These frames serve as mental templates that help us make sense of the world.

2. **Frame Elements**: Within a frame, there are various components or frame elements. These elements are roles played by participants or entities in a given situation. For example, in the frame of a "restaurant," frame elements might include "customer," "waiter," "menu," and "food."

3. **Frame-to-Frame Relations**: Frame semantics acknowledges that frames are not isolated entities but are interconnected. They can be related to each other in various ways. For instance, the "restaurant" frame might be related to the "eating" frame, as they share common elements like "food" and "customer."

4. **Semantic Roles**: Frame semantics assigns specific semantic roles to frame elements. These roles include "Agent," "Experiencer," "Theme," "Goal," and others, which indicate the function of a participant in a frame. The same word can take on different roles in different frames.

5. **Metaphor and Metonymy**: Frame semantics highlights the role of metaphor and metonymy in shaping word meanings. Words often take on meanings based on conceptual mappings from one frame to another. For example, the word "argument" in the context of a debate is derived from the "war" frame, where debates are metaphorically viewed as battles.

6. **Frame Evocation**: When we encounter a word or phrase, it often evokes a frame in our minds. For example, the word "doctor" evokes a medical frame, including elements like "hospital," "patient," and "stethoscope."

7. **Invariance Principle**: The Invariance Principle in frame semantics suggests that there is a core meaning associated with a word that remains relatively stable across different frames. This principle helps explain how words maintain a sense of identity while taking on different roles in various frames.

8. **Applications**: Frame semantics has been applied to various aspects of linguistics and language analysis, including the study of polysemy (multiple word meanings), lexical semantics, syntax, and semantics of verbs. It has also had implications in computational linguistics, natural language processing, and machine learning.

9. **FrameNet**: Frame semantics led to the creation of FrameNet, a large-scale computational lexical database that annotates words and phrases with their associated frames and frame elements. FrameNet has been influential in natural language processing, especially in semantic role labeling and information extraction tasks.

In summary, frame semantics provides a cognitive approach to understanding how word meanings and sentence structures are shaped by our mental representations of the world. It emphasizes the role of frames and frame elements in interpreting language and has practical applications in both linguistics and computational linguistics."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d8cc4302-fde7-4175-b902-01a8fba7d9ca]

"Frame semantics is a theory of linguistic meaning developed by Charles J. Fillmore[1] that extends his earlier case grammar. It relates linguistic semantics to encyclopedic knowledge. The basic idea is that one cannot understand the meaning of a single word without access to all the essential knowledge that relates to that word. For example, one would not be able to understand the word "sell" without knowing anything about the situation of commercial transfer, which also involves, among other things, a seller, a buyer, goods, money, the relation between the money and the goods, the relations between the seller and the goods and the money, the relation between the buyer and the goods and the money and so on. Thus, a word activates, or evokes, a frame of semantic knowledge relating to the specific concept to which it refers (or highlights, in frame semantic terminology).

The idea of the encyclopedic organisation of knowledge itself is old and was discussed by Age of Enlightenment philosophers such as Denis Diderot[2] and Giambattista Vico.[3] Fillmore and other evolutionary and cognitive linguists like John Haiman and Adele Goldberg, however, make an argument against generative grammar and truth-conditional semantics. As is elementary for Lakoffian–Langackerian Cognitive Linguistics, it is claimed that knowledge of language is no different from other types of knowledge; therefore there is no grammar in the traditional sense, and language is not an independent cognitive function.[4] Instead, the spreading and survival of linguistic units is directly comparable to that of other types of units of cultural evolution, like in memetics and other cultural replicator theories.[5][6][7]"
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_semantics_(linguistics)]

lexical-semantics of sciLago

description::
"overview of lexical-semantics:
Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the study of word meanings and how words convey meaning within a language. It involves examining the relationship between words, their meanings, and the structure of a language. Here's an overview of key concepts and aspects of lexical semantics:

1. **Word Meaning**: Lexical semantics is primarily concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words. It explores how words convey information, and how they interact with other words to form coherent sentences.

2. **Lexical Relations**: Lexical semantics investigates the various types of relationships that exist between words. Common lexical relations include synonymy (words with similar meanings), antonymy (words with opposite meanings), hyponymy (subordinate categories), and hypernymy (superordinate categories).

3. **Polysemy and Homonymy**: Words can have multiple meanings, which can be related (polysemy) or unrelated (homonymy). Lexical semantics studies these phenomena and how context helps disambiguate meanings.

4. **Sense and Reference**: The distinction between the sense (conceptual meaning) and reference (real-world entity) of a word is a central concept in lexical semantics. This distinction is essential for understanding how language represents the world.

5. **Semantic Roles**: Lexical semantics examines the roles that words play in relation to each other in a sentence. For example, in a transitive sentence like "John ate pizza," "John" is the agent, and "pizza" is the patient.

6. **Semantic Features**: Words can be analyzed in terms of semantic features or attributes. For example, the word "cat" can be described with features like [+animate], [+mammal], and [+domestic].

7. **Thematic Roles**: Thematic roles are the roles that nouns play within a verb's predicate structure. Common thematic roles include agent, theme, experiencer, and instrument.

8. **Lexical Semantics Theories**: Lexical semantics is informed by various theoretical approaches, including structural semantics, cognitive semantics, and frame semantics. These theories provide different frameworks for analyzing word meanings.

9. **Pragmatics**: Lexical semantics is closely related to pragmatics, as it deals with how words are used in context to convey meaning. Pragmatics helps explain how conversational implicatures, presuppositions, and speech acts influence word meaning.

10. **Cross-Linguistic Variation**: Lexical semantics also examines how word meanings vary across different languages. This includes investigating how concepts are expressed, what words are available to convey certain meanings, and how languages categorize the world differently.

11. **Computational Lexical Semantics**: Advances in natural language processing (NLP) and computational linguistics have led to the development of computational models for lexical semantics. Word embeddings, semantic networks, and ontologies are used to represent and process word meanings in large text corpora.

12. **Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics**: Lexical semantics is informed by research in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, which study how words are processed in the human mind and the neural basis of word meaning.

Overall, lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding how language conveys meaning, and it has implications for various fields, including linguistics, cognitive science, natural language processing, and language teaching. It helps uncover the intricate relationships between words, meanings, and the structure of language."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d8cc4302-fde7-4175-b902-01a8fba7d9ca]

name::
* McsEngl.lexical-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'att002-lexical-semantics,
* McsEngl.sciLago'lexical-semantics,

evoluting of lexical-semantics

description::
"evolution of lexical-semantics:
The evolution of lexical semantics refers to the changes and developments in how words and their meanings have been studied and understood over time. This field of linguistics has seen significant shifts in theory and methodology. Here is a brief overview of the evolution of lexical semantics:

1. **Historical Perspective**: The study of word meanings dates back to ancient linguists and philosophers, but systematic approaches to lexical semantics began to emerge in the 20th century.

2. **Structural Semantics**: Early structuralist approaches focused on analyzing the relationships between words in a language and their meaning. This led to the development of semantic networks and thesauri, such as WordNet.

3. **Distributional Semantics**: In the mid-20th century, there was a shift towards distributional semantics. This approach is based on the idea that the meaning of a word can be understood by examining its distribution in a large corpus of text. It gave rise to techniques like Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA).

4. **Componential Analysis**: This approach aims to break down word meanings into smaller semantic components or features. For example, the word "cat" could be analyzed as [+animate], [+mammal], [+domestic], and so on.

5. **Prototype Theory**: The prototype theory, introduced by Eleanor Rosch in the 1970s, emphasizes the role of prototypes or typical examples in our understanding of word meanings. It suggests that words have central and peripheral examples, and our understanding of a category is based on these prototypes.

6. **Cognitive Semantics**: Cognitive semantics, influenced by the work of George Lakoff, focuses on the role of human cognition and conceptual structures in shaping word meanings. It introduced concepts like image schemas and conceptual metaphors.

7. **Frame Semantics**: Charles Fillmore's frame semantics argues that word meanings are linked to specific cognitive frames. For example, the word "restaurant" is associated with a frame that includes elements like food, customers, and staff.

8. **Construction Grammar**: Construction grammar extends the study of word meanings to the study of grammatical constructions. It suggests that word meanings are closely tied to the grammatical structures in which they appear.

9. **Usage-Based Semantics**: This approach, rooted in cognitive linguistics, emphasizes the role of language usage in shaping word meanings. It argues that word meanings are derived from patterns of language use and experience.

10. **Neurocognitive Approaches**: Recent advances in cognitive neuroscience have provided insights into the neural basis of word meanings. Studies using techniques like fMRI have explored how word meanings are represented in the brain.

11. **Semantic Networks and Word Embeddings**: Modern computational approaches, like word embeddings (e.g., Word2Vec, GloVe), use large-scale data and neural networks to represent word meanings in high-dimensional vector spaces. These methods have significantly impacted natural language processing and understanding.

The evolution of lexical semantics reflects both theoretical shifts and advancements in computational tools. Researchers continue to explore and refine our understanding of how words acquire and convey meaning, integrating insights from linguistics, cognitive science, and computer science."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d8cc4302-fde7-4175-b902-01a8fba7d9ca]

name::
* McsEngl.lexical-semantics'evolution,

semasiology of sciLago

description::
"Semasiology (from Greek: σημασία, semasia, "signification") is a discipline of linguistics concerned with the question "what does the word X mean?". It studies the meaning of words regardless how they are pronounced.[1] It is the opposite of onomasiology, a branch of lexicology that starts with a concept or object and asks for its name, i.e., "how do you express X?" whereas semasiology starts with a word and asks for its meanings.
The exact meaning of semasiology is somewhat obscure. It is often used as a synonym of semantics (the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and longer forms of expression).[2] However, semasiology is also sometimes considered part of lexical semantics, a narrow subfield of lexicology (the study of words) and semantics.
The term was first used in German by Christian Karl Reisig in 1825 in his work, [Lectures on Latin Linguistics] (German: Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft), and was used in English by 1847. Semantics replaced it in its original meaning, beginning in 1893."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semasiology]

name::
* McsEngl.semasiology//sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago/semasiology,

science-of-context of sciLago

description::
· the-science of context.
"The study of context in linguistics is called pragmatics. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of how context affects the meaning of language. It is a complex and challenging field of study, but it is essential for understanding how language is used in real-world communication."
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.pragmatics//sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago/pragmatics,
* McsEngl.science-of-context//sciLago,

science-of-names of sciLago

description::
· the-science of names.

name::
* McsEngl.science-of-names!⇒sciName,
* McsEngl.sciLago/sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName!=science.human-mind-lang'names,
* McsEngl.sciName//sciLago,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.ονοματολογία!=sciName,

lexicon of sciName

description::
"lexicon vs vocabulary vs dictionary vs glossary
Certainly, let's clarify the differences between these terms:
* Lexicon: A lexicon is a comprehensive collection of words and phrases within a language, along with their meanings, pronunciations, grammatical information, and sometimes cultural or historical context. It represents the entire vocabulary of a language and provides a deeper understanding of how words are used and related to each other.
* Vocabulary: Vocabulary refers to the specific set of words that an individual or a group of people knows and uses in their communication. It's a subset of the larger lexicon. A person's vocabulary might include words they commonly use and understand, while the lexicon encompasses all words existing in the language.
* Dictionary: A dictionary is a reference book or digital resource that compiles words from a language's lexicon along with their definitions, pronunciations, parts of speech, and sometimes example sentences or phrases. Dictionaries are used to look up the meanings and usages of words that are unfamiliar or unclear.
* Glossary: A glossary is a specialized type of list that provides explanations or definitions for terms, phrases, or words used within a specific context, field, or subject area. Glossaries are often found in textbooks, technical manuals, or academic papers to clarify terminology for readers who might not be familiar with the specialized jargon of the subject.
In summary, while all these terms are related to language and words, they have distinct meanings:
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.lexicon//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/lexicon,

vocabulary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.vocabulary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/vocabulary,

terminology of sciName

description::
"terminology vs vocabulary
"Terminology" and "vocabulary" are related concepts in the realm of language and communication, but they have distinct meanings:
* Vocabulary: Vocabulary refers to the set of words that an individual, community, or group of people knows and uses in their communication. It encompasses the words one is familiar with and can employ in speech or writing. Vocabulary can be broad or limited, depending on a person's language proficiency, interests, and exposure. It's a more general term that describes the range of words a person uses across various contexts.
* Terminology: Terminology, on the other hand, is a specialized subset of vocabulary that is specific to a particular field, subject, or domain. It consists of technical terms, jargon, and specialized language used within a certain profession, industry, discipline, or area of study. Terminology is characterized by its precision and often has well-defined meanings within its context. It's used to convey nuanced concepts and ideas accurately and efficiently among experts within that domain.
In summary, vocabulary is the broader collection of words that a person knows and uses, while terminology refers to the specialized language and terms used within a particular field or domain."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.terminology//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/terminology,

dictionary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.dictionary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/dictionary,

glossary of sciName

description::
* Lexicon: The complete set of words and phrases in a language, including meanings and linguistic details.
* Vocabulary: The subset of words that an individual or group knows and uses.
* Dictionary: A comprehensive reference containing definitions, pronunciations, and other word-related information.
* Glossary: A list of specialized terms with explanations, typically in a specific field or context."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.glossary//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/glossary,

jargon of sciName

description::
"Jargon is the specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity.[1] Jargon is normally employed in a particular communicative context and may not be well understood outside that context. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, vernacular or academic field), but any ingroup can have jargon. The main trait that distinguishes jargon from the rest of a language is special vocabulary—including some words specific to it and often different senses or meanings of words, that outgroups would tend to take in another sense—therefore misunderstanding that communication attempt. Jargon is sometimes understood as a form of technical slang and then distinguished from the official terminology used in a particular field of activity.[2]
The terms jargon, slang, and argot are not consistently differentiated in the literature; different authors interpret these concepts in varying ways. According to one definition, jargon differs from slang in being secretive in nature;[3] according to another understanding, it is specifically associated with professional and technical circles.[4] Some sources, however, treat these terms as synonymous.[5][6] In Russian linguistics, jargon is classified as an expressive form of language, while secret languages are referred to as argots.[7] The use of jargon became more popular around the sixteenth century attracting persons from different career paths. This led to there being printed copies available on the various forms of jargon.[8]"
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon]

name::
* McsEngl.jargon//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/jargon,

ISO/TC-37 of sciName

description::
"ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards and other documents concerning methodology and principles for terminology and language resources.
Title: Terminology and other language and content resources
Scope: Standardization of principles, methods and applications relating to terminology and other language and content resources in the contexts of multilingual communication and cultural diversity
ISO/TC 37 is a so-called "horizontal committee", providing guidelines for all other technical committees that develop standards on how to manage their terminological problems. However, the standards developed by ISO/TC 37 are not restricted to ISO. Collaboration with industry is sought to ensure that the requirements and needs from all possible users of standards concerning terminology, language and structured content are duly and timely addressed.
Involvement in standards development is open to all stakeholders and requests can be made to the TC through any liaison or member organization (see the list of current members and liaisons of ISO/TC 37:[1])
ISO/TC 37 standards are therefore fundamental and should form the basis for many localization, translation, and other industry applications."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/TC_37]

name::
* McsEngl.ISO/TC-37//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/ISO/TC-37,

onomasiology of sciName

description::
"Onomasiology (from Greek: ὀνομάζω onomāzο 'to name', which in turn is from ὄνομα onoma 'name') is a branch of linguistics concerned with the question "how do you express X?" It is in fact most commonly understood as a branch of lexicology, the study of words (although some apply the term also to grammar and conversation).
Onomasiology, as a part of lexicology, starts from a concept which is taken to be prior[1] (i.e. an idea, an object, a quality, an activity etc.) and asks for its names. The opposite approach is known as semasiology: here one starts with a word and asks what it means, or what concepts the word refers to. Thus, an onomasiological question is, e.g., "what are the names for long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried?" (answers: french fries in the US, chips in the UK, etc.), while a semasiological question is, e.g., "what is the meaning of the term chips?" (answers: 'long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried' in the UK, 'slim slices of potatoes deep fried or baked until crisp' in the US).
Onomasiology can be carried out synchronically or diachronically, i.e. historically."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomasiology]

name::
* McsEngl.onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciName/onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.034-onomasiology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.onomasiology,

lexicology of sciName

description::
· the-science of words.

name::
* McsEngl.lexicology//sciName!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.lexicography!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciLago.033-lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciLago.lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciName/lexicology!⇒sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciWord,
* McsEngl.word'science!⇒sciWord,

descriptionLong::
"Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that analyzes the lexicon of a specific language. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language that can stand on its own, and is made up of small components called morphemes and even smaller elements known as phonemes, or distinguishing sounds. Lexicology examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage, and definition.[1]
Lexicology also considers the relationships that exist between words. In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is composed of lexemes, which are abstract units of meaning that correspond to a set of related forms of a word. Lexicology looks at how words can be broken down as well as identifies common patterns they follow.[2]
Lexicology is associated with lexicography, which is the practice of compiling dictionaries.[3]"
[{2022-01-11 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicology]
===

lexicography of sciWord

description::
"lexicology vs lexicography
Lexicology and lexicography are two closely related fields within the study of language, but they focus on different aspects of words and dictionaries.
1. Lexicology:
- Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of words, their structure, meaning, and relationships within a language.
- It explores the internal structure of words, including their morphology (word formation), semantics (meaning), and etymology (word origins).
- Lexicologists are interested in how words are formed, how their meanings evolve over time, and how they are used in different contexts.
- Lexicology is primarily concerned with the analysis of words and their properties.
2. Lexicography:
- Lexicography, on the other hand, is the practice and study of compiling, editing, and writing dictionaries.
- It involves the creation and maintenance of dictionaries, glossaries, and other reference works that catalog words, their meanings, pronunciations, usage examples, and related information.
- Lexicographers collect, analyze, and document the vocabulary of a language and organize it in a systematic way for easy reference.
- Lexicography is primarily concerned with the practical aspects of dictionary making and usage.
In summary, lexicology is the theoretical study of words and their linguistic properties, while lexicography is the practical discipline of creating and maintaining dictionaries and other reference materials. Lexicologists investigate how words function within a language, while lexicographers compile and present this information in dictionary form for users to access."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d3a17665-768d-4a39-8d6a-b9d8bb4ee8df]

name::
* McsEngl.lexicography'relation-to-lexicology,
* McsEngl.lexicology'relation-to-lexicography,

lexicography of sciWord

description::
"In summary, lexicology is the theoretical study of words and their linguistic properties, while lexicography is the practical discipline of creating and maintaining dictionaries and other reference materials. Lexicologists investigate how words function within a language, while lexicographers compile and present this information in dictionary form for users to access."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d3a17665-768d-4a39-8d6a-b9d8bb4ee8df]

name::
* McsEngl.lexicography,
* McsEngl.sciLago.031-lexicography,
* McsEngl.sciLago.lexicography,

descriptionLong::
"Lexicography is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate but equally important academic disciplines:
* Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
* Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly study of semantic, orthographic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic features of lexemes of the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situations, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries. This is sometimes referred to as 'metalexicography'.
There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology, as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language."
[{2022-01-11 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography]

morphology of sciWord

description::
· morphology is the-science of word formation.

name::
* McsEngl.morphology//sciWord,
* McsEngl.sciLago.032-morphology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.morphology,
* McsEngl.sciWord/morphology,

descriptionLong::
"In linguistics, morphology (/mɔːrˈfɒlədʒi/[1]) is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language.[2][3] It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Morphology also looks at parts of speech, intonation and stress, and the ways context can change a word's pronunciation and meaning. Morphology differs from morphological typology, which is the classification of languages based on their use of words,[4] and lexicology, which is the study of words and how they make up a language's vocabulary.[5]
While words, along with clitics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", only found bound to noun phrases. Speakers of English, a fusional language, recognize these relations from their innate knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; and, in similar fashion, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and depending on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ["Mandarin"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
Phonological and orthographic modifications between a base word and its origin may be partial to literacy skills. Studies have indicated that the presence of modification in phonology and orthography makes morphologically complex words harder to understand and that the absence of modification between a base word and its origin makes morphologically complex words easier to understand. Morphologically complex words are easier to comprehend when they include a base word.[6]
Polysynthetic languages, such as Chukchi, have words composed of many morphemes. For example, the Chukchi word "təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən", meaning "I have a fierce headache", is composed of eight morphemes t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən that may be glossed. The morphology of such languages allows for each consonant and vowel to be understood as morphemes, while the grammar of the language indicates the usage and understanding of each morpheme.
The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is morphophonology."
[{2022-01-12 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)]

nomenclature of sciName

description::
"Nomenclature (UK: /nəˈmɛŋkləˌtʃər/, US: /ˈnoʊmənˌkleɪtʃər/)[1][2] is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences.[3] The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms used in scientific and any other disciplines.[4]
Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language.
Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and descriptive linguistics.
The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems.[citation needed] Probably the best known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of organisms."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.nomenclature,
* McsEngl.sciName/nomenclature,
"The word nomenclature is derived from the Latin nomen ('name'), and calare ('to call'). The Latin term nomenclatura refers to a list of names, as does the word nomenclator, which can also indicate a provider or announcer of names."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature]

nomenclature.chemical

description::
"A chemical nomenclature is a set of rules to generate systematic names for chemical compounds. The nomenclature used most frequently worldwide is the one created and developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
The IUPAC's rules for naming organic and inorganic compounds are contained in two publications, known as the Blue Book[1][2] and the Red Book,[3] respectively. A third publication, known as the Green Book,[4] describes the recommendations for the use of symbols for physical quantities (in association with the IUPAP), while a fourth, the Gold Book,[5] contains the definitions of many technical terms used in chemistry. Similar compendia exist for biochemistry[6] (the White Book, in association with the IUBMB), analytical chemistry[7] (the Orange Book), macromolecular chemistry[8] (the Purple Book) and clinical chemistry[9] (the Silver Book). These "color books" are supplemented by shorter recommendations for specific circumstances that are published periodically in the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.chimical-nomenclature,
* McsEngl.nomenclature.chimical,

terminology-science of sciName

description::
· the-science of terms.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'terminology-science!⇒sciTerm,
* McsEngl.sciTerm,
* McsEngl.sciTerm!=science.human-mind-lang'term,
* McsEngl.terminology-science!⇒sciTerm,

descriptionLong::
"Terminology is a group of specialized words and respective meanings in a particular field, and also the study of such terms and their use;[1] the latter meaning is also known as terminology science. A term is a word, compound word, or multi-word expressions that in specific contexts is given specific meanings—these may deviate from the meanings the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language.[2] Terminology is a discipline that studies, among other things, the development of such terms and their interrelationships within a specialized domain. Terminology differs from lexicography, as it involves the study of concepts, conceptual systems and their labels (terms), whereas lexicography studies words and their meanings.
Terminology is a discipline that systematically studies the "labelling or designating of concepts" particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity. It does this through the research and analysis of terms in context for the purpose of documenting and promoting consistent usage. Terminology can be limited to one or more languages (for example, "multilingual terminology" and "bilingual terminology"), or may have an interdisciplinarity focus on the use of terms in different fields."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology#Science]

theory of terminology

description::
"erminological theories include general theory of terminology,[7] socioterminology,[8] communicative theory of terminology,[9] sociocognitive terminology,[10] and frame-based terminology.[11]"
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology#Terminological_theories]

name::
* McsEngl.terminology'theory,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of terminology

generic-tree-of-terminology::
* ,
* ... entity,
* McsEngl.terminology'generic-tree,

specific-tree-of-terminology::
"As the result of development and specialising of terminological studies, some of the branches of terminology science – such as typological terminology science, semasiological terminology science, terminological derivatology, comparative terminology science, terminography, functional terminology science, cognitive terminology science, historical terminology science and some branch terminology sciences – have gained the status of independent scientific disciplines."
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology#Terminology_as_a_discipline]
* McsEngl.terminology.specific-tree,

onomatology of sciName

description::
"Onomastics or onomatology is the study of the etymology, history, and use of proper names.[1] An orthonym is the proper name of the object in question, the object of onomastic study.
Onomastics can be helpful in data mining, with applications such as named-entity recognition, or recognition of the origin of names.[2][3] It has also been used in historical research to identify ethnic minorities within wider populations.[4][5]"
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomastics]
"The study of proper names is known as onomastics, which has a wide-ranging scope that encompasses all names, languages, and geographical regions, as well as cultural areas.[5]
The distinction between onomastics and nomenclature is not readily clear: onomastics is an unfamiliar discipline to most people, and the use of nomenclature in an academic sense is also not commonly known. Although the two fields integrate, nomenclature concerns itself more with the rules and conventions that are used for the formation of names."
[{2021-12-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature#Onomastics_and_nomenclature]

name::
* McsEngl.onomatology//sciName,
* McsEngl.onomastics//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName'onomatology,

anthroponomastics of sciName

description::
· names for humans.

name::
* McsEngl.anthroponomastics//sciName,
* McsEngl.anthroponymy,
* McsEngl.sciName/anthroponomastics,

anthroponym (link) of anthroponomastics

info-resource of anthroponomastics

description::
* http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/online/downloads/index.html: The Lexicon of Greek Personal Names (LGPN) was established to collect and publish all ancient Greek personal names, drawing on the full range of written sources from the 8th century B.C. down to the late Roman Empire.,

name::
* McsEngl.anthroponomastics'Infrsc,

toponomastics of sciName

description::
· names for places.

name::
* McsEngl.sciName/toponomastics,
* McsEngl.toponomastics/sciName,
* McsEngl.toponymy,

toponym (link) of toponomastics

etymology of sciName

description::
"Etymology (/ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/)[1] is the study of the history of the form of words[2] and, by extension, the origin and evolution of their semantic meaning across time.[3] It is a subfield of historical linguistics, and draws upon comparative semantics, morphology, semiotics, and phonetics.
For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts, and texts about the language, to gather knowledge about how words were used during earlier periods, how they developed in meaning and form, or when and how they entered the language. Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about forms that are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots in European languages, for example, can be traced all the way back to the origin of the Indo-European language family.
Even though etymological research originated from the philological tradition, much current etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian."
[{2022-08-22 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology]

name::
* McsEngl.etymology//sciName,
* McsEngl.sciName/etymology,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.ετυμολογία!=etymology//sciName,

science-of-lagGstr of sciLago

description::
· the-science of gesture--human-mind-languages.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/sciGstr!⇒sciGstr,
* McsEngl.sciGstr,
* McsEngl.sciGstr!=science.human-mind-lang.gesture,
* McsEngl.sciGstr//sciLago,

science-of-lagSpch of sciLago

description::
· the-science of speech--human-mind-languages.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/sciSpch!⇒sciSpch,
* McsEngl.sciSpch,
* McsEngl.sciSpch!=science.human-mind-lang.speech,
* McsEngl.sciSpch//sciLago,

phonemics of sciLago

description::
· phonemics is the-science that studies the-phonemes.

name::
* McsEngl.lagoHmnm'phonemics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.028-phonemics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonemics,
* McsEngl.phonemics,
* McsEngl.phonemology,
* McsEngl.phonology,
* McsEngl.science.phonemics,
* McsEngl.science.phonology,

phonetics of sciLago

description::
· phonetics is the-science that studies the-phones.

name::
* McsEngl.lagoHmnm'phonetics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.029-phonetics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonetics,
* McsEngl.phonetics,
* McsEngl.science.phonetics,

phonotactics of sciLago

description::
"Phonotactics (from Ancient Greek phōnḗ "voice, sound" and taktikós "having to do with arranging")[1] is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters and vowel sequences by means of phonotactic constraints.
Phonotactic constraints are highly language-specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ do not occur. Similarly, the clusters /kn/ and /ɡn/ are not permitted at the beginning of a word in Modern English but are in German and Dutch (in which the latter appears as /ɣn/) and were permitted in Old and Middle English.[2] In contrast, in some Slavic languages /l/ and /r/ are used alongside vowels as syllable nuclei.
Syllables have the following internal segmental structure:
* Onset (optional)
* Rhyme (obligatory, comprises nucleus and coda):
** Nucleus (obligatory)
** Coda (optional)
Both onset and coda may be empty, forming a vowel-only syllable, or alternatively, the nucleus can be occupied by a syllabic consonant. Phonotactics is known to affect second language vocabulary acquisition.[3]"
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics]

name::
* McsEngl.phonotactics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.030-phonotactics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.phonotactics,

science-of-lagText of sciLago

description::
· the-science of text--human-mind-languages.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/sciText!⇒sciText,
* McsEngl.sciText,
* McsEngl.sciText!=science.human-mind-lang.text,
* McsEngl.sciText//sciLago,

science-of-language-classification of sciLago

description::
· evolutionary, whole-part, generic-specific classification.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago/classification,
* McsEngl.sciText'science-of-language-classification,
* McsEngl.science-of-language-classification,

dialectology

description::
"Dialectology (from Greek διάλεκτος, dialektos, "talk, dialect"; and -λογία, -logia) is the scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics. It studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. Dialectology deals with such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation.
Dialectologists are ultimately concerned with grammatical, lexical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas. Thus they usually deal not only with populations that have lived in certain areas for generations, but also with migrant groups that bring their languages to new areas (see language contact).
Commonly studied concepts in dialectology include the problem of mutual intelligibility in defining languages and dialects; situations of diglossia, where two dialects are used for different functions; dialect continua including a number of dialects of varying intelligibility; and pluricentrism, where a single language has two or more standard varieties.
Hans Kurath and William Labov are among the most prominent researchers in this field."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectology]

name::
* McsEngl.dialectology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.026-dialectology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.dialectology,

evolutionary-psychology-of-language

description::
"Evolutionary psychology of language is the study of the evolutionary history of language as a psychological faculty within the discipline of evolutionary psychology. It makes the assumption that language is the result of a Darwinian adaptation.
There are many competing theories of how language might have evolved, if indeed it is an evolutionary adaptation. They stem from the belief that language development could result from an adaptation, an exaptation, or a by-product. Genetics also influence the study of the evolution of language. It has been speculated that the FOXP2 gene may be what gives humans the ability to develop grammar and syntax.
Language evolution theories
In the debate surrounding the evolutionary psychology of language, three sides emerge: those who believe in language as an adaptation, those who believe it is a by-product of another adaptation, and those who believe it is an exaptation."

name::
* McsEngl.evolutionary-psychology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.024-evolutionary-psychology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.evolutionary-psychology-of-language,

historical-linguistics

description::
× parent: philology,

"Historical linguistics, also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time.[1] Principal concerns of historical linguistics include:[2]
* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages
* to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and to determine their relatedness, grouping them into language families (comparative linguistics)
* to develop general theories about how and why language changes
* to describe the history of speech communities
* to study the history of words, i.e. etymology
Historical linguistics is founded on the Uniformitarian Principle, which is defined by linguist Donald Ringe as:[3]
Unless we can demonstrate significant changes in the conditions of language acquisition and use between some time in the unobservable past and the present, we must assume that the same types and distributions of structures, variation, changes, etc. existed at that time in the past as in the present."
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.diachronic-linguistics,
* McsEngl.historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.004-historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.historical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical,

PARENT-CHILD-TREE of sciLagoHistorical

parent-tree-of-sciLagoHistorical::
* philology,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical'parent-tree,

child-tree-of-sciLagoHistorical::
* ,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical'child-tree,

WHOLE-PART-TREE of sciLagoHistorical

whole-tree-of-sciLagoHistorical::
* ,
* ... Sympan,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical'whole-tree,

part-tree-of-sciLagoHistorical::
* comparative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLagoHistorical'part-tree,

comparative-linguistics

description::
"Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness.
Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying out language classification have been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerised hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of development."
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.comparative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.016-comparative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.comparative-linguistics,

contact-linguistics

description::
"Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact with and influence each other. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Language contact can occur at language borders,[1] between adstratum languages, or as the result of migration, with an intrusive language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum.
Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing and relexification. The common products include pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed languages. In many other cases, contact between speakers occurs but the lasting effects on the language are less visible; they may, however, include loan words, calques or other types of borrowed material.
Multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history, and today most people in the world are multilingual.[2]
Methods from sociolinguistics[3] (the study of language use in society), from corpus linguistics and from formal linguistics are used in the study of language contact."
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact]

name::
* McsEngl.contact-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.017-contact-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.contact-linguistics,

linguistic-typology

description::
"Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages.[1] Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.[2]
Linguistic typology is contrasted with genealogical linguistics on the grounds that typology groups languages or their grammatical features based on formal similarities rather than historic descendence.[3] The issue of genealogical relation is however relevant to typology because modern data sets aim to be representative and unbiased. Samples are collected evenly from different language families, emphasizing the importance of lesser-known languages in gaining insight into human language.[4]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology]

name::
* McsEngl.language-typology,
* McsEngl.linguistic-typology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.015-linguistic-typology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.linguistic-typology,

science-of-language-and-society of sciLago

description::
·

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.019-science-of-language-and-society,
* McsEngl.sciLago.science-of-language-and-society,
* McsEngl.science-of-language-and-society,

anthropological-linguistics

description::
"Anthropological linguistics is the subfield of linguistics and anthropology which deals with the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures.[1] While many linguists believe that a true field of anthropological linguistics is nonexistent, preferring the term linguistic anthropology to cover this subfield, many others regard the two as interchangeable.[1]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.anthropological-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.020-anthropological-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.anthropological-linguistics,

ecolinguistics

description::
"Ecolinguistics, or ecological linguistics, emerged in the 1990s as a new paradigm of linguistic research, widening sociolinguistics to take into account not only the social context in which language is embedded, but also the wider ecological context, including other species and the physical environment.
Michael Halliday's 1990 speech New ways of Meaning: the challenge to applied linguistics[1] is often credited as a work which provided the stimulus for linguists to consider the ecological context and consequences of language. Among other things, the challenge that Halliday put forward was to make linguistics relevant to overarching contemporary issues, particularly the widespread destruction of ecosystems. The main example Halliday gave was that of "economic growth", describing how "countless texts repeated daily all around the world contain a simple message: growth is good. Many is better than few, more is better than less, big is better than small, grow is better than shrink", which leads to environmentally destructive consequences."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.ecolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.023-ecolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.ecolinguistics,

ethnolinguistics

description::
"Ethnolinguistics overview
Ethnolinguistics is an interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between language and culture. It draws on methods and theories from both linguistics and anthropology to explore how language is shaped by and reflects the cultural values, beliefs, and practices of the people who speak it.
Ethnolinguists are interested in a wide range of topics, including:
* How language is used to communicate cultural knowledge and values
* How language categories reflect cultural ways of thinking about the world
* How language use varies in different social and cultural contexts
* How language change is influenced by cultural factors
* The role of language in identity formation and social cohesion
Ethnolinguistic research is often conducted in multilingual and multicultural settings, where researchers explore the ways in which different language groups interact and negotiate their identities. Ethnolinguists also study the impact of globalization and social change on language and culture.
Here are some examples of ethnolinguistic research:
* A researcher might study how the language used in religious ceremonies reflects the cultural beliefs and values of a particular religious group.
* Another researcher might study how the language used in advertising varies in different cultures, and how these differences reflect cultural values and attitudes.
* Still another researcher might study how the language used in schools is influenced by the cultural backgrounds of the students and teachers.
Ethnolinguistic research can help us to better understand the complex relationship between language and culture. It can also help us to develop more effective strategies for language education and intercultural communication.
Importance of ethnolinguistics
Ethnolinguistics is an important field because it helps us to understand the relationship between language and culture. This understanding is essential for effective language education, intercultural communication, and the promotion of linguistic diversity.
Ethnolinguistic research can help us to:
* Develop better teaching methods for students who are learning a new language, taking into account their cultural backgrounds and linguistic needs.
* Promote understanding and respect between different cultures by helping people to learn about the ways in which language is used to communicate cultural knowledge and values.
* Support the preservation of linguistic diversity by documenting and understanding the languages and cultures of minority groups.
In today's increasingly interconnected world, ethnolinguistics is more important than ever. By understanding the relationship between language and culture, we can build more inclusive and equitable societies."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/d7f564d8e82a8191]

name::
* McsEngl.cultural-linguistics,
* McsEngl.ethnolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.022-ethnolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.ethnolinguistics,

linguistic-anthropology

description::
"Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages and has grown over the past century to encompass most aspects of language structure and use.[1]
Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2]"
[{2023-09-26 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology]

name::
* McsEngl.linguistic-anthropology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.018-linguistic-anthropology,
* McsEngl.sciLago.linguistic-anthropology,

sociolinguistics

description::
"Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used. It can overlap with the sociology of language, which focuses on the effect of language on society. Sociolinguistics overlaps considerably with pragmatics and is closely related to linguistic anthropology.
Sociolinguistics' historical interrelation with anthropology[1] can be observed in studies of how language varieties differ between groups separated by social variables (e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc.) and/or geographical barriers (a mountain range, a desert, a river, etc.). Such studies also examine how such differences in usage and differences in beliefs about usage produce and reflect social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.
Sociolinguistics can be studied in various ways such as interviews with speakers of a language, matched-guise tests, and other observations or studies related to dialects and speaking."
[{2023-09-01 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sociolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.009-sociolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.sociolinguistics,

sciLago.sociology-of-language

description::
"Sociology of language is the study of the relations between language and society.[1] It is closely related to the field of sociolinguistics,[2] which focuses on the effect of society on language. One of its longest and most prolific practitioners was Joshua Fishman, who was founding editor of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, in addition to other major contributions. The sociology of language studies society in relation to language, whereas sociolinguistics studies language in relation to society. For the former, society is the object of study, whereas, for the latter, language is the object of study. In other words, sociolinguistics studies language and how it varies based on the user's sociological background, such as gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic class.[3] On the other hand, sociology of language (also known as macrosociolinguistics) studies society and how it is impacted by language.[4] As Trent University professor of global politics Andreas Pickel states, "religion and other symbolic systems strongly shaping social practices and shaping political orientations are examples of the social significance such languages can have."[5] The basic idea is that language reflects, among several other things, attitudes that speakers want to exchange or that just get reflected through language use. These attitudes of the speakers are the sociologist's information.
Sociology of language seeks to understand the way that social dynamics are affected by individual and group language use. According to National Taiwan University of Science and Technology Chair of Language Center[6] Su-Chiao Chen, language is considered to be a social value within this field, which researches social groups for phenomena like multilingualism and lingual conflict.[7] It has to do with who is 'authorized' to use what language, with whom and under what conditions. It has to do with how an individual or group identity is established by the language that they have available for them to use. It seeks to understand individual expression, which the investment in the linguistic tools that one has access to in order to bring oneself to other people."
[{2023-09-27 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_language]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.021-sociology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.sociology-of-language,
* McsEngl.sociology-of-language,

scientist of sciLago

description::
· the-scientist of linguistics.

name::
* McsEngl.linguist!⇒wrkrSciLang,
* McsEngl.sciLago'scientist!⇒wrkrSciLang,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang!=linguist,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.γλωσσολόγος!ο!=wrkrSciLang,

wrkrSciLang.SPECIFIC

description::
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists,
===
* {1942..xxxx} Yule.George, Uk,
* {1935..2016} Petrounias.Evagelos, Greece,
* {1928..xxxx} Chomsky, Usa,
* {1925..2018} Halliday.Michael, Uk,
* {1909..1992} Harris.Zellig, Usa,
* {1896..1982} Jakobson,
* {1887..1949} Bloomfield.Leonard, Usa,
* {1884..1939} Sapir,
* {1883..1959} Triantafyllidis.Manolis.A., Greece,
* {1879..1941} Whorf,
* {1857..1913} Saussure.Ferdinand de,
* {1843..1941} Hatzidakis.Georgios.Nicolaou, Greece,
* {1771..1823} Vilaras.Ioannis, Greece,
* {Bce0170..Bce0090} Dionysius-Thrax, Greece,
* {Bce0520..Bce0460} Pāṇini, India,

name::
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.specific,

wrkrSciLang.1935.Petrounias.Evagelos

description::
· {1935..2016}
Πετρούνιας, Ευάγγελος Β.
Ο Ευάγγελος Πετρούνιας έχει σπουδάσει φιλολογία στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Αθήνας, κλασική φιλολογία και γλωσσολογία στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Tubingen, γλωσσολογία και γλωσσοδιδαχτική στα Πανεπιστήμια της Lille, του Los Angeles, και του Saltzburg. Έχει διδακτορικό δίπλωμα στην κλασική φιλολογία από το Πανεπιστήμιο Tubingen, και μεταπτυχιακό δίπλωμα γλωσσοδιδαχτικής από το Πανεπιστήμιο του Los Angeles. Έχει διδάξει σα λέκτορας, επίκουρος καθηγητής, και ειδικός επιστήμονας αρχαία, βυζαντινή, και νεοελληνική γλώσσα και φιλολογία, γλωσσολογία, και γλωσσοδιδαχτική στα Πανεπιστήμια της Tubingen, του Los Angeles, και της Θεσσαλονίκης. Έχει επίσης διατελέσει τακτικός συνεργάτης του Ινστιτούτου Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών ("Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη") του Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης. Είναι καθηγητής ελληνικής και αντιπαραθετικής γλωσσολογίας στο τμήμα ιταλικής γλώσσας και φιλολογίας του Αριστοτελείου Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης. Έχει δημοσιεύσει στη σειρά "Hypomnemata" το βιβλίο Funktion und Thematik der Bilder bei Aischylos. Gottingen 1976. Έχει συντάξει τις ετυμολογίες του Λεξικού της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής του Ιδρύματος Τριανταφυλλίδη, Θεσσαλονίκη 1998.
[http://www.biblionet.gr/author/12053/Ευάγγελος_Β._Πετρούνιας]

name::
* McsEngl.human.1935.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.1935.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Petrounias.Evagelos.1935,
====== langoGreek:
* McsElln.Πετρούνιας.Ευάγγελος.1935,

addressWpg::
* https://edromos.gr/evagelos-petrounias/,

wrkrSciLang.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax

description::
"Dionysius Thrax (Greek: Διονύσιος ὁ Θρᾷξ Dionύsios ho Thrβix, 170–90 BC) was a Greek[1] grammarian and a pupil of Aristarchus of Samothrace. He was long considered to be the author of the earliest grammatical text on the Greek language, one that was used as a standard manual for perhaps some 1,500 years,[2] and which was until recently regarded as the groundwork of the entire Western grammatical tradition.[a]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_Thrax]

name::
* McsEngl.human.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Bce0170.Dionysios-Thrax,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLang.Dionysios-Thrax.Bce0170,

product::
* https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html,

organization of sciLago

description::
">global linguistic organizations:
Global linguistic organizations are institutions and associations dedicated to promoting, preserving, and studying languages, linguistics, and cultural diversity worldwide. These organizations often focus on language policy, education, research, and advocacy. Some notable examples include:
---
### **1. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)**
- **Mission:** Promotes linguistic diversity and multilingual education, including the preservation of endangered languages.
- **Key Initiatives:**
- International Mother Language Day (celebrated annually on February 21).
- Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.
---
### **2. SIL International (formerly Summer Institute of Linguistics)**
- **Mission:** Focuses on language development and preservation, particularly for lesser-known and endangered languages.
- **Key Contributions:**
- Maintains the **Ethnologue**, a comprehensive database of the world's languages.
- Supports literacy and translation projects.
---
### **3. International Linguistic Association (ILA)**
- **Mission:** Advances the study and application of linguistics in education, research, and policy.
- **Key Activities:**
- Organizes conferences and publishes research on linguistic topics.
---
### **4. Linguistic Society of America (LSA)**
- **Mission:** Promotes the scientific study of language and linguistics.
- **Key Activities:**
- Advocates for language-related research funding and education.
- Publishes journals like *Language* and organizes events.
---
### **5. European Federation of National Institutions for Language (EFNIL)**
- **Mission:** Ensures the vitality and development of the languages spoken in European countries.
- **Key Activities:**
- Encourages collaboration between national language institutes.
- Focuses on language policy and planning.
---
### **6. Permanent International Committee of Linguists (CIPL)**
- **Mission:** Facilitates international cooperation in linguistic research.
- **Key Activities:**
- Coordinates conferences and supports linguistic publications.
---
### **7. The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) - Linguistics Research Support**
- **Mission:** Supports scientific excellence in developing countries, including linguistic research and education.
---
### **8. Endangered Languages Project**
- **Mission:** A global collaborative effort to document, support, and promote endangered languages.
- **Key Contributions:**
- Provides resources and a platform for language preservation projects.
---
### **9. African Academy of Languages (ACALAN)**
- **Mission:** Promotes the use of African languages in education, governance, and development.
- **Key Focus Areas:**
- Language harmonization.
- Promotion of cross-border languages.
---
### **10. International Phonetic Association (IPA)**
- **Mission:** Promotes the scientific study of phonetics and provides standards for phonetic transcription.
- **Key Contribution:**
- Developed the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
---
These organizations work collaboratively and independently to address linguistic challenges and ensure the sustainability of the world's linguistic heritage."
[{2024-11-26 retrieved} https://chatgpt.com/c/67457cc6-2e64-8003-9bab-9eaf83c31f7d]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'organization,

conference of sciLago

description::
· Academic conferences are held to discuss research in a particular field. They are typically attended by scientists, researchers, and academics.

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'conference,

international-conference-of-linguists of sciLago

description::
"The International Congress of Linguists (ICL) takes place every five years, under the governance of the Permanent International Committee of Linguists (PICL) / Comitι International Permanent des Linguistes (CIPL). The 19th ICL was held in Geneva, Switzerland in 2013.[1] The 20th ICL was held in Cape Town, South Africa from 2–6 July 2018 and will be on the topic of "The Diversity of Language".[2] The next (21st) ICL was originally planned to take place in Kazan (Tatarstan), Russia) from 25 June to 2 July 2023.[3] However, due to the Russian invasion in Ukraine, the venue was changed and the congress moved by one year. It is now planned to take place in Poznań at the Adam Mickiewicz University, 8-14 September 2024.[4]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Congress_of_Linguists]

{2018}: 20th ICL, Cape-town, "The Diversity of Language",
{2013}: 19th ICL, Geneva, about the language-cognition interface,
{1967}: 10th ICL, Bucharest,
{1936}: 4th ICL, Copenhagen,
{1933}: 3rd ICL, Rome,
{1931}: 2nd ICL, Geneva,
{1928}: 1st ICL, The Hague,

name::
* McsEngl.ICL!=international-conference-of-linguists,
* McsEngl.sciLago'international-conference-of-linguists,

MISC of sciLago

corpus-data of sciLago

description::
"corpus-data vs discourse:
Corpus data is a collection of text or speech that is used for linguistic analysis. It is typically collected from a variety of sources, such as books, newspapers, magazines, websites, and conversations. Corpus data can be used to study a wide range of linguistic phenomena, such as grammar, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse.

Discourse is the study of language use in context. It is concerned with how speakers and writers use language to achieve their communicative goals. Discourse analysts often use corpus data to study discourse, but they also use other data sources, such as interviews, field notes, and ethnographic data.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between corpus data and discourse:
| Feature | Corpus data | Discourse |
| Definition | A collection of text or speech that is used for linguistic analysis. | The study of language use in context. |
| Focus | Language in general. | Language in use. |
| Data sources | Text and speech from a variety of sources. | Text and speech, as well as other data sources such as interviews, field notes, and ethnographic data. |
| Methods | Quantitative and qualitative methods. | Qualitative methods. |

Corpus data and discourse are complementary approaches to the study of language. Corpus data provides us with a large and representative sample of language use, while discourse analysis helps us to understand how language is used in specific contexts.

Here are some examples of how corpus data and discourse can be used:
* **Corpus data:** A corpus linguist might use corpus data to study the frequency of certain words or phrases, or to identify patterns in language use. For example, a corpus linguist might be interested in studying the way that the word "climate change" is used in different types of text, such as news articles, scientific papers, and social media posts.
* **Discourse:** A discourse analyst might use corpus data to study how language is used in a particular social setting, such as a courtroom or a workplace. For example, a discourse analyst might be interested in studying the way that lawyers use language to persuade juries, or the way that doctors use language to interact with patients.

Corpus data and discourse are both important tools for understanding language. By using corpus data and discourse together, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language works and how it is used in the real world."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/855fcd1d996edda0]

name::
* McsEngl.corpus-data,
* McsEngl.sciLago'corpus-data,

discourse of sciLago

description::
"what is discourse?
Discourse refers to a broader and more complex unit of language than individual words or sentences. It encompasses spoken or written communication that is larger in scope, typically involving multiple sentences or turns in a conversation. Discourse involves the way language is structured, organized, and used to convey meaning beyond the level of individual words or phrases. Here are some key aspects of discourse:

1. **Connectedness**: Discourse is characterized by its connectedness. It involves a sequence of statements or turns that are related to each other and form a coherent whole. Discourse can be a conversation, a written text, a speech, or any extended piece of communication.

2. **Coherence**: A well-structured discourse maintains coherence, which means that the ideas and information presented are logically and meaningfully connected. Cohesion, the use of linguistic devices like pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional phrases, helps create this coherence.

3. **Context**: Discourse is influenced by its context, including the social, cultural, and situational factors that affect the communication. The interpretation of discourse often depends on understanding the context in which it was produced.

4. **Pragmatics**: Discourse is shaped by pragmatics, which involves the study of how language is used in context to convey meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words. Pragmatics examines issues such as implicature, presupposition, and speech acts (e.g., requests, promises, and apologies).

5. **Genres**: Different types of discourse can be categorized into genres, such as narratives, dialogues, academic papers, news reports, or legal documents. Each genre has its own conventions and structure.

6. **Discourse Analysis**: Discourse analysis is a field of study that examines discourse to understand its structure, organization, and the functions it serves. Discourse analysts may explore how power dynamics, ideologies, and social structures are reflected in language use.

7. **Register and Style**: Discourse can vary in terms of register (formal, informal, technical, etc.) and style (e.g., poetic, colloquial, academic), depending on the purpose and audience of the communication.

8. **Narrative and Argumentation**: Different types of discourse can serve various functions, such as storytelling, persuasion, explanation, or information-sharing. The structure and features of discourse may vary based on these functions.

9. **Multimodal Discourse**: In the modern digital age, discourse can involve various modes of communication, including not only text but also images, videos, and other multimedia elements. The analysis of such multimodal discourse is an evolving field of study.

Discourse is a fundamental concept in linguistics, as it allows for the study of language in real-life communication contexts. It helps researchers and linguists understand how language is used to convey meaning, express social identities, and influence thought and action."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/6d0325e8-2fbe-4b15-8e9c-2aa63fe7de4e]

name::
* McsEngl.discourse-sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago'discourse,

info-resource of sciLago

addressWpg::
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles,
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language,

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'Infrsc,

DOING of sciLago

description::
*

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago'doing,

evoluting of sciLago

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-sciLago,
* McsEngl.sciLago'evoluting,

{2023-08-28}::
=== McsHitp-creation:
· creation of current concept.

{2100i100}-sciLago-development:
"evolution of linguistics in 21st century
The evolution of linguistics in the 21st century has been shaped by various factors, including advances in technology, changes in communication methods, and the globalization of information. Here are some key trends and developments in the field of linguistics in the 21st century:
* Computational Linguistics and Natural Language Processing (NLP): The 21st century has seen tremendous growth in the field of computational linguistics and NLP. With the advent of powerful computers and large datasets, researchers have made significant progress in developing algorithms and models that can understand, generate, and translate human language. This has led to breakthroughs in machine translation, chatbots, virtual assistants, and sentiment analysis, among other applications.
* Corpus Linguistics: The digital age has made it easier to compile and analyze large corpora (collections of texts), leading to advancements in corpus linguistics. Researchers can now study language patterns and usage on a massive scale, which has deepened our understanding of language variation, change, and evolution.
* Cognitive Linguistics: In the 21st century, cognitive linguistics has gained prominence as a subfield that explores how language is processed in the human mind. Researchers are investigating the relationship between language and thought, as well as the cognitive mechanisms that underlie language production and comprehension.
* Sociolinguistics: The study of sociolinguistics continues to evolve, with a focus on understanding how language is used in different social contexts and how it reflects and influences social identities. Research in this area includes the study of dialects, language variation, and multilingualism.
* Language and Technology: The integration of technology into everyday life has had a profound impact on language use and communication. This includes the development of new forms of online communication (e.g., texting, social media), which have led to changes in language norms, linguistic creativity, and the spread of neologisms.
* Globalization and Language Contact: The 21st century has seen increased globalization, leading to greater language contact and the spread of linguistic influences across cultures. This has given rise to research on language contact phenomena, such as creole languages, pidgins, and the effects of migration on language communities.
* Linguistic Diversity and Endangerment: Linguists are increasingly concerned with the preservation of linguistic diversity and the documentation of endangered languages. Efforts are being made to document and revitalize languages that are at risk of extinction.
* Interdisciplinary Approaches: Linguistics in the 21st century often involves collaboration with other fields such as neuroscience, psychology, computer science, anthropology, and sociology. Interdisciplinary research has expanded our understanding of the relationship between language and various aspects of human cognition and culture.
* Ethical and Social Considerations: Linguists are also addressing ethical and social issues related to language, such as language revitalization efforts, linguistic rights, and the impact of language on social justice and inequality.
* Online Linguistic Communities: The internet has facilitated the creation of online linguistic communities where language enthusiasts and researchers can collaborate and share insights about languages from around the world. Online platforms and forums have become valuable resources for linguistic research and discussion.
Overall, the 21st century has witnessed a dynamic and rapidly evolving landscape in the field of linguistics, driven by technological advancements, globalization, and an increased awareness of the importance of language in various aspects of human life and society. These trends are likely to continue shaping the field in the coming years."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

"evolution of linguistics in 21st century
The 21st century has seen a number of exciting developments in the field of linguistics. Here are some of the most notable trends:
* The rise of computational linguistics. Computational linguistics is the application of computer science to the study of language. This field has seen rapid growth in recent years, thanks to the availability of large datasets of text and speech, as well as advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence. Computational linguistics is now being used to develop new tools for language learning, translation, and text analysis.
* The increasing focus on language variation. Traditionally, linguistics has focused on the study of idealized, "standard" languages. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of language variation. This is due in part to the increasing diversity of the world's population, as well as the growing availability of data on non-standard varieties of language.
* The emergence of new research methods. Linguistics has traditionally relied on a variety of methods, including introspection, experimentation, and corpus analysis. However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in new methods, such as eye tracking, brain imaging, and computational modeling. These methods are providing new insights into the nature of language and how it is processed by the mind.
* The increasing interdisciplinary nature of linguistics. Linguistics has traditionally been seen as a discipline that is separate from other fields, such as psychology, anthropology, and computer science. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need for interdisciplinary collaboration. This is due in part to the complex nature of language, which cannot be fully understood by any single discipline.
These are just a few of the trends that are shaping the field of linguistics in the 21st century. It is an exciting time to be a linguist, as there are many new and challenging problems to be solved.
Here are some specific examples of how these trends are being manifested in research:
* Computational linguists are using machine learning to develop new algorithms for speech recognition, machine translation, and text analysis.
* Sociolinguists are studying the effects of language contact and globalization on language variation.
* Psycholinguists are using eye tracking and brain imaging to study how the brain processes language.
* Evolutionary linguists are using computational models to simulate the evolution of language.
The 21st century is still young, and it is impossible to say for sure what the future holds for linguistics. However, one thing is for sure: the field is constantly evolving, and there is no shortage of new and exciting research to be done."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

{2000i100}-sciLago-development:
"evolution of linguistics in 20th century
The 20th century witnessed significant developments in the field of linguistics. Linguistics, the scientific study of language, saw the emergence of various schools of thought, methodologies, and influential figures during this period. Here's an overview of the evolution of linguistics in the 20th century:
* Structuralism:
The early part of the century was dominated by structuralism, primarily associated with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure's ideas emphasized the study of language as a system of signs and the importance of synchronic (analysis of language at a specific point in time) over diachronic (historical) analysis.
* Behaviorism:
In the mid-20th century, behaviorism had a significant influence on linguistics, led by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorist linguistics focused on observable behaviors and stimulus-response relationships, emphasizing the study of language acquisition and learning.
* Transformational-Generative Grammar:
Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar emerged in the 1950s and had a profound impact on linguistics. Chomsky's theory introduced the concept of a universal grammar underlying all human languages, shifting the focus to the innate cognitive structures that enable language production and comprehension.
* Sociolinguistics:
Sociolinguistics gained prominence in the mid-20th century, with researchers like William Labov exploring the relationship between language and society. This subfield focused on language variation, dialects, and the social factors influencing language use.
* Cognitive Linguistics:
Cognitive linguistics, influenced by the work of George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker, emerged in the latter half of the 20th century. This approach emphasized the role of mental structures and conceptual systems in language, challenging some of the earlier structuralist and generative assumptions.
* Pragmatics:
Pragmatics, the study of how context affects meaning in communication, became a prominent subfield in the 20th century. Scholars like Herbert Grice and John Searle contributed to the development of pragmatic theories.
* Computational Linguistics:
With the advent of computers, the 20th century saw the rise of computational linguistics, a field that applies computational techniques to the study of language. This led to advancements in machine translation, speech recognition, and natural language processing.
* Post-Structuralism and Critical Linguistics:
Towards the latter part of the century, linguistics intersected with post-structuralism and critical theory. Scholars like Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu critiqued traditional linguistic approaches and explored the relationship between language and power.
* Multimodal and Discourse Analysis:
Linguists also began to analyze language in the context of other modes of communication, leading to the development of multimodal analysis. Additionally, discourse analysis became a central focus, examining how language operates in larger communicative contexts.
* Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics:
The 20th century also witnessed significant progress in the fields of psycholinguistics (the study of the psychological aspects of language) and neurolinguistics (the study of the neural basis of language processing). Researchers used experimental methods and brain imaging techniques to gain insights into language processing and comprehension.
Overall, the 20th century saw a rich and diverse evolution of linguistics, with the emergence of various theoretical approaches and interdisciplinary connections that continue to shape the field in the 21st century."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

"evolution of linguistics in 20th century
The 20th century saw a major evolution in the field of linguistics, with the rise of new theoretical frameworks and the development of new research methods.
One of the most significant developments was the shift from a historical focus to a synchronic focus. In the 19th century, linguists were primarily interested in the history of languages, and how they changed over time. In the 20th century, however, linguists began to focus more on the structure of languages at a particular point in time. This shift was led by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who argued that language is a system of signs that is governed by its own internal rules.
Another major development in 20th century linguistics was the rise of generative grammar. Generative grammar is a theory of language that seeks to explain how speakers can produce and understand an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of rules. The most influential generative grammarian was Noam Chomsky, who argued that the human brain is equipped with an innate language acquisition device that allows children to learn their native language without explicit instruction.
In addition to these two major developments, 20th century linguistics also saw the growth of other subfields, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and computational linguistics. Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society, psycholinguistics studies the relationship between language and the mind, and computational linguistics studies the use of computers to process and analyze language.
The evolution of linguistics in the 20th century has led to a much deeper understanding of the nature of language. Today, linguists are able to explain how languages work, how they change over time, and how they are used in different social contexts. This knowledge has had a major impact on our understanding of human communication and cognition.
Here are some of the key figures and events that contributed to the evolution of linguistics in the 20th century:
* Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Swiss linguist who is considered the founder of modern linguistics. His work on the synchronic study of language and the langue-parole distinction had a profound impact on the field.
* Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949): American linguist who was one of the leading figures in the development of structural linguistics. His work on the phoneme and the morpheme laid the foundation for modern linguistic analysis.
* Noam Chomsky (born 1928): American linguist who is considered the father of generative grammar. His work on the innateness of language and the principles and parameters theory has had a major impact on the field.
* Zellig Harris (1909-1992): American linguist who was one of the founders of transformational-generative grammar. His work on distributional analysis and the theory of transformations has had a lasting impact on the field.
* Michael Halliday (1925-2018): British linguist who is known for his work on systemic functional linguistics. His work has had a major impact on the study of language and society.
* George Yule (born 1942): British linguist who is known for his work on the semantics and pragmatics of language. His work has had a major impact on the study of how language is used in real-world contexts.
These are just a few of the many linguists who have contributed to the evolution of the field in the 20th century. The study of linguistics is a dynamic and ever-evolving field, and it is sure to continue to grow and change in the 21st century."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

{1982}-sciLago-stage-of-development:
"O CHOMSKY ΙΣΧΥΡΙΖΕΤΑΙ ΠΩΣ Η ΓΛΩΣΣΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΒΡΙΣΚΕΤΑΙ ΑΚΟΜΑ ΣΤΟ ΣΤΑΔΙΟ ΤΗΣ ΦΥΣΙΚΗΣ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑΣ ΔΗΛ. ΚΑΤΑΠΙΑΝΕΤΑΙ ΑΚΟΜΑ ΜΕ ΤΗ ΣΥΛΛΟΓΗ ΥΛΙΚΟΥ, ΜΕ ΑΛΛΑ ΛΟΓΙΑ Η ΓΛΩΣΣΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΚΑΝΕΙ ΑΚΟΜΑ ΤΑΞΙΝΟΜΙΚΗ ΔΟΥΛΕΙΑ, ΟΠΩΣ ΕΚΑΝΕ ΚΑΙ Η ΒΙΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΠΡΙΝ ΕΚΑΤΟ ΧΡΟΝΙΑ".
[{1983} Jakobson, Τα Μεγάλα Ρέματα..., p15]
* McsEngl.{science'1982}-sciLago-stage-of-development,

{1967}-sciLago-linguistic-wars:
"The linguistics wars were a protracted academic dispute inside American theoretical linguistics that took place mostly in the 1960s and 1970s, stemming from an intellectual falling out between Noam Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students. The debate began in 1967,[1] when linguists Paul Postal, "Haj" Ross, George Lakoff, and James McCawley—self-dubbed the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" (in reference to the Book of Revelation)—proposed an approach to the relationship between syntax and semantics, which treated deep structures as meanings rather than syntactic objects.[2] While Chomsky and other generative grammarians argued that the meaning of a sentence was derived from its syntax, the generative semanticists argued that syntax was derived from meaning."
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics_wars]
* McsEngl.{science'1967}-sciLago-linguistic-wars,

{1900i100}-sciLago-development:
"In the 19th century, linguists were primarily interested in the history of languages, and how they changed over time."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

{Bce0170..Bce0090}-sciLago-Greek-Dionysius-Thrax-Art-of-Grammar:
"The Greek grammarian Dionysius Thrax wrote the Art of Grammar, upon which many later Greek, Latin, and other European grammars were based."
["Grammar," Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 97 Encyclopedia. (c) 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved]
* McsEngl.{sciLago'Bce0170..Bce0090}-Greek-Dionysius-Thrax-Art-of-Grammar,
* McsEngl.{science'Bce0170..Bce0090}-sciLago-Greek-Dionysius-Thrax-Art-of-Grammar,

{Bce0500i100ca.}-sciLago-Indian-Panini:
"The Indian scholar Panini (c. 5th century BCE) is known for his work "Ashtadhyayi," which laid the foundation for Sanskrit grammar. It is considered one of the earliest systematic linguistic treatises."
[{2023-09-03 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]
* McsEngl.{science'Bce0500i100ca.}-sciLago-Indian-Panini,

PARENT-CHILD-TREE of sciLago

parent-tree-of-sciLago::
*
* McsEngl.sciLago'parent-tree,

child-tree-of-sciLago::
*
* McsEngl.sciLago'child-tree,

WHOLE-PART-TREE of sciLago

whole-tree-of-sciLago::
* sciMind,
* ... Sympan.
* McsEngl.sciLago'whole-tree,

part-tree-of-sciLago::
* FIELDS OF Theoretical linguistics:
* Phonetics
* Phonology
* Morphology
* Syntax
* Semantics
** Lexical semantics
** Statistical semantics
** Structural semantics
** Prototype semantics
* Pragmatics
[wikipedia]

LANGOLOGY:
** semantology:
** logology:
*** syntaxology
*** gramology:
**** creatology:
***** derivology,
***** compology,
**** formology,
*** morphology
*** phonology.
[hmnSngo.2001.12.02_nikkas]
* McsEngl.sciLago'part-tree,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of sciLago

generic-tree-of-sciLago::
* sciMind,
* ... entity.
* McsEngl.sciLago'generic-tree,

specific-tree-of-sciLago::
* applied-linguistics,
* cognitive-linguistics,
* comparative-linguistics,
* computational-linguistics,
* corpus-linguistics,
* descriptive-linguistics,
* etymology,
* generative-linguistics,
* historical-linguistics,
* language-acquisition,
* lexicology,
* linguistic-anthropology,
* morphology,
* onomasiology,
* phonology,
* pragmatics,
* psycholinguistics,
* semantics,
* semasiology,
* sociolinguistics,
* stylistics,
* syntactics,
* theoritical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.specific-tree,

sciLago.applied-linguistics

description::
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_linguistics] 2008.01.02

name::
* McsEngl.applied-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.applied-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLagoApplied,

specific-tree-of-sciLagoApplied::
* Language acquisition
* Psycholinguistics
* Sociolinguistics
* Linguistic anthropology
* Generative linguistics
* Cognitive linguistics
* Computational linguistics
* Descriptive linguistics
* Historical linguistics
** Comparative linguistics
** Etymology
* Stylistics
** Prescription
* Corpus linguistics
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_linguistics]

sciLago.forensic-linguistics

description::
"Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods, and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of applied linguistics.
There are principally three areas of application for linguists working in forensic contexts:[1]
* understanding language of the written law,
* understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes, and
* the provision of linguistic evidence.
The discipline of forensic linguistics is not homogeneous; it involves a range of experts and researchers in different areas of the field."
[{2023-09-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.forensic-linguistics,
* McsEngl.language-and-law,
* McsEngl.legal-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.025-legal-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.legal-linguistics,

evoluting of forensic-linguistics

description::
"evolution of forensic-linguistics:
Forensic linguistics, also known as the application of linguistics to the field of law, has evolved significantly over the years. Here's an overview of the key developments and stages in the evolution of forensic linguistics:

1. Early Origins:
- The roots of forensic linguistics can be traced back to the mid-20th century, with early developments in the analysis of disputed documents, such as questioned signatures and handwriting.

2. 1960s-1970s:
- During this period, linguists began to apply their expertise to analyze ransom notes, threatening letters, and other written documents in criminal cases.
- The field gained recognition as linguists started testifying as expert witnesses in court proceedings, offering linguistic analyses of texts to aid in the resolution of legal cases.

3. Development of Forensic Stylistics:
- Forensic stylistics emerged as a subfield, focusing on the analysis of writing style, authorship attribution, and the identification of patterns in written texts.
- Researchers developed techniques to study features like sentence structure, vocabulary, and punctuation to determine authorship or detect forgeries.

4. Advances in Computational Linguistics:
- The advent of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP) technologies in the late 20th century revolutionized forensic linguistics. Computer-assisted methods and software tools were introduced to analyze linguistic patterns more efficiently.

5. Speaker Identification:
- Beyond written texts, forensic linguistics expanded to include speaker identification, where linguistic features of recorded speech, such as accent, intonation, and voice quality, are analyzed to determine the identity of a speaker.

6. Dialectology and Sociolinguistics:
- Forensic linguists began applying concepts from dialectology and sociolinguistics to cases involving language variation. They analyzed regional accents, dialects, and sociolinguistic markers in spoken and written texts to provide insights in legal contexts.

7. Challenges and Ethical Considerations:
- The field also grappled with challenges such as the reliability and validity of linguistic analysis in legal cases, the potential for bias, and the need to adhere to ethical standards.

8. International Growth:
- Forensic linguistics expanded internationally, with practitioners offering their expertise in various legal systems and languages.

9. Ongoing Research and Technological Advancements:
- Research in forensic linguistics continues to advance, incorporating cutting-edge technologies like machine learning and NLP. These tools can assist in authorship attribution, identifying deception, and analyzing communication in the digital age.

10. Legal Precedents:
- Over time, forensic linguistics has contributed to legal precedents and case outcomes in various jurisdictions, demonstrating its value in resolving disputes, particularly in cases involving authorship, authenticity, and language interpretation.

Forensic linguistics has become a valuable tool in the legal system, assisting in solving criminal cases, intellectual property disputes, and various other legal matters by providing expert linguistic analysis. Its evolution continues as technology and linguistic research progress."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/e419ab43-e572-401d-9f2e-5f3ab8cb0fc9]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-forensic-linguistics,
* McsEngl.forensic-linguistics'evoluting,

sciLago.behaviorist-linguistics

description::
"In the mid-20th century, behaviorism had a significant influence on linguistics, led by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorist linguistics focused on observable behaviors and stimulus-response relationships, emphasizing the study of language acquisition and learning."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.behaviorist-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.012-behaviorist-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.behaviorist-linguistics,

sciLago.cognitive-linguistics

description::
"Cognitive linguistics, influenced by the work of George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker, emerged in the latter half of the 20th century. This approach emphasized the role of mental structures and conceptual systems in language, challenging some of the earlier structuralist and generative assumptions."
[{2023-09-04 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

"Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and linguistics.[1] Models and theoretical accounts of cognitive linguistics are considered as psychologically real, and research in cognitive linguistics aims to help understand cognition in general and is seen as a road into the human mind.
There has been scientific and terminological controversy around the label "cognitive linguistics"; there is no consensus on what specifically is meant with the term.[2][3]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.cognitive-linguistics!⇒sciLagoCognitive,
* McsEngl.sciLago.002-cognitive-linguistics!⇒sciLagoCognitive,
* McsEngl.sciLago.cognitive-linguistics!⇒sciLagoCognitive,
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive,

descriptionLong::
In linguistics and cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general. It is characterized by adherence to three central positions.
First, it denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind;
second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and
third, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use. [1]
Croft, William and D. Alan Cruse (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics] 2007.08.19

area-of-study of sciLagoCognitive

description::
Areas of study
Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study:
* Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics
* Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas.
* Cognitive phonology.
Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include:
* Construction grammar and cognitive grammar.
* Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending.
* Image schemas and force dynamics.
* Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity.
* Construal and Subjectivity.
* Gesture and sign language.
* Linguistic relativism.
* Cognitive neuroscience.
Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes:
* Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition.
* Psycholinguistics research.
* Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images.
Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seek to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole. A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it is a relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines.
Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too. Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics. The best summary of the discipline as it is currently stands is Peter Stockwell's Cognitive Poetics.[2]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'area-of-study,

scientist of sciLagoCognitive

description::
Ronald W. Langacker (born December 27, 1942) is an American linguist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego. He is best known as one of the founders of the cognitive linguistics movement and the creator of Cognitive Grammar.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Langacker]

George P. Lakoff (pronounced [ˈleɪkɒf], born May 24, 1941) is a professor of cognitive linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1972.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff]

Ray Jackendoff (born January 23, 1945) is an influential contemporary linguist who has always straddled the boundary between generative linguistics and cognitive linguistics, committed as he is both to the existence of an innate Universal Grammar (an important thesis of generative linguistics) and to giving an account of language that meshes well with the current understanding of the human mind and cognition (the main purpose of cognitive linguistics).
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Jackendoff]

Eve Sweetser is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, and an important figure in the field of cognitive linguistics. Some of her more accessible work focuses on gesture, but her other research interests include historical linguistics, semantics, metaphor and iconicity, subjectivity and viewpoint, and the Celtic language family.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Sweetser]

Leonard Talmy is a professor of linguistics and philosophy at the University at Buffalo in New York. He is most famous for his pioneering work in cognitive linguistics, more specifically, in the relationship between semantic and formal linguistic structures and the connections between semantic typologies and universals. He also specializes in the study of Yiddish and Native American linguistics.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Talmy]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'scientist,
* McsEngl.wrkrSciLangCognitive,

evoluting of sciLagoCognitive

description::
"evolution of cognitive-linguistics:
Cognitive linguistics is a modern approach to the study of language that emerged in the latter half of the 20th century. It represents a departure from traditional structuralist and generative linguistic theories by focusing on the relationship between language, cognition, and the human mind. Here's an overview of the evolution of cognitive linguistics:

1. Background in Structuralism and Generative Linguistics:
- Structuralism, a dominant linguistic paradigm in the early 20th century, analyzed language as a system of formal relationships.
- Noam Chomsky's generative linguistics, which became prominent in the mid-20th century, emphasized a formal, rule-based approach to language.

2. Cognitive Revolution:
- In the 1950s and 1960s, the cognitive revolution in psychology influenced a shift in linguistic research. It stressed the importance of understanding the mind's inner workings and how humans process information.

3. Emergence of Cognitive Linguistics:
- Cognitive linguistics began to take shape in the late 20th century, with linguists like George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, and Leonard Talmy being pioneers in the field.
- The work of George Lakoff, particularly his book "Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things" (1987), was influential in establishing the cognitive linguistic framework.

4. Key Concepts and Principles:
- Embodiment: Cognitive linguists emphasize that language is grounded in human experience and the body. Our bodily experiences shape the way we conceptualize and talk about the world.
- Conceptual Metaphor: Cognitive linguists introduced the concept of metaphor as a fundamental mechanism for understanding abstract concepts through concrete, experiential domains.
- Conceptual Blending: The theory of conceptual blending explains how people create new meanings by merging and manipulating mental spaces and concepts.

5. Construction Grammar:
- Cognitive linguistics has also given rise to construction grammar, which focuses on the mental representations and processing of linguistic constructions, rather than abstract rules and structures.

6. Usage-Based Approaches:
- Cognitive linguistics emphasizes the role of usage and frequency in language acquisition and usage. It argues that language is learned and used through exposure to real-world examples.

7. Critiques and Expansions:
- Cognitive linguistics has faced criticism, particularly from proponents of generative grammar, but it continues to evolve and adapt to address these concerns.
- Various subfields within cognitive linguistics, such as cognitive semantics and cognitive sociolinguistics, have developed over time.

8. Interdisciplinary Nature:
- Cognitive linguistics is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from psychology, neuroscience, anthropology, and other fields to understand the relationship between language and cognition.

9. Contemporary Research:
- Current research in cognitive linguistics includes investigating issues related to language and thought, cultural variations in conceptualization, and the neural basis of language.

Overall, cognitive linguistics has significantly expanded our understanding of language as a reflection of human cognition and the ways in which language is intimately tied to human experience and perception. It continues to be a vibrant and evolving field of study."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/d101c7ac-091b-4106-a413-9a8aa5d323c5]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-sciLagoCognitive,
* McsEngl.sciLagoCognitive'evoluting,

sciLago.computational-linguistics

description::
Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others.
Since the 2020s, computational linguistics has become a near-synonym of either natural language processing or language technology, with deep learning approaches, such as large language models, outperforming the specific approaches previously used in the field.[citation needed]
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.computational-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.003-computational-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.computational-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational,
* McsEngl.techLagHmnm.computational-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of linguistics.
... The Association for Computational Linguistics defines computational linguistics as:
...the scientific study of language from a computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing computational models of various kinds of linguistic phenomena.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics]

Simply put, computational linguistics is the scientific study of language from a computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing computational models of various kinds of linguistic phenomena. These models may be "knowledge-based" ("hand-crafted") or "data-driven" ("statistical" or "empirical"). Work in computational linguistics is in some cases motivated from a scientific perspective in that one is trying to provide a computational explanation for a particular linguistic or psycholinguistic phenomenon; and in other cases the motivation may be more purely technological in that one wants to provide a working component of a speech or natural language system. Indeed, the work of computational linguists is incorporated into many working systems today, including speech recognition systems, text-to-speech synthesizers, automated voice response systems, web search engines, text editors, language instruction materials, to name just a few.
Two recent books that give an excellent overview of what computational linguistics is about are listed below, along with links to the first chapters of each of the books. This material is provided on the understanding that it is for personal use only. Use of this material downloaded from this website in a course is specifically prohibited.

Chapter 1 {Postscript,PDF} of Christopher D. Manning and Hinrich Schutze, 1999, Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. © 1999, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Used with kind permission.

Chapter 1 {Postscript,PDF} of Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin, 2000, Speech and Language Processing, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
© 2000, Prentice Hall. Used with kind permission.

Richard Sproat (archivist@aclweb.org). Last updated on December 2, 1999. Copyright © 2000, The Association for Computational Linguistics

[2] What is Computational Linguistics
Computational linguistics (CL) is a discipline between linguistics and computer science which is concerned with the computational aspects of the human language faculty. It belongs to the cognitive sciences and overlaps with the field of artificial intelligence (AI), a branch of computer science that is aiming at computational models of human cognition. There are two components of CL: applied and theoretical.

The applied component of CL is more interested in the practical outcome of modelling human language use. The goal is to create software products that have some knowledge of human language. Such products are urgently needed for improving human-machine interaction since the main obstacle in the interaction beween human and computer is one of communication. Today's computers do not understand our language, and humans have difficulties understand the computer's language, which does not correspond to the structure of human thought.
Natural language interfaces enable the user to communicate with the computer in German, English or another human language. Some applications of such interfaces are database queries, information retrieval from texts and so-called expert systems. Current advances in recognition of spoken language improve the usability of many types of natural language systems. Communication with computers using spoken language will have a lasting impact upon the work environment, opening up completely new areas of application for information technology.
Although existing CL programs are far from achieving human ability, they have numerous possible applications. Even if the language the machine understands and its domain of discourse are very restricted, the use of human language can increase the acceptance of software and the productivity of its users.
Much older than communication problems between human beings and machines are those between people with different mother tongues. One of the original goals of applied computational linguistics was fully automatic translation between human languages. From bitter experience scientists have realized that they are far from achieving this. Nevertheless, computational linguists have created software systems which can simplify the work of human translators and clearly improve their productivity.
The future of applied computational linguistics will be determined by the growing need for user-friendly software. Even though the successful simulation of human language competence is not to be expected in the near future, computational linguists have numerous immediate research goals involving the design, realization and maintenance of systems which facilitate everyday work, such as grammar checkers for word processing programs.

Theoretical CL takes up issues in formal theories. It deals with formal theories about the linguistic knowledge that a human needs for generating and understanding language. Today these theories have reached a degree of complexity that can only be managed by employing computers. Computational linguists develop formal models simulating aspects of the human language faculty and implement them as computer programmes. These programmes constitute the basis for the evaluation and further development of the theories. In addition to linguistic theories, findings from cognitive psychology play a major role in simulating linguistic competence. Within psychology, it is mainly the area of psycholinguistics that examines the cognitive processes constituting human language use.
The special attraction of computational linguistics lies in the combination of methods and strategies from the humanities, natural and behavioural sciences, and engineering.
[Natural Language Processing FAQ, D.R. Radev, 2000.08.22]

area-of-study of sciLagoComputational

description::
"The core areas of computational linguistics include:
* Machine translation (MT): This is the task of automatically translating text from one language to another.
* Natural language understanding (NLU): This is the task of understanding the meaning of natural language text or speech.
* Natural language generation (NLG): This is the task of generating natural language text or speech.
* Speech recognition (SR): This is the task of converting spoken language into text.
* Text analysis: This is the task of extracting information from text, such as the topic of a document or the sentiment of a piece of writing.
* Question answering (QA): This is the task of answering questions posed in natural language.
* Information retrieval (IR): This is the task of finding relevant documents or information from a large corpus of text.
* Computer-assisted language learning (CALL): This is the use of computers to teach and learn languages."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/ computational linguistics overview]
===
Computational linguistics can be divided into major areas depending upon the medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual; and upon the task being performed, whether analyzing language (parsing) or creating language (generation).

Speech recognition and speech synthesis deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers. Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together. Machine translation remains the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages.

Some of the areas of research that are studied by computational linguistics include:
* Computer aided corpus linguistics
* Design of parsers or chunkers for natural languages
* Design of taggers like POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers)
* Definition of specialized logics like resource logics for NLP
* Research in the relation between formal and natural languages in general
* Machine translation, e.g. by a translating computer
* Computational complexity of natural language, largely modeled on automata theory, with the application of context-sensitive grammar and linearly-bounded Turing machines.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'area-of-study,

info-resource of sciLagoComputational

description::
* journal: Computational Linguistics,

"Here are some of the resources you can use to learn more about computational linguistics:
* The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL): https://aclweb.org/
* The Computational Linguistics entry on Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics
* The Introduction to Computational Linguistics textbook by Jurafsky and Martin : https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/
* The Natural Language Processing with Python textbook by Manning, Raghavan, and Schόtze : https://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/
* The Stanford Natural Language Processing Group : https://nlp.stanford.edu/"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'Infrsc,

PARENT-CHILD-TREE of sciLagoComputational

parent-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* techAi,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'parent-tree,

child-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* ,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'child-tree,

GENERIC-SPECIFIC-TREE of sciLagoComputational

generic-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
* ,
* ... entity,
* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational'generic-tree,

specific-tree-of-sciLagoComputational::
"computational linguistics subfields
Computational linguistics is a diverse and multidisciplinary field that focuses on the intersection of linguistics and computer science. It involves developing algorithms, models, and technologies to enable computers to understand, generate, and process human language. Here are some of the key subfields within computational linguistics:
* Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP is the most prominent subfield of computational linguistics. It deals with the interaction between computers and human language. NLP involves tasks like machine translation, sentiment analysis, text summarization, named entity recognition, and part-of-speech tagging.
* Speech Processing: This subfield focuses on speech recognition (converting spoken language into text) and speech synthesis (generating human-like speech from text). Applications include voice assistants, speech-to-text systems, and text-to-speech systems.
* Text Mining and Information Retrieval: Text mining involves extracting meaningful information from large text corpora, while information retrieval focuses on retrieving relevant documents from a collection based on user queries. These subfields are essential for search engines, document categorization, and data analysis.
* Machine Translation: Machine translation aims to automatically translate text or speech from one language to another. This subfield has seen significant advancements with the advent of neural machine translation models.
* Syntax and Grammar Parsing: Parsing involves analyzing the grammatical structure of sentences to understand their syntax. This is crucial for tasks like language generation and understanding.
* Semantic Analysis: This subfield focuses on understanding the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It's important for tasks such as sentiment analysis, question answering, and natural language understanding.
* Discourse Analysis: Discourse analysis deals with how sentences are organized into coherent conversations or texts. It helps in understanding the relationships between sentences and the overall flow of information.
* Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining: These subfields involve determining the emotional tone or sentiment expressed in a piece of text. They have applications in social media monitoring, customer reviews, and brand perception analysis.
* Computational Psycholinguistics: This subfield explores the cognitive processes involved in language production and comprehension, using computational models to simulate how humans process language.
* Linguistic Resources and Corpora: Creating and maintaining linguistic resources, such as annotated text corpora and lexical databases, is crucial for training and evaluating computational linguistics models.
* Dialogue Systems: Also known as conversational agents or chatbots, these systems engage in natural language conversations with users. They find applications in customer support, virtual assistants, and interactive systems.
* Computational Phonetics: This subfield deals with the acoustic and perceptual aspects of speech, often focusing on aspects like speech recognition and speech synthesis.
* Morphology and Lexicon Processing: Morphology involves studying the structure of words, and lexicon processing deals with building and managing dictionaries and word databases.
* Cross-Lingual and Multilingual NLP: These subfields address challenges in processing and understanding languages beyond English, as well as developing models that can work with multiple languages.
These subfields often overlap and interact, leading to innovative approaches and technologies that enable computers to work with human language effectively."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]
===
"computational linguistics subfields
Computational linguistics is a broad field that encompasses many different subfields. Some of the most common subfields include:
* Machine translation is the task of automatically translating text from one language to another.
* Natural language processing (NLP) is a broader field that encompasses all tasks related to the interaction between computers and human language. This includes tasks such as text parsing, text summarization, and question answering.
* Speech recognition is the task of automatically recognizing spoken words.
* Speech synthesis is the task of automatically generating spoken words.
* Corpus linguistics is the study of large collections of text, or corpora. This can be used to study the statistical properties of language, or to develop new NLP algorithms.
* Parsing is the task of determining the grammatical structure of a sentence.
* Tagging is the task of assigning labels to words or phrases, such as their part of speech or their syntactic role.
* Semantics is the study of meaning in language. This can be used to develop NLP algorithms that can understand the meaning of text.
* Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. This can be used to develop NLP algorithms that can understand the meaning of text in a particular context.
These are just a few of the many subfields of computational linguistics. The field is constantly evolving, and new subfields are being developed all the time.
Here are some additional concepts in computational linguistics:
* Tokenization is the process of breaking a text into individual words or tokens.
* Stemming is the process of reducing inflected words to their stem.
* Lemmatization is the process of grouping together different inflected forms of a word under a single lemma.
* Named entity recognition is the task of identifying named entities in text, such as people, places, and organizations.
* Coreference resolution is the task of determining which words or phrases refer to the same entity.
* Question answering is the task of automatically answering questions posed in natural language.
Computational linguistics is a rapidly growing field with many exciting applications. As computers become more powerful and algorithms become more sophisticated, we can expect to see even more advances in this field in the years to come."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

* McsEngl.sciLagoComputational.specific-tree,

sciLago.contemporary-linguistics

description::
"contemporary linguistics overview
Contemporary linguistics is the study of language in the present day. It is a broad field that encompasses many different subfields, including:
* Phonetics: The study of the sounds of language.
* Phonology: The study of the system of sounds in a language.
* Morphology: The study of the structure of words.
* Syntax: The study of the structure of sentences.
* Semantics: The study of the meaning of words and sentences.
* Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in context.
* Sociolinguistics: The study of the relationship between language and society.
* Psycholinguistics: The study of the mental processes involved in language use.
* Computational linguistics: The study of the use of computers to process and analyze language.
Contemporary linguistics is a dynamic field that is constantly evolving. New research is being conducted all the time, and new theories are being proposed. One of the most important developments in contemporary linguistics is the rise of interdisciplinary research. Linguists are now working with researchers from other fields, such as psychology, anthropology, and computer science, to gain a better understanding of language.
Here are some of the key questions that contemporary linguists are trying to answer:
* How do children acquire language?
* How does language change over time?
* How do languages interact with each other?
* How is language processed in the brain?
* How can we use computers to understand language?
* How is language used in different social contexts?
* How is language related to other cognitive abilities?
Contemporary linguistics is a fascinating and ever-changing field of study. It is essential for understanding how language works and how it is used in the world.
Here are some of the major trends in contemporary linguistics:
* The rise of interdisciplinary research
* The increasing use of computational methods
* The growing focus on the social and cultural aspects of language
* The increasing attention to the role of language in cognition and communication
These trends are likely to continue to shape the field of contemporary linguistics in the years to come."
[{2023-09-03 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.contemporary-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.010-contemporary-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.contemporary-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
"contemporary linguistics overview
Contemporary linguistics is a dynamic and diverse field that encompasses various sub-disciplines and approaches to the study of language. Here's an overview of some key aspects of contemporary linguistics:
* Theoretical Approaches:
- Generative Grammar: Developed by Noam Chomsky, this approach focuses on the innate, universal principles that underlie the structure of all human languages. It seeks to uncover the underlying grammar rules that generate sentences.
- Functional Linguistics: Functional linguists, such as Michael Halliday, emphasize the communicative functions of language and how language reflects and shapes human cognition and social interaction.
- Cognitive Linguistics: This approach, pioneered by linguists like George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker, explores the relationship between language and thought. It emphasizes concepts like image schemas and conceptual metaphors.
- Construction Grammar: Construction grammarians study how language is composed of various constructions, which are form-meaning pairings, and how these constructions are used in discourse.
* Subfields:
- Sociolinguistics: This branch investigates the relationship between language and society, exploring issues such as language variation, dialects, social factors influencing language use, and language change.
- Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguists study the cognitive processes involved in language comprehension, production, and acquisition. They explore topics like language development, language disorders, and the mental representation of language.
- Neurolinguistics: Neurolinguists examine the neural basis of language processing. They use techniques like brain imaging to understand how the brain processes language and how language impairments relate to brain damage.
- Pragmatics: Pragmatics explores the use of language in context, focusing on how meaning is constructed through speaker intentions, implicatures, speech acts, and conversational principles.
- Corpus Linguistics: This subfield involves the analysis of large collections of texts (corpora) to extract patterns of language use, helping researchers understand real-world language usage and changes.
- Computational Linguistics: Computational linguists develop algorithms and models to process and generate human language. Applications include machine translation, speech recognition, and natural language understanding.
* Applied Linguistics:
- Applied linguistics applies linguistic theories and methods to practical issues such as language teaching, translation, language policy, and language planning.
* Interdisciplinary Research:
- Contemporary linguistics frequently collaborates with other disciplines, such as psychology, cognitive science, anthropology, and computer science, to gain deeper insights into language-related phenomena.
* Language Documentation and Preservation:
- Efforts to document and preserve endangered languages have gained importance in contemporary linguistics, as many languages are at risk of extinction.
* Technological Advancements:
- The use of technology, including computational tools and large linguistic databases, has transformed how linguists collect, analyze, and process linguistic data.
* Language and Culture:
- Linguists increasingly consider the interaction between language and culture, examining how language reflects cultural norms, values, and identity.
Contemporary linguistics is a vibrant and evolving field that continues to explore the complexities of human language from multiple angles. It seeks to address both fundamental questions about language structure and function and practical applications in diverse areas of society."
[{2023-09-03 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

sciLago.descriptive-linguistics

description::
"In the study of language, description or descriptive linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a speech community.[1]
All academic research in linguistics is descriptive; like all other scientific disciplines, it seeks to describe reality, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be.[2][3][4][5] Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others.[6] This type of linguistics utilizes different methods in order to describe a language such as basic data collection, and different types of elicitation methods.[7]"
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description]

name::
* McsEngl.descriptive-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.005-descriptive-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.descriptive-linguistics,

relation-to-prescription of descriptive-linguistics

description::
"Linguistic description is often contrasted with linguistic prescription,[8] which is found especially in education and in publishing.[9][10]
As English-linguist Larry Andrews describes it, descriptive grammar is the linguistic approach which studies what a language is like, as opposed to prescriptive, which declares what a language should be like.[11]: 25  In other words, descriptive grammarians focus analysis on how all kinds of people in all sorts of environments, usually in more casual, everyday settings, communicate, whereas prescriptive grammarians focus on the grammatical rules and structures predetermined by linguistic registers and figures of power. An example that Andrews uses in his book is fewer than vs less than.[11]: 26  A descriptive grammarian would state that both statements are equally valid, as long as the meaning behind the statement can be understood. A prescriptive grammarian would analyze the rules and conventions behind both statements to determine which statement is correct or otherwise preferable. Andrews also believes that, although most linguists would be descriptive grammarians, most public school teachers tend to be prescriptive.[11]: 26 "
[{2023-09-22 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description#Descriptive_versus_prescriptive_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.desciptive-linguistics-relation-to-prescriptive,
* McsEngl.prescriptive-linguistics-relation-to-desciptive,

sciLago.evolutionary-linguistics

description::
"Evolutionary linguistics or Darwinian linguistics is a sociobiological approach to the study of language.[1][2] Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. The approach is also closely linked with evolutionary anthropology, cognitive linguistics and biolinguistics. Studying languages as the products of nature, it is interested in the biological origin and development of language.[3] Evolutionary linguistics is contrasted with humanistic approaches, especially structural linguistics.[4]
A main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: there are no archaeological traces of early human language. Computational biological modelling and clinical research with artificial languages have been employed to fill in gaps of knowledge. Although biology is understood to shape the brain, which processes language, there is no clear link between biology and specific human language structures or linguistic universals.[5]
For lack of a breakthrough in the field, there have been numerous debates about what kind of natural phenomenon language might be. Some researchers focus on the innate aspects of language. It is suggested that grammar has emerged adaptationally from the human genome, bringing about a language instinct;[6] or that it depends on a single mutation[7] which has caused a language organ to appear in the human brain.[8] This is hypothesized to result in a crystalline[9] grammatical structure underlying all human languages. Others suggest language is not crystallized, but fluid and ever-changing.[10] Others, yet, liken languages to living organisms.[11] Languages are considered analogous to a parasite[12] or populations of mind-viruses. There is so far little scientific evidence for any of these claims, and some of them have been labelled as pseudoscience.[13][14]"
[{2023-09-01 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.evolutionary-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.008-evolutionary-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.evolutionary-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
">evolutionary linguistics overview:
Evolutionary linguistics is a field of study that explores the evolution of language and its biological and cultural foundations. It seeks to understand the origins of language, how it has evolved over time, and the role of biological and cultural factors in shaping linguistic diversity. Here's an overview of key concepts and themes in evolutionary linguistics:

1. **Language Evolution:**
- **Biological Foundations:** Evolutionary linguistics considers the biological basis of language, exploring the role of genetics, neurobiology, and cognitive processes in the development of linguistic abilities.
- **Cultural Evolution:** In addition to biological factors, cultural evolution plays a crucial role. Language is transmitted culturally through generations, and cultural factors influence linguistic changes and diversity.

2. **Proto-Language and Common Ancestry:**
- Researchers in evolutionary linguistics often seek to identify a "proto-language" or a common ancestral language from which modern languages have descended. This involves reconstructing linguistic features that might have been present in early human communities.

3. **Language and Cognitive Evolution:**
- Evolutionary linguistics investigates the cognitive processes that underlie language acquisition and use. This includes studying the development of language in children and examining how cognitive abilities evolved to support linguistic communication.

4. **Social and Cultural Influences:**
- Language is not only a biological phenomenon but also deeply intertwined with culture and society. Evolutionary linguistics considers the social aspects of language, including how communication systems develop in social groups and how cultural factors shape linguistic diversity.

5. **Darwinian Evolution of Language:**
- Some researchers frame language evolution within a Darwinian framework, proposing that language, like other biological traits, has evolved through natural selection. This perspective considers the adaptive advantages that language conferred to early human populations.

6. **Symbolic Communication:**
- Evolutionary linguistics examines the emergence of symbolic communication in humans. The ability to convey abstract meanings through symbols is a key aspect of language, and understanding how this capacity evolved is a central focus.

7. **Comparative Linguistics:**
- Comparative linguistics involves the comparison of different languages to identify commonalities and differences. Evolutionary linguistics extends this approach to understand the historical relationships between languages and trace their development over time.

8. **Genetic and Archaeological Evidence:**
- Researchers explore genetic and archaeological evidence to complement linguistic data. Genetic studies may provide insights into the biological underpinnings of language abilities, while archaeological findings can shed light on the cultural contexts in which language evolved.

9. **Computational Models:**
- Computational models are often employed to simulate and test hypotheses about language evolution. These models may incorporate factors such as population dynamics, cultural transmission, and cognitive processes to explore how languages change and diversify over time.

Evolutionary linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that draws on insights from linguistics, anthropology, psychology, biology, and other disciplines to unravel the complex and interconnected factors that have shaped the evolution of language. The study of language evolution remains a dynamic and evolving field as researchers continue to refine their understanding through new discoveries and methodologies."
[{2023-11-22 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/fbdb4735-643b-4350-aad1-4e6373db4e0e]

sciLago.formal-language-theory

description::
"formal linguistics vs formal language theory:
Formal linguistics and formal language theory are two related but distinct fields that deal with the study and analysis of language, whether natural or artificial. Here are the key differences between them:

1. Focus and Purpose:
- **Formal Linguistics:** Formal linguistics is primarily concerned with the study of natural languages, such as English, Spanish, or Japanese. It seeks to understand and describe the structure, grammar, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of human languages. Formal linguists analyze how languages are structured, how they function, and how people use them for communication.
- **Formal Language Theory:** Formal language theory, on the other hand, is a branch of theoretical computer science and mathematics. It deals with the study of formal languages, which are abstract mathematical constructs used to describe and specify languages, whether they are natural languages or artificial languages like programming languages. Formal language theory focuses on the mathematical properties, grammars, and automata associated with these formal languages.

2. Nature of Languages:
- **Formal Linguistics:** This field deals with natural languages, which are complex, dynamic, and used for human communication. Linguists study the intricacies of natural language, including its irregularities and nuances.
- **Formal Language Theory:** This field deals with formal languages, which are constructed and defined with precision. Formal languages are designed to be unambiguous and are used in computer science and mathematics for specific purposes, such as programming, parsing, and formal reasoning.

3. Methods and Techniques:
- **Formal Linguistics:** Linguists use a wide range of methods, including fieldwork, corpus analysis, psycholinguistic experiments, and linguistic theory to study natural languages. They often use descriptive and comparative approaches to understand and document languages.
- **Formal Language Theory:** Formal language theory employs mathematical and theoretical tools, including formal grammars, automata, regular expressions, and context-free grammars, to analyze and describe formal languages. It focuses on the mathematical properties and computational aspects of language.

4. Applications:
- **Formal Linguistics:** The applications of formal linguistics include language teaching, natural language processing (NLP), machine translation, speech recognition, and linguistic research to understand and document human languages.
- **Formal Language Theory:** This field is used in the development of programming languages, compilers, formal verification, parsing algorithms, and in various areas of theoretical computer science.

In summary, formal linguistics deals with the study of natural languages and their properties, while formal language theory is a branch of mathematics and computer science that focuses on abstract, formal languages and their mathematical properties. While they are distinct fields, there can be some overlap, especially in the study of formal aspects of natural languages and their formalization for computational purposes."
[{2023-10-14 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/9ade04b6-1074-4742-9927-a38a6d4d4df5]

name::
* McsEngl.FLTH!=formal-language-theory,
* McsEngl.formal-language-theory,
* McsEngl.programming-language-theory,
* McsEngl.sciLago.036-formal-language-theory,
* McsEngl.sciLago.formal-language-theory,
* McsEngl.theory-of-programming-language,

descriptionLong::
"overview of programming-language-theory:
Programming language theory, often referred to as formal language theory or the theory of programming languages, is a field of computer science that focuses on the study of programming languages and their properties. It provides a foundation for understanding how programming languages work, their design, and their implementation. Here is an overview of key aspects of programming language theory:

1. **Syntax and Semantics**: Programming languages have both syntax and semantics. Syntax defines the structure and rules for forming valid programs, while semantics defines the meaning of those programs. In programming language theory, researchers study various formal methods for specifying and analyzing syntax and semantics.

2. **Formal Grammars**: Formal grammars, such as context-free grammars and regular expressions, are used to define the syntax of programming languages. These grammars help in specifying the structure of programs and creating parsers to validate and process them.

3. **Type Systems**: Type systems are used to classify and control the types of data in a programming language. They help prevent type-related errors and ensure that operations are performed on compatible data. Type theory is a fundamental concept in programming language theory.

4. **Programming Language Paradigms**: There are various programming paradigms, such as imperative, functional, object-oriented, logic-based, and more. Programming language theory explores the characteristics and advantages of each paradigm and how they influence language design.

5. **Interpretation and Compilation**: The field studies techniques for translating high-level programming languages into machine code. This includes both interpretation (direct execution of source code) and compilation (translation into an intermediate representation or binary code). Compiler construction and interpreter design are critical areas of research.

6. **Language Design**: Researchers in this field study how to design programming languages that are both expressive and easy to use. They explore features like control structures, data types, scoping rules, and language extensibility.

7. **Language Implementation**: Implementation techniques include lexical analysis (tokenization), parsing (syntactic analysis), and code generation. Optimizations, like code optimization and memory management, are also part of this area.

8. **Language Formalism**: Formal methods and mathematical notations are often used to analyze and prove properties of programming languages. This includes formal semantics, which provides a mathematical model of a language's behavior.

9. **Program Verification**: This aspect focuses on the formal verification of programs to ensure their correctness. Techniques like formal proof systems, model checking, and abstract interpretation are used to prove program properties.

10. **Language Evolution**: As programming languages evolve, programming language theory plays a role in understanding how changes impact language usability, expressiveness, and maintainability.

11. **Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs)**: DSLs are specialized languages designed for specific problem domains. Programming language theory is involved in the design and implementation of DSLs.

12. **Concurrency and Parallelism**: As multi-core and distributed computing become prevalent, the field also covers the design of languages and constructs for handling concurrent and parallel programming.

13. **Language Formalization**: Formal specification and standardization of programming languages are essential for language adoption and compatibility. Organizations like ISO and ANSI work on standardizing programming languages.

14. **Error Handling and Exception Handling**: Research in this area deals with techniques for handling errors and exceptions in a robust and maintainable way.

Programming language theory is a foundational field that impacts various areas of computer science, including software engineering, compiler construction, formal methods, and artificial intelligence. It helps in designing, analyzing, and using programming languages effectively and efficiently, ultimately contributing to the development of reliable and maintainable software systems."
[{2023-10-20 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/b46cb7b5-a9ad-4d05-8626-4f2e903cdaaa]

sciLago.formal-linguistics

description::
"formal linguistics overview
Formal linguistics is a branch of linguistics that uses mathematical and computational methods to study the structure and meaning of language. It is concerned with developing explicit and precise theories of language, and with using these theories to explain and predict how language works.
Formal linguistics is often divided into four main subfields:
* Syntax: the study of how words are combined to form sentences
* Semantics: the study of the meaning of words and sentences
* Phonology: the study of the sound system of language
* Morphology: the study of how words are formed and how their meaning is related to their structure
Formal linguists use a variety of tools and methods to study language, including:
* Formal grammars: systems of rules that describe the structure of sentences
* Logical expressions: representations of the meaning of sentences
* Computational models: algorithms that can be used to generate and parse sentences
Formal linguistics has a wide range of applications, including:
* Natural language processing (NLP): the development of computer programs that can understand and generate human language
* Language teaching: the development of methods for teaching languages more effectively
* Speech recognition: the development of computer programs that can recognize spoken language
* Machine translation: the development of computer programs that can translate text from one language to another
Formal linguistics is a relatively new field of study, but it has made significant progress in recent decades. Formal linguists have developed a number of powerful theories and tools for studying language, and their work has had a major impact on our understanding of how language works.
Here are some of the most important concepts and theories in formal linguistics:
* Generative grammar: A framework for developing formal grammars of natural languages.
* The theory of government and binding: A theory of syntax that proposes that the structure of sentences is governed by a set of universal principles.
* The minimalist program: A recent approach to generative grammar that aims to reduce the complexity of the theory while maintaining its explanatory power.
* Optimality theory: A theory of phonology that proposes that the sound system of a language is governed by a set of competing constraints.
* Formal semantics: A field of study that develops formal representations of the meaning of words and sentences.
Formal linguistics is a complex and challenging field, but it is also a rewarding one. Formal linguists have the opportunity to make significant contributions to our understanding of one of the most fundamental aspects of human cognition."
[{2023-09-16 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.013-formal-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.formal-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
"formal linguistics overview
Formal linguistics is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the development and analysis of formal models and theories to understand the structure and organization of natural languages. It seeks to provide a systematic and rigorous framework for studying language, which can be applied to various linguistic phenomena. Here is an overview of key concepts and aspects of formal linguistics:
* Formalism: Formal linguistics employs mathematical and symbolic notation to represent linguistic structures and rules. This formalism allows linguists to describe and analyze language in a precise and systematic manner.
* Grammar: Grammar is a central focus of formal linguistics. Linguists develop formal grammatical models to describe the structure of sentences and phrases in a language. Common formal grammatical frameworks include:
- Generative Grammar: This framework, pioneered by Noam Chomsky, aims to generate all possible sentences in a language using a set of rules and principles.
- Transformational Grammar: A subfield of generative grammar, transformational grammar focuses on how sentences can be transformed from one structure to another through operations like movement and deletion.
- Constraint-Based Grammar: These grammatical models use constraints to specify the well-formedness of linguistic structures, often associated with various linguistic theories like Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) and Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG).
* Phonology: Formal linguistics also addresses the sound systems of languages through phonological rules and representations. Phonological rules describe how sounds change and interact in a language.
* Syntax: Syntax is the study of sentence structure. Formal syntactic theories aim to represent the hierarchical and grammatical relationships between words and phrases within a sentence.
* Semantics: Semantics deals with the meaning of linguistic expressions. Formal semantics provides a mathematical framework for representing meaning, often using logic-based approaches.
* Morphology: Morphology studies the internal structure of words and how they are formed from smaller units called morphemes. Formal models of morphology aim to capture the rules governing morphological processes.
* Computational Linguistics: Formal linguistics has strong ties to computational linguistics, where formal models and algorithms are applied to natural language processing tasks, such as machine translation, speech recognition, and sentiment analysis.
* Typology: Formal linguistics often explores language universals and cross-linguistic patterns to uncover similarities and differences between languages. Typological studies help linguists understand the range of linguistic possibilities.
* Language Acquisition: Formal linguistic theories also play a role in understanding how children acquire language. These theories provide insights into the stages and mechanisms of language development.
* Psycholinguistics: Formal linguistic models are used to study how language is processed in the human mind. This field examines how linguistic structures are represented and accessed during language comprehension and production.
* Historical Linguistics: Formal linguistics can help analyze historical language change and the evolution of linguistic structures over time.
* Pragmatics: While formal linguistics primarily focuses on structure and meaning, it may also intersect with pragmatics, the study of how context influences language use.
Overall, formal linguistics provides a systematic framework for the study of language, helping linguists analyze linguistic data, develop theories, and gain insights into the structure and functioning of natural languages. It plays a crucial role in various interdisciplinary fields, including cognitive science, artificial intelligence, and language technology."
[{2023-09-16 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/f1490d2c-39d7-4d5f-bef7-b2a2bd1119b9]

sciLago.functional-linguistics

description::
"functional linguistics definition
Functional linguistics is a linguistic approach and theory that focuses on the functional aspects of language, emphasizing how language is used for communication and the roles it serves in various social and cultural contexts. It is concerned with the study of meaning, the analysis of language in its context, and the examination of language as a tool for expressing and negotiating meaning in real-life situations. Functional linguistics explores how language functions in communication, how it conveys information, and how it is influenced by social, cultural, and situational factors. This approach stands in contrast to structural or formal linguistics, which primarily focuses on the internal structures and rules of language."
[{2023-09-01 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha]

name::
* McsEngl.functional-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.007-functional-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.functional-linguistics,

sciLago.generative-linguistics

description::
"overview of generative-linguistics:
Generative linguistics is a prominent theoretical framework in the field of linguistics that seeks to understand the underlying structure and principles governing human language. It was initially developed by Noam Chomsky in the mid-20th century and has since undergone several iterations. Generative linguistics has had a profound influence on the study of syntax, semantics, and phonology, and it continues to be a central area of research in linguistics.

Here is an overview of some key aspects of generative linguistics:

1. Chomskyan Revolution: Noam Chomsky's groundbreaking work in the 1950s and 1960s revolutionized the field of linguistics. He argued that human language is not a mere product of behavior or conditioning but is governed by a set of innate cognitive structures and rules. Chomsky introduced the notion of a "universal grammar," a hypothetical, innate framework that underlies all human languages.

2. Generative Grammar: Generative linguistics is centered around the concept of generative grammar, a set of rules and principles that generate all the grammatical sentences in a language while excluding ungrammatical ones. Chomsky proposed several generations of generative grammars, with the most well-known being Transformational-Generative Grammar and the later development of Government and Binding Theory (GB) and the Minimalist Program.

3. Deep Structure and Surface Structure: Chomsky's theory includes the idea that a sentence has both a deep structure (an abstract representation of meaning) and a surface structure (the actual arrangement of words). Transformations are operations that convert the deep structure into the surface structure. This concept was central to the development of transformational grammar.

4. Universal Grammar: One of the foundational ideas in generative linguistics is the notion of Universal Grammar (UG). UG posits that humans are born with a biological predisposition to acquire language, and this innate knowledge of linguistic structures is shared across all languages. Linguists aim to uncover the common underlying principles that are present in every language, as well as the differences between languages.

5. Formalism and Rules: Generative linguistics is characterized by its formal and rule-based approach to language. It uses symbols, notation, and formal rules to describe the structure of sentences, phrases, and words in a language. This formalism allows linguists to generate and analyze the grammatical structure of sentences.

6. Challenging Behaviorism: Chomsky's generative linguistics challenged the dominant behaviorist view of language acquisition at the time, which emphasized conditioning and imitation. Instead, Chomsky argued that language is too complex to be explained solely through learned associations and proposed a more cognitive and biologically rooted approach.

7. Critiques and Developments: Generative linguistics has faced criticism and alternative approaches over the years, including functional linguistics, cognitive linguistics, and connectionist models. These alternative perspectives emphasize the role of language in communication and its relationship with cognitive processes.

Generative linguistics remains a significant and evolving field of study, with various theoretical frameworks and debates. Linguists within this tradition continue to investigate the structure of languages and the nature of Universal Grammar while adapting to new empirical findings and theoretical developments in the field."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/5ccfd597-5e7a-4330-9955-ca815bc40bb6]

name::
* McsEngl.generative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.038-generative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.generative-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
"overview of generative-linguistics:
**Generative linguistics** is a theoretical framework in linguistics that views language as a mental computational process. It is concerned with the underlying structure and principles of language, and how these principles are used to generate and interpret sentences.

Generative grammar was originally developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 1960s, and it has been one of the most influential theories in linguistics ever since. It has been used to study a wide range of linguistic phenomena, including syntax, semantics, phonology, and morphology.

One of the key tenets of generative grammar is that all humans are born with an innate capacity for language, known as **Universal Grammar** (UG). UG is a set of universal principles that govern the structure of all human languages. These principles are thought to be responsible for the fact that children are able to learn their native language so quickly and easily, even though they are exposed to only a limited amount of linguistic data.

Another key tenet of generative grammar is that syntax is the central component of language. Syntax is the study of the rules that govern how words are combined to form sentences. Generative grammars typically model syntax using phrase structure rules and transformational rules.

Phrase structure rules specify how words are combined to form phrases, and transformational rules specify how phrases can be manipulated to form new phrases or sentences.

Generative grammar has been very successful in explaining a wide range of linguistic phenomena. For example, it has been used to explain why certain sentences are grammatical and others are not, and how the meaning of a sentence can be affected by its structure.

However, generative grammar has also been criticized by some linguists. For example, some linguists have argued that UG is too abstract and that it is not supported by empirical evidence. Others have argued that generative grammar is too focused on syntax and that it does not adequately account for other aspects of language, such as semantics and pragmatics.

Despite these criticisms, generative grammar remains one of the most important and influential theories in linguistics. It has provided a new way of thinking about language and has helped us to understand the underlying principles that govern the way we speak and write.

Here are some of the **key contributions of generative linguistics** to the study of language:
* It has provided a formal and explicit framework for describing the syntax of language.
* It has introduced the concept of Universal Grammar, which has helped us to understand the common principles that underlie all human languages.
* It has developed a range of tools and techniques for analyzing linguistic data, which have been used to study a wide range of linguistic phenomena.
* It has stimulated research into other aspects of language, such as semantics, pragmatics, and psycholinguistics.

Generative linguistics is a complex and sophisticated theory, but it has had a profound impact on our understanding of language. It continues to be one of the most active and vibrant areas of research in linguistics today."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/1efcd0e9160c1390]

evoluting of generative-linguistics

description::
"evolution of generative-linguistics:
Generative linguistics is a theory of linguistics that aims to explain the structure of language and the way language is generated in the mind. It has evolved over several decades, with significant contributions from various linguists and researchers. Here is an overview of the evolution of generative linguistics:

1. Structuralism (Early 20th Century):
- Generative linguistics can be seen as a reaction to structuralism, which dominated linguistics in the early 20th century. Structuralists focused on analyzing the surface structure of languages and identifying patterns without delving into the underlying mental processes involved in language production and comprehension.

2. Transformational Grammar (1950s):
- Noam Chomsky's work in the 1950s marked the beginning of generative linguistics. He introduced transformational grammar, which aimed to describe the implicit knowledge that speakers of a language have about the underlying structure of sentences. Chomsky's book "Syntactic Structures" (1957) was a seminal work in this regard.

3. Chomskyan Revolution (1960s-1970s):
- Chomsky's ideas went through several phases of development, leading to the establishment of several generative theories such as Chomskyan transformational grammar, government and binding theory, and the minimalist program. These theories proposed formal rules and principles for generating sentences in natural languages and focused on deep structures and transformations that convert them into surface structures.

4. Universal Grammar:
- Chomsky introduced the concept of Universal Grammar (UG), which posits that there is a universal underlying structure shared by all human languages. UG is a part of the biological endowment of human beings and accounts for the similarities in the grammatical structure of languages around the world.

5. Generative Semantics (1960s-1970s):
- Generative semantics was a linguistic movement that emerged in response to transformational grammar. It proposed that meaning should be incorporated into the syntax of a sentence, leading to an emphasis on deep structures and their relationship to meaning. This approach was influential for a time but eventually fell out of favor.

6. Government and Binding Theory (1980s):
- Chomsky's government and binding theory incorporated more detailed principles for understanding the relationship between syntax and semantics. It introduced notions like government, binding, and the modular organization of language.

7. The Minimalist Program (1990s-Present):
- Chomsky's minimalist program is a more recent development in generative linguistics, which seeks to identify the simplest and most efficient principles of language generation. It aims to explain language with the fewest possible rules and components.

8. Current Developments (21st Century):
- Generative linguistics continues to evolve with ongoing debates and refinements. Researchers have explored various aspects of syntax, morphology, phonology, and semantics within the generative framework, and the field remains a dynamic and influential area of linguistic research.

It's important to note that generative linguistics is just one of many approaches to studying language, and it has faced criticism and challenges from other linguistic theories, such as cognitive linguistics and usage-based approaches. Nonetheless, generative linguistics has had a profound impact on the field of linguistics and has contributed significantly to our understanding of language structure and human cognition."
[{2023-10-19 retrieved} https://chat.openai.com/c/737011d9-d137-46b4-a0e8-720ff44edb12]

name::
* McsEngl.evoluting-of-generative-linguistics,
* McsEngl.generative-linguistics'evoluting,

sciLago.international-linguistics

description::
"International linguistics is the study of language from a global perspective. It encompasses the study of the diversity of languages around the world, as well as the ways in which languages interact with each other. International linguistics scholars may examine topics such as:
* The historical development of different languages and language families
* The relationship between language and culture
* The spread of languages across borders
* Language policy and planning
* The use of language in education and other social contexts
International linguistics is a highly interdisciplinary field, drawing on insights from anthropology, sociology, psychology, computer science, and other disciplines. It is also a very practical field, with applications in areas such as language education, translation, and speech therapy.
Here are some examples of international linguistics research:
* A study of the ways in which English is used as a lingua franca in different parts of the world
* An investigation of the relationship between language and identity in multilingual communities
* A comparative analysis of the grammatical structures of different languages
* A study of the use of technology to promote language learning and preservation
* A development of language policy recommendations for governments and educational institutions
International linguistics is a rapidly growing field, as the world becomes increasingly interconnected and multilingual. It is a fascinating and important field of study that can help us to better understand ourselves and the world around us."
[{2023-09-30 retrieved} https://bard.google.com/chat/979d8d19cef79b15]

name::
* McsEngl.international-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.027-international-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.international-linguistics,

sciLago.linguistic-philosophy

description::
"Linguistic philosophy is the view that many or all philosophical problems can be solved (or dissolved) by paying closer attention to language, either by reforming language or by better understanding our everyday language.[1] The former position is that of ideal language philosophy, one prominent example being logical atomism. The latter is the view defended in ordinary language philosophy.[2]"
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy]

name::
* McsEngl.linguistic-philosophy,
* McsEngl.sciLago.014-linguistic-philosophy,
* McsEngl.sciLago.linguistic-philosophy,

sciLago.neurolinguistics

description::
"Neurolinguistics is the study of neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methods and theories from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, communication disorders and neuropsychology. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.[1]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.neurolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.001-neurolinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.neurolinguistics,

sciLago.philosophy-of-language

description::
"In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language and the relations between language, language users, and the world.[1] Investigations may include inquiry into the nature of meaning, intentionality, reference, the constitution of sentences, concepts, learning, and thought.
Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell were pivotal figures in analytic philosophy's "linguistic turn". These writers were followed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), the Vienna Circle, logical positivists, and Willard Van Orman Quine.[2]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language]

name::
* McsEngl.philosophy-of-language,
* McsEngl.sciLago.philosophy-of-language,

sciLago.priscriptive-linguistics

description::
"Linguistic prescription, or prescriptive grammar, is the establishment of rules defining preferred usage of language.[1][2] These rules may address such linguistic aspects as spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Sometimes informed by linguistic purism,[3] such normative practices often suggest that some usages are incorrect, inconsistent, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value, even in cases where such usage is more common than the prescribed usage.[4][5] They may also include judgments on socially proper and politically correct language use.[6]
Linguistic prescriptivism may aim to establish a standard language, teach what a particular society or sector of a society perceives as a correct or proper form, or advise on effective and stylistically felicitous communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might appear resistant to language change; if radical, it may produce neologisms.[7]
Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with the descriptive approach, employed in academic linguistics, which observes and records how language is actually used without any judgment.[8][9] The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field study, both of which are descriptive activities. Description may also include researchers' observations of their own language usage. In the Eastern European linguistic tradition, the discipline dealing with standard language cultivation and prescription is known as "language culture" or "speech culture".[10][11]
Despite being apparent opposites, prescriptive and descriptive approaches have a certain degree of conceptual overlap[12] as comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account and record existing speaker preferences, and a prior understanding of how language is actually used is necessary for prescription to be effective. Since the mid-20th century some dictionaries and style guides, which are prescriptive works by nature, have increasingly integrated descriptive material and approaches. Examples of guides updated to add more descriptive material include Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961) and the third edition Garner's Modern English Usage (2009) in English, or the Nouveau Petit Robert (1993)[13] in French. A partially descriptive approach can be especially useful when approaching topics of ongoing conflict between authorities, or in different dialects, disciplines, styles, or registers. Other guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style, are designed to impose a single style and thus remain primarily prescriptive (as of 2017).
Some authors define "prescriptivism" as the concept where a certain language variety is promoted as linguistically superior to others, thus recognizing the standard language ideology as a constitutive element of prescriptivism or even identifying prescriptivism with this system of views.[14][15] Others, however, use this term in relation to any attempts to recommend or mandate a particular way of language usage (in a specific context or register), without, however, implying that these practices must involve propagating the standard language ideology.[16][17] According to another understanding, the prescriptive attitude is an approach to norm-formulating and codification that involves imposing arbitrary rulings upon a speech community,[18] as opposed to more liberal approaches that draw heavily from descriptive surveys;[19][20] in a wider sense, however, the latter also constitute a form of prescriptivism.[10]
Mate Kapović makes a distinction between "prescription" and "prescriptivism", defining the former as "process of codification of a certain variety of language for some sort of official use", and the latter as "an unscientific tendency to mystify linguistic prescription".[21]"
[{2023-08-31 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_prescription]

name::
* McsEngl.priscriptive-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.006-priscriptive-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.priscriptive-linguistics,

sciLago.psycholinguistics

description::
"Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the interrelation between linguistic factors and psychological aspects.[1] The discipline is mainly concerned with the mechanisms by which language is processed and represented in the mind and brain; that is, the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language.[2]
Psycholinguistics is concerned with the cognitive faculties and processes that are necessary to produce the grammatical constructions of language. It is also concerned with the perception of these constructions by a listener.
Initial forays into psycholinguistics were in the philosophical and educational fields, due mainly to their location in departments other than applied sciences (e.g., cohesive data on how the human brain functioned). Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information science to study how the mind-brain processes language, and less so the known processes of social sciences, human development, communication theories, and infant development, among others.
There are several subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain. For example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right, and developmental psycholinguistics, as a branch of psycholinguistics, concerns itself with a child's ability to learn language."
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.psycholinguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.psycholinguistics,

descriptionLong::
Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes language.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics]

The 20th Century has seen the emergence of psycholinguistics, an interdisciplinary field of research concerned with the cognitive bases of linguistic competence. Both linguists and psycholinguists have explored in considerable depth the factors determining the contemporary (synchronic) structure of linguistic knowledge in general, and lexical knowledge in particular— Miller and Johnson-Laird (1976) have proposed that research concerned with the lexical component of language should be called psycholexicology. As linguistic theories evolved in recent decades, linguists became increasingly explicit about the information a lexicon must contain in order for the phonological, syntactic, and lexical components to work together in the everyday production and comprehension of linguistic messages, and those proposals have been incorporated into the work of psycholinguists. Beginning with word association studies at the turn of the century and continuing down to the sophisticated experimental tasks of the past twenty years, psycholinguists have discovered many synchronic properties of the mental lexicon that can be exploited in lexicography.
[WordNet 5Papers]

Within psychology, it is mainly the area of psycholinguistics that examines the cognitive processes constituting human language use.
[Natural Language Processing FAQ, D.R. Radev, 2000.08.22]

sciLago.structural-linguistics

description::
"Structural linguistics, or structuralism, in linguistics, denotes schools or theories in which language is conceived as a self-contained, self-regulating semiotic system whose elements are defined by their relationship to other elements within the system.[1][2] It is derived from the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and is part of the overall approach of structuralism. Saussure's Course in General Linguistics, published posthumously in 1916, stressed examining language as a dynamic system of interconnected units. Saussure is also known for introducing several basic dimensions of semiotic analysis that are still important today. Two of these are his key methods of syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis,[3] which define units syntactically and lexically, respectively, according to their contrast with the other units in the system.
Structuralism as a term, however, was not used by Saussure, who called the approach semiology. The term structuralism is derived from sociologist Émile Durkheim's anti-Darwinian modification of Herbert Spencer's organic analogy which draws a parallel between social structures and the organs of an organism which have different functions or purposes.[4] Similar analogies and metaphors were used in the historical-comparative linguistics that Saussure was part of.[5][6] Saussure himself made a modification of August Schleicher's language–species analogy, based on William Dwight Whitney's critical writings, to turn focus to the internal elements of the language organism, or system.[7] Nonetheless, structural linguistics became mainly associated with Saussure's notion of language as a dual interactive system of symbols and concepts. The term structuralism was adopted to linguistics after Saussure's death by the Prague school linguists Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy; while the term structural linguistics was coined by Louis Hjelmslev.[8]"
[{2023-08-30 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.011-structural-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.structural-linguistics,
* McsEngl.structural-linguistics,

sciLago.theory-of-language

description::
"Theory of language is a topic from philosophy of language and theoretical linguistics.[1] It has the goal of answering the questions "What is language?";[2][3] "Why do languages have the properties they have?";[4] or "What is the origin of language?". In addition to these fundamental questions, the theory of language also seeks to understand how language is acquired and used by individuals and communities. This involves investigating the cognitive and neural processes involved in language processing and production, as well as the social and cultural factors that shape linguistic behavior.[5]
Even though much of the research in linguistics is descriptive or prescriptive, there exists an underlying assumption that terminological and methodological choices reflect the researcher's opinion of language. These choices often stem from the theoretical framework a linguist subscribes to, shaping their interpretation of linguistic phenomena. For instance, within the generative grammar framework, linguists might focus on underlying syntactic structures, while cognitive linguists might emphasize the role of conceptual metaphor.[6][7] Linguists are divided into different schools of thinking, with the nature–nurture debate as the main divide.[8] Some linguistics conferences and journals are focussed on a specific theory of language, while others disseminate a variety of views.[9]
Like in other human and social sciences, theories in linguistics can be divided into humanistic and sociobiological approaches.[10] Same terms, for example 'rationalism', 'functionalism', 'formalism' and 'constructionism', are used with different meanings in different contexts.[11]"
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_language]

name::
* McsEngl.sciLago.theory-of-language,
* McsEngl.theory-of-language,

sciLago.theoritical-linguistics

description::
Theoretical linguistics is a term in linguistics which,[1] like the related term general linguistics,[2] can be understood in different ways. Both can be taken as a reference to theory of language, or the branch of linguistics which inquires into the nature of language and seeks to answer fundamental questions as to what language is, or what the common ground of all languages is.[2] The goal of theoretical linguistics can also be the construction of a general theoretical framework for the description of language.[1]
Another use of the term depends on the organisation of linguistics into different sub-fields. The term theoretical linguistics is commonly juxtaposed with applied linguistics.[3] This perspective implies that the aspiring language professional, e.g. a teacher student, must first learn the theory i.e. properties of the linguistic system, or what Ferdinand de Saussure called internal linguistics.[4] This is followed by practice, or studies in the applied field. The dichotomy is not fully unproblematic because language pedagogy, language technology and other aspects of applied linguistics include theory, too.[3]
Similarly, the term general linguistics is used to distinguish core linguistics from other types of study. However, because college and university linguistics is largely distributed with the institutes and departments of a relatively small number of national languages, some larger universities also offer courses and research programmes in 'general linguistics' which may cover exotic and minority languages, cross-linguistic studies and various other topics outside the scope of the main philological departments.[5]

Fields of linguistics proper
When the concept of theoretical linguistics is taken as referring to core or internal linguistics, it means the study of the parts of the language system. This traditionally means phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Pragmatics and discourse can also be included; delimitation varies between institutions. Furthermore, Saussure's definition of general linguistics consists of the dichotomy of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, thus including historical linguistics as a core issue.[4]
[{2023-08-29 retrieved} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics]

name::
* McsEngl.theoritical-linguistics,
* McsEngl.sciLago.theoritical-linguistics,

descriptionLong::
Theoretical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. Part of this endeavor involves the search for and explanation of linguistic universals, that is, properties all languages have in common. The fields that are generally considered the core of theoretical linguistics are syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics. Although phonetics often informs phonology, it is often excluded from the purview of theoretical linguistics, along with psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics] 2008.01.02

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